Eukaryotic Animal Cell

The Cell Membrane

The cell membrane or plasma membrane, separates the animal cell from its
surrounding environment and give shape to the cell. The membrane controls the
movement of materials into and out of the cell. It is called selectively permeable
because some molecules are allowed to pass through, but others are not.

Structure of the Cell Membrane

The membrane is made of two layers (double layer) of phospholipids with
protein molecules and glycolipids and
glycoproteins embeded in the lipid
bilayer. The proteins serve a number of
functions. Some are transport proteins.
They control the movement of substances
through the membrane. Some act
as receptors, that is, binding sites for
specific messenger molecules that signal
the cell to begin or to stop some metabolic
activity. Other membrane proteins act
as enzymes.
The Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is a colloidal suspension that fills most of the cell. It often moves or
streams within the cell.
- Many substances involved in cell metabolism are dissolved in the
cytoplasm
- Many chemical reactions of cell metabolism take place in the cytoplasm
- The cytoplasm also contains a variety of highly organized structures
called organelles (organelle means “little organ“)

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a round, membrane-bound structure that serves as a control

center for the cell metabolism
and reproduction.
The membrane that surrounds
the nucleus is called the nuclear
envelope:
- it is actually a double
membrane (selectively
permeable)
- it contains pores for some
things to enter and exit
(RNA)
The nucleus contains protein-
rich nucleoplasm (“cytoplasm of the nucleus“):
- there is at least one nucleolus (takes part in protein synthesis- assembles
ribosomes). They are made up of DNA+RNA+protein
- fine strand of chromatin (DNA+proteins). When a cell is dividing, the
chromatin contracts (condenses) and can be seen as distinct chromosomes
(carriers of hereditary messages in cells). DNA remains in the nucleus, it
sends instructions to the cytoplasm via messenger RNA – it directs the
synthesis of proteins on ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes - Sites of Protein Synthesis

- each is compoused of two subunits,

one large and one small
- mRNA is “read“ by the ribosomes
and amino acids are assembled into
proteins
- ribosomes are manufacured by the
nucleolus inside the nucleus
- are made of ribosomal RNA and
protein
- are found scattered throughout the
cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic Reticulum
(endoplasm means “within cytoplasm, reticulum means „little net“)

It is a system of fluid-filled double membranes that form channels, like a little

highway ( membranes are attached to the cell membrane and to the nuclear
membrane). This network of channels is called the endoplasmic reticulum:
- divides cell into compartments
- channels molecules through the cell’s interior

Rough ER
- has ribisomes which give it its rough
appearance
- function in protein synthesis
- transports newly assembled proteins to the
Golgi Apparatus
Smooth ER
- mostly contains enzymes that function in
lipid synthesis (such as hormones like
estrogen and testosteron)
- synthesis of vitamin D
- also contains enzymes for detoxifying chemicals
including drugs and pesticides.
Golgi Apparatus- Delivery System

GA looks like stacks of flattened sacs piled one on top of the other. The folded
stacks are called cisternae. Front end (cis) faces the ER, and the back end (trans)
faces the cell membrane.
The GA receives molecules of protein from the ER. It forms a membranous
envelope - vesicles, wrapping up large numbers of protein molecules (they are
processed there, modified – e.g. adding of sugar and making glycoproteins).
This protein package then goes to the cell’s surface (cell membrane) for
„export“. This is how the cell secrete their hormones, enzymes, and other types
of protein when they are needed. The GA may also wrap certain enzymes into
separate organelles, like the lysosomes, that remain inside the cell.
Lysosomes – Intracellular Digestions Centers

Lysosomes are small, saclike structures (vesicules)

surrounded by a single membrane and contain high levels of
digestive, or hydrolytic enzymes (to “lyse” means to
dissolve).
- lysosomes contain enzymes that cause the breakdown
of proteins
- they recycle old, broken and worn out cell parts (they
are called also “the suicide sacs“). The smaller molecules can then be
used for building materials by the cell
- they digest other particles taken in by phagocytosis. This „food“ is stored
in food vacuoles; the lysosomes fuse with the vacuoles and release
digestive enzymes

Mitochondria (sg. mitochondrion) - The Powerhouses of the Cells

Mitochondria are round or rod-shaped organelles that release the energy.

Energy is then used for all cell activities. A mitochondrion has two membranes.
The outer membrane serves to separate the mitochondrion from the cytoplasm.
The inner membrane has long, inward folds, called cristae, increase the surface
area of the inner membrane.
- Mitochondria contain enzymes that split organic molecules and transfer
energy to ATP (cellular respiration).
- Mitochondria help to control amount of water, calcium, and other
inorganic ions in the cytoplasm.
- They are involved in the breakdown of sugars, fatty acids, and amino
acids.
Mitochondrion contains its own DNA (in matrix) – it is called semiautonomic
organelle (it is capable of duplicating).

Cytoskeleton – Support System

Cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules and microfilaments that forms
network and support the shape of the cell and anchor organells such as
nucleus to fixed locations.
- microtubules are long hollow structures. They serve as a sort of skeleton
for the cell, giving it shape. Organs used for locomotion such as the tails
on sperm cells and flagella are made of microtubules
- microfilaments are long, threadlike strands. They are associated with cell
movement (movement of cytoplasm, contraction – actin and myosine
fibres).

Centrioles – Microtubule Assembly Centers

- usually occur in pairs arranged at right angles

(dictiosome)
- each centriole is made up of nine sets of
microtubules with three microtubules in each
set
- centrioles asssemble microtubules which
influence the cell shape and movement - part
of cytoskeleton
- also function in cell division, mitosis (the spindle is made up of
microtubules)
- only found in animal cells
Cilia and Flagella

are hairlike organelles. They extend from the surface of many animal cells.
Their structure is identical, except that flagella are longer than cilia.
- function in movement
- 9+2 arrangement of microtubules

Vacuoles - Storage Areas

- in animal they store food, water and other substances

In one-celled animals vacuoles aid in getting rid of excess
water.

Peroxisomes or Microbodies

Produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxic compound that can be produced
during metabolism.