Structure

Buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams, bridges and salt domes are all examples of
load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building
structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. Built structures are broadly
divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including building
structures, architectural structures, civil engineering structures and mechanical structures.

The effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is
one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-
dimensional (ropes, struts, beams, arches), two-dimensional (membranes, plates, slab, shells,
vaults), or three-dimensional (solid masses). Three-dimensional elements were the main option
available to early structures such as Chichen Itza.

Foundations

Shallow foundation § Slab on grade

Concrete
 Ancient Roman architecture
 Roman architectural revolution
 Roman concrete
History  Roman engineering
 Roman technology

 Cement
 Portland cement
 Water
 Water–cement ratio
 Aggregate
Composition  Reinforcement
 Fly ash
 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
 Silica fume
 Metakaolin

Production  Plant
 Concrete mixer
 Volumetric mixer
 Reversing drum mixer
 Slump test
 Flow table test
  Curing
 Concrete cover
 Cover meter
 Rebar

 Precast
 Cast-in-place
 Formwork
 Climbing formwork
 Slip forming
 Screed
 Power screed
Construction  Finisher
 Power trowel
 Pump
 Float
 Sealer
 Tremie

 Properties
 Degradation
 Environmental impact
Science  Recycling
 Segregation in concrete
 Alkali–silica reaction

Types  AstroCrete
 Energetically modified cement
 Fiber-reinforced
 Filigree
 Foam
 Lunarcrete
 Mass concrete
 Nanoconcrete
 Pervious
 Polished
 Polymer concrete
 Prestressed
 Ready-mix
 Reinforced
 Roller-compacting
 Ronsdale (natural) cement
 Self-consolidating
 Self-leveling
  Translucent concrete

 slab (waffle, hollow-core, voided biaxial, slab on grade)

 Concrete masonry unit
 Step barrier
Applications  Roads
 Columns
 Structures

 American Concrete Institute

 Institution of Structural Engineers
 Indian Concrete Institute
Organizations  Nanocem
 Portland Cement Association
 International Federation for Structural Concrete

Geotechnical engineering

Offshore geotechnical engineering

Investigation Field (in situ)  Core drill

and
instrumentation  Cone penetration test

 Geo-electrical sounding

 Permeability test

 Load test
o Static
o Dynamic
o Statnamic

 Pore pressure measurement

o Piezometer
o Well
  Ram sounding

 Rock control drilling

 Rotary-pressure sounding

 Rotary weight sounding

 Sample series

 Screw plate test

 Deformation monitoring
o Inclinometer
o Settlement recordings

 Shear vane test

 Simple sounding

 Standard penetration test

 Total sounding

 Trial pit

 Visible bedrock

 Nuclear densometer test

 Exploration geophysics

 Crosshole sonic logging

 Pile integrity test

 Wave equation analysis

Laboratory  Soil classification

 Atterberg limits
testing
  California bearing ratio
 Direct shear test
 Hydrometer
 Proctor compaction test
 R-value
 Sieve analysis
 Triaxial shear test
 Oedometer test
 Hydraulic conductivity tests
 Water content tests

 Clay
 Silt
 Sand
 Gravel
Types  Peat
 Loam
 Loess

 Hydraulic conductivity
 Water content
 Void ratio
Soil  Bulk density
 Thixotropy
 Reynolds' dilatancy
 Angle of repose
Properties  Friction angle
 Cohesion
 Porosity
 Permeability
 Specific storage
 Shear strength
 Sensitivity

Structures  Topography
(Interaction)  Vegetation
 Terrain
 Topsoil
Natural features  Water table
 Bedrock
 Subgrade
 Subsoil

Earthworks  Shoring structures

 o Retaining walls
o Gabion
o Ground freezing
o Mechanically stabilized earth
o Pressure grouting
o Slurry wall
o Soil nailing
o Tieback
 Land development
 Landfill
 Excavation
 Trench
 Embankment
 Cut
 Causeway
 Terracing
 Cut-and-cover
 Cut and fill
 Fill dirt
 Grading
 Land reclamation
 Track bed
 Erosion control
 Earth structure
 Expanded clay aggregate
 Crushed stone
 Geosynthetics
o Geotextile
o Geomembrane
o Geosynthetic clay liner
o Cellular confinement
 Infiltration

 Shallow
Foundations  Deep

Mechanics  Effective stress

 Pore water pressure
 Lateral earth pressure
Forces  Overburden pressure
 Preconsolidation pressure

Phenomena/  Permafrost
  Frost heaving
 Consolidation
 Compaction
 Earthquake
o Response spectrum
o Seismic hazard
o Shear wave
problems  Landslide analysis
o Stability analysis
o Mitigation
o Classification
o Sliding criterion
o Slab stabilisation
 Bearing capacity

 SEEP2D
 STABL
Numerical analysis  SVFlux
 SVSlope
 UTEXAS
software
 Plaxis

 Geology
 Geochemistry
 Petrology
 Earthquake engineering
 Geomorphology
 Soil science
 Hydrology
Related fields  Hydrogeology
 Biogeography
 Earth materials
 Archaeology
 Agricultural science
o Agrology
 Man-made and man-related Subterranea
 Cave
 Cenote
Natural features  Grotto
 Sinkhole

 Basement
 Burial vault (tomb)
 Borehole
 Catacombs
 Dungeon
 Dugout (shelter)
 Dry well
 Earth shelter
 Erdstall
 Fogou
 Hypogeum
 Manhole
 Rapid transit
Civilian features  Rock-cut tomb
 Root cellar
 Tunnel
 Utility vault
 Underground city
 Well
 Wine cave
 Secret passage
 Semi-basement
 Stepwell
 Storm cellar
 Smuggling tunnel
 Ventilation shaft

 Air raid shelter

 Bunker
 Blast shelter
 Casemate
 Fallout shelter
Military features  Missile launch facility (silo)
 Underground base
 Underground hangar
 Spider hole

Mining,  Rock-cut architecture

  Subsurface utility engineering
 Tunnel construction
quarrying,  Underground mine ventilation
and underground construction  Underground mining (hard rock)
 Underground mining (soft rock)