Tectonics Cheatsheet

Earthquake Hazards and their Impacts

Hazards Impacts Evaluation
Ground • Ruptures oil and chemical factories, polluting land and water • LDCs suffer more as they are more likely to
Shaking • Fractures and uproot trees, causing widespread tree injury and death and damaging wildlife habitats have poorly constructed buildings, especially
• Weakens buildings, bridges, roads, and railways, causing them to collapse, making it difficult to rescue people or supply those not designed to withstand seismic
emergency aid forces, thus they are at high risk of collapse
• Snaps water and gas pipes, resulting in water shortages and disruptions to gas supply or severe damage.
• Electricity and communication cables breaks, affecting important communication services such as tsunami warning and • LDCs might not have strict building codes to
television broadcasts ensure resilient buildings
• People may get trapped under collapsed building and infrastructure, resulting in loss of lives and injuries • Educating the public about earthquake
Examples: 2010 Haiti earthquake preparedness, including safe practices
• Surrounding areas around factories were polluted during shaking and emergency response
• Debris polluted rivers plans, can help mitigate the impact.
• More than 250,000 houses collapsed due to violent vibrations
• About 220,000 people were killed
• Water pipes ruptured, causing water shortages
Soil • Occurs when the violent ground shaking causes saturated loose soil to lose its soil structure and transforms into a thick fluid • Can disrupt critical infrastructure such as
Liquefaction • Trees of liquified soil sink in and tips over, damaging wildlife habitats, causing forest and biodiversity loss roads, bridges, and pipelines. The ground
• Liquefied soil may enter rivers and smother aquatic plants, causing them to die deformation caused by liquefaction can lead
• Sewage pipes may be broken and untreated waste materials may pollute rivers, killing aquatic species to the rupture of utilities, making it
• Buildings and other infrastructure can sink in and tip over, and the damage can make it difficult to rescue people or supply challenging to restore services quickly after
emergency aid an earthquake.
• Electricity and communication cables and water and gas pipes can sink in and snap • Repairing or replacing damaged structures
• Roads and railways above liquefied soil can sink in and get damaged, making it difficult to rescue people and provide and infrastructure, as well as addressing the
emergency aid consequences of disrupted services, can
• People can get trapped under collapse buildings and infrastructure, resulting in injuries and loss of lives place a significant financial burden on
affected communities and governments.
Example: 2010-2011 Christchurch, New Zealand earthquakes • Can delay rescue and recovery operations
• Triggered severe liquefaction, as the city lies on a former swamp where soils are loose and saturated and exacerbate the overall impact of the
• More than 60,000 residential buildings and infrastructure covering about 1/3 of the city area were damaged earthquake.
• Liquefied soil entered rivers, and untreated sewage from broken pipes polluted rivers
• This resulted in the reduction of some species such as caddisflies

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Landslides • Fast moving debris can bury huge areas of forest and wetlands • Landslides can disrupt agriculture, tourism,
• Rivers can be polluted with debris, killing aquatic life and other economic activities, leading to
• Rivers can be blocked, causing floods that can damage nearby ecosystems and properties financial losses for affected communities.
• Debris can bury villages and farms, destroying properties and infrastructure • Landslides may be exacerbated through
• Debris can snap electricity and communication cables, and water and gas pipes, disrupting supply of these
deforestation. The removal of vegetation
services
• Roads and railways can be blocked by debris, making it difficult to rescue people or supply emergency aid cover increases the likelihood of slope failure
• Debris can bury people or hit them, causing injuries and loss of lives • Impacts will be more severe in areas where
• Debris can block rivers, resulting in floods, which can drown people there’s communities living in the affected
areas
Example: 2008 Great Sichuan China Earthquake
• Triggered more than 15,000 landslides
• Destroyed many landslides and infrastructure
• Caused nearly 20,000 deaths
Example: 2018 Papua New Guinea earthquake
• Triggered landslides that caused huge amounts of debris to enter the rivers
• Caused flooding
• Destroyed forests
• Polluted waters and killed fish
Tsunamis • The seawater can flood huge areas of coastal wetlands and forests, damaging habitats • Requires the implementation of coastal
• Large amount of debris carried in by the waves can pollute these areas, damaging ecosystems and killing protection measures to mitigate the impacts
wildlife of tsunamis
• Fast moving waters and the large amounts of debris carried in by the waves can sweep away buildings and
• Coastal areas are more vulnerable to the
infrastructures destroying them
impacts of tsunamis than inland areas –
• Fast moving waters and the large amount of water carried in by the waves can snap electricity and
communication cables coastal industries such as fishing and tourism
• Fast moving water can sweep away roads and railways making it difficult to rescue people or supply will suffer extensive damage, impacting
emergency aid livelihoods and local economies
• Sweeping waters can drown people
• Large amounts of debris carried in by the waves can hit and kill people

Example: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

• Triggered by a 9.1 Mw undersea earthquake near Sumatra, Indonesia
• Tsunami waves slammed into the coasts of 11 Indian Ocean countries, from Indonesia to Somalia in Africa
More than 230,000 people were killed and entire coastlines and habitats were destroyed

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Volcanic Hazards and their Impacts

Hazards Impacts Evaluation
Tephra • Ash can be carried thousands of kilometres by prevailing winds, polluting huge areas of forests, rivers, • May lead to long lasting air pollution due to the ash
and other habitats, and destroying ecosystems and thus lead to long term health impacts
• Ash can suffocate and kill wildlife • Effects are not constrained within the affected area as
• Ash can cause blindness to birds, with their eyelids getting gummed together
the ashfall can be carried away over a long distance –
• Volcanic bombs, ranging from a few centimetres to the size of vehicles, can hit properties, damaging
thus impact is large scale over space
them
• Ashfall can accumulate on roofs of buildings
• When saturated with water, the weight of ash can double, causing building roofs to collapse
• Being corrosive, ash weakens building structures, making them more likely to collapse
• Thick blankets of ash can damage farmland, suffocating crops and destroying livelihoods
• Ash particles can damage plane engines, leading to closure of airspaces, and disrupting air
transportation services
• Volcanic bombs can hit people, causing injuries and loss of lives
• Ashfall can cause respiratory problems, eye irritation and suffocate people

Examples: 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines

• Emitted huge amounts of ash
• Buried more than 180km2 of forests in ash of about 25cm
• Destroyed 800km2 of rice fields, affecting the livelihoods of many farmers
• Seven airports in the Philippines had to be closed and many flights were cancelled disrupting transport
• Some planes were also damaged
Volcanic • Sulfur dioxide results in acid rain when it reacts with water in the air, which can damage vegetation, • Effects are not constrained within the affected area as
Gases soil and kill wildlife the volcanic gas can be carried away over a long
• Cold carbon dioxide is heavier than air, so it can become concentrated in low-lying volcanic areas such distance – thus impact is large scale over space
as river valleys • Impact of acid rain is significant as it may corrode
• Large amount of carbon dioxide in the air can kill wildlife, and in the soil, can destroy vegetation
building thus affect urban areas (affect DCs more)
• Sulfur dioxide results in acid rain, which can corrode buildings and infrastructure
• Sulfur dioxide irritates skin, eyes, nose, and throat • It can also result in food insecurity when it damages
• Air containing over 3% of carbon dioxide can cause headaches, and breathing difficulties, and when it vegetation (affect LDCs more)
exceeds 15$ may cause death

Example: Dieng volcano eruption in Indonesia in 1979

Released deadly amounts of carbon dioxide and killed about 150 people

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Lava flows • Hot, low silica lava can travel over some distances, destroying forests, other habitats and ecosystems • The extent of impact depends on whether it is low
in them silica lava or high silica lava
• Lava can burn through homes, properties and infrastructure • Causes extensive damage to both infrastructures and
• Lava can destroy electricity and communication cables, and water and gas pipes, disrupting supply health which incurs large economic losses
Example: 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawaii
• Far-reaching lava flows destroyed more than 600 homes
• Destroyed huge areas of forests and ecosystems
• Telephone and power lines were damaged causing widespread communication outages
Pyroclastic • Hot cloud of gas, ash, and rocks travelling down the slopes of volcano at great speeds • Impact is immediate and severe
Flows • Occur when a column of hot ash and gas gets thrown up into the air, and falls back to the ground under • Causes extensive damage to both infrastructures and
the pull of gravity health which incurs large economic losses
• With temperature of up to 700 Degree Celsius
• Huge areas of forests may be destroyed,. Resulting in biodiversity loss
• Thick layers of ash cover the path of the flows polluting huge areas of forests
• The hot flows can burn through all homes, properties and infrastructure in their paths
• The hot flows can destroy electricity, and communication cables and gas pipes, disrupting supply of
these services
• The extreme temperatures can burn and kill people in a fraction of a second

Example: 2010 Merapi eruption in Indonesia

• Blasted a series of pyroclastic flows down the volcano which were inhabited by many villagers
• About 350 people were killed, mostly due to burns, and blast injuries
• Huge areas of forest were burnt
Lahars • Lahars can cover forests and other ecosystems with thick mud which hardens like concrete, destroying • Causes extensive damage to both infrastructures and
them health which incurs large economic losses
• Lahars can pollute rivers, killing aquatic life • Destruction of agriculture crops will affect LDCs more
• Lahars can bury houses and buildings, destroying them
due to greater reliance on land for economic growth
• Lahars can cover farms with thick mud, which hardens like concrete, damaging them
• Roads and railways can be blocked by debris, making it difficult to rescue people or supply emergency
aid
• Lahars can damage communication cables and water and gas pipes, disrupting supply of these services
• Lahars can bury houses and its residents, resulting in loss of lives

Example: 1985 Nevado Del Ruiz eruption in Columbia

• Released huge amounts of ash and volcanic rocks which melted snow and ice
• The meltwater mixed with ash and rocks to form lahars
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• Fast-moving lahars bury more than 20,000 people in the nearby town of Armero within seconds
• Rivers were highly muddled by the lahars killing many fish
Volcanic • Fast-moving debris can bury huge areas of forest and wetlands • Landslides can disrupt agriculture, tourism, and other
Landslides • Debris from landslides pollutes rivers, killing aquatic life economic activities, leading to financial losses for
• Debris blocks rivers, causing floods that can damage nearby ecosystems and properties affected communities.
• Debris buries villages and farms, destroying properties and infrastructure
• Landslides may be exacerbated through deforestation.
• Debris can snap electricity and communication cables and water and gas pipes
The removal of vegetation cover increases the
• Debris blocks roads and railways, making it difficult to rescue people or supply emergency aid
• Debris can bury people or hit them, causing injuries and loss of lives likelihood of slope failure
• Debris blocks rivers, resulting in floods, which can drown people • Impacts will be more severe in areas where there’s
communities living in the affected areas
Example: 1980 Mt St Helens eruption in USA
• North face of the volcanic cone collapsed
• Caused volcanic landslides that travelled as far as 23km from the volcano
• Destroyed huge areas of land and killed many wildlife

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Benefit of Volcanic Eruptions and Living Near Volcanoes

Benefits Elaboration Evaluation
Fertile soil • Lava and ash from volcanic eruptions break down to dorm fertile volcanic soils • The minerals are available after the
• Volcanic soils are very favourable to agriculture rocks have been weathered and broken
• Although volcanic rocks are rich in minerals, the minerals are not available to plants when the rocks are down for thousands of years
newly formed • Impact is long term, the fertile soil can be
• Locals benefits from growing a variety of crops or earning more from higher crop yields enjoyed for many decades
E.g. the volcanic soils of Java and Bali in Indonesia support the cultivation of crops (teas, coffee and rice etc.).
This is the main reason why these 2 islands have been able to support a large rural population over many
decades. Despite continuous use, the soils are more fertile than most non-volcanic areas of Indonesia
Precious • Volcanic rocks can be rich in precious stones and minerals • These resources can only be extracted
stones and • Sime magma may cool and solidify beneath volcanoes, forming precious minerals such as copper, gold and from volcanic areas after millions of
minerals silver years
• Locals living near volcanoes can be employed to mine these minerals, which provides them with a source of • Benefits are enjoyed by a small group of
income elites that own the mines
• E.g., thousands of locals living on Mount Merapi are employed to mine volcanic sand as it is suitable for • Requires specialised skills and
constructing buildings machineries to do the cutting and
• Governments may sell these precious stones and minerals to generate revenue, which can in turn be used to polishing of precious stones
provide social services to locals such as education and healthcare
• Volcanic materials such as ash and sand, may be mined and used as construction materials
• These resources can only be extracted from volcanic areas after millions of years
• When the upper layers of volcanic rocks are eroded, the precious stones and minerals can be extracted
E.g. diamonds. Diamonds are heated and pressurised carbon that are cooled in magma pipes beneath the earth’s
surface. When refined, diamonds are useful as industrial tools and in scientific research. They are also used as
jewellery .
Tourism • Volcanic areas offer a variety of activities for tourists to engage in • Provides tourism benefits to the country
• Many people visit volcanoes to hike and camp in the area or to simply enjoy the scenery • Tourist revenue earned can be reinvested into
• Volcanic areas are rich in history and people can visit these areas to learn more about them other sectors such as healthcare and education
• Tourism provides locals with employment opportunities, such as tour guides, providing tourist
which will benefit the locals
accommodations and selling food and souvenirs
• Boost local economic development
E.g. the ruins of Pompeii, Italy. The Roman town of Pompeii, Italy was buried by layers of ash from the nearby
Mount Vesuvius when it erupted in 79 CE. The unearthed archaeological site has revealed buildings, pottery and
mosaics left intact. Almost 3 million people visit the site every year.

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Geothermal • Geothermal energy derived from the heat in the earth’s crust • Renewable energy which helps to
Energy • It can be harnessed in tectonically active areas mitigate climate change by reducing
• When groundwater comes into contact with hot rocks beneath the surface, it heats up and erupts as hot greenhouse gas emission
water or steam • Expensive to implement and are usually
• The hot water or steam can be harnessed to drive turbines and produce electricity
implemented by DCs
• Local benefits from cheaper electricity produced locally
• Locals can also be employed to work in the geothermal power plants • Scale of impact is small as energy
E.g. Most of Iceland’s electricity is generated from geothermal power because of the large number of generated is not enough to power the
volcanoes in the country. Over 70% of homes in Iceland are heated by volcanic steam. entire country

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Strategies in Building Community Resilience

Strategies Elaboration Evaluation/Limitations
Land use • A set of rules implemented to restrict developments in certain areas • They may often need to be carried out
planning • Reduce the community’s exposure to tectonic hazards by controlling and minimising development in high risk in areas which may already be built up
areas or are privately owned
• This decreases potential loss of lives and damage to properties • Governments would buy land from
• Using hazard maps, strict guidelines to control development are implemented private owners, compensate those
• Hazard maps: identify areas at risks and uses data on past earthquake events to who have to move and put into place
o Suggest level is risk (high, medium or low) based on the likelihood of the disaster occurring effective protection measures
o Indicate the likely extent of disasters • These strategies are costly
• E.g. in California, USA, all new building developments are not built across fault lines or areas at risk of • Private owners may be reluctant to
liquefaction move as they often believe that
• Another land use regulation is the prohibition of constructing new buildings on low-lying land which are another hazard would not happen
vulnerable to tsunamis
• E.g., after the 1933 tsunami in Japan, land use planning was implemented. Residential land use on coastal
areas were shifted to higher ground. When the tsunami caused by the 2011 Tohuku earthquake struck, the
houses on the higher ground were not destroyed
• Developments may be allowed only when protective barriers such as seawalls facing the ocean are
constructed
Hazard- • Infrastructure needs to be developed with advance engineering to withstand the vibration associated with an • Costly to construct and maintain
resistant earthquake • Steel and reinforced concrete can only
building o Effective building design can reduce the collapse of buildings and minimise the damage caused by an be implemented on new buildings
designs earthquake
o Using shock absorbers or dampers in buildings to absorb vibrations
o Reinforcing buildings using diagonal cross braces to retain buildings shape during earthquake events
o Roads, bridges and dams can be built to resist the shaking of the ground so that they do not collapse,
or can be easily repaired if they collapse
o Homes, office buildings and factories can be fitted with trip switches that ensure all electrical points
are switched off in the event of an earthquake. This prevents fires from breaking out. E.g. in Japan,
machines in many factories automatically shut down when they sense earthquake vibrations
• These prevents buildings from swaying too much, reducing the vulnerability of buildings to collapse
• People are less likely to get trapped in collapsed buildings, reducing loss of lives
• Fewer lives lost, faster rescue and evacuations and less money spent on recovery for the affected areas
• E.g., Taipei 101 is a skyscraper built in an earthquake-prone zone. It has a weighted damper near the top of the
building to balance out ground shaking from earthquake. This reduces the sway of the building during an
earthquake and therefore the threat of the building collapsing.

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Monitoring • Monitoring and warning systems are a set of devices used to detect seismic waves and ground deformation • Earthquake sensors are expensive to
and warning • Earthquakes can be monitored by studying the history of when and where earthquakes have occurred obtain, install and use
systems • This provides an estimation of the frequency and magnitude of earthquakes at particular fault lines • An earthquake usually occurs seconds
• Seismic risk maps show the likelihood of locations at risk from earth movements or liquefaction are produced after a warning is sounded. Therefore,
from such studies warnings may not provide sufficient
• Installing earthquake sensors in earthquake-prone zones helps monitor the frequency of vibrations and detect time for an evacuation
possible developments of an earthquake • Noise, lightning or device failure may
• These sensors monitor ground motion and enable the occurrence of an earthquake to be predicted, estimate interfere with the seismograph and
damage to bridges, railways or other infrastructures result in false warnings being given
• The warnings enable people to evacuate to a safer place, reducing their susceptibility to tectonic hazards • It is difficult to give accurate warnings
• E.g., Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) systems use a network of sensors and monitors: when multiple earthquakes occur
o Seismic waves are detected during an earthquake close to each other
o Alerts are sent to smart devices to inform people of when the seismic waves might reach them • These studies can only give a general
o Provide advance warning to people indication of the frequency and
o Critical for saving lives as it gives time for authorities and people to respond and evacuate quickly magnitude of earthquake
o Earthquake sensors identify risk areas, allowing aid to be directed where most needed • The map does not provide precise
• E.g., during the 2011 Tohuku earthquake in Japan, monitoring and warning systems detected strong tremors, information about the time, location
and a signal was sent out to stop the bullet trains. This saved the lives of thousands of passengers and magnitude of future earthquakes
Increase • Being prepared for disaster means knowing what to do in the event of a tectonic hazards so that the • Emergency drills are often designed based
preparedness community can avoid the dangers associated with the hazards on the most serious earthquake ever
for response • This includes developing plans to ensure that people are able to get back to their lives as soon as possible. recorded in the area in the past
and recovery These includes plans for makeshift shelters, and provision of medical care, food and water. • If an earthquake that occurred was on a
scale never experienced before, the
Raising public awareness of hazards through education
emergency drills and evacuation plans
• Provides people with the knowledge of the hazards, and how to respond to them. will be inadequate to prevent the
• E.g., taking temporary shelter from volcanic ash during an eruption, and sealing doors and windows devastation of the areas affected by the
First-aid training earthquake
• Enables people to administer basic medical care to the injured and keep them mobile so that they can • Emergency procedures are only effective
evacuate if needed if there is enough time for people to
Conducting evacuation drills evacuate (rare)
• People practise the steps to take when an earthquake occurs
• This enables people to be familiar with evacuation procedures and routes
• This creates awareness among the population and reduces levels of panic and irrational behaviour during an
event
• This reduces the likelihood of them being trapped in collapsed building
• People take part in emergency drills by moving to safe locations, listening to instructions given by trained
personnel and practising first aid. They may also become members of local response teams that assist people
during a disaster
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• For volcanic eruptions, the drills would familiarise them to avoid areas downwind of the volcano to avoid
volcanic ash
• For tsunamis, the drills would familiarise people with the designated tsunami inundation zones and the marked
evacuation routes, so they can avoid the tsunami waves
• E.g., every year since 1960, Japan conduct emergency drills on 1 September to commemorate Disaster
Prevention Day
o People from all over Japan are involved, where an earthquake of high magnitude is stimulated
o The intention is to prepare the people mentally on how to react to a disaster
o Main roads are blocked to create the possible road conditions in the event of an earthquake
Emergency vehicles have to then seek alternative routes to reach affected areas

Disaster Response Strategies (under disaster management)

Strategies Elaboration Evaluation
Search and • Involve finding and saving survivors trapped in buildings or disaster zones • Rescue workers only have a limited time
Rescue • Aim to rescue the largest number of people in the shortest time with minimal risk to rescuers of 72 hours to find trapped survivors.
• People trapped under collapsed buildings are quickly located and freed Without food and water, trapped people
• Some survivors are found after being trapped for a couple of weeks without food are unlikely to survive after 3 days
• Having skilled rescuers and specialised equipment such as heat sensors and listening devices can reduce • E.g. rescue workers has a limited time of
time taken to locate and evacuate survivors 3 days to rapidly search through 2 towns
• Without search and rescue, the survivors would otherwise die from injuries, crush syndromes, dehydration, after the earthquake in Tohoku in 2011
burns or other conditions
• E.g. after the earthquake in Tohoku, Japan in 2011, sniffer dogs and heat sensors were deployed and
successfully rescued many who were trapped
Timely This involves moving people away from areas at risk of hazards as quickly as possible to safer locations to • Requires emergency drills in order for
Evacuation reduce loss of lives due to: evacuation to be effective
• Earthquakes • Requires early warning and monitoring
o Buildings and infrastructure may collapse: people need to be evacuated quickly from buildings to systems in order so that people know
open spaces, to avoid getting trapped under collapsed buildings when to evacuate
o Powerful aftershocks can occur soon after an earthquake: building and structures already • Might not be effective when the time
weakened from initial shaking may collapsed due to aftershocks, trapping people who are still in between the disaster and time of warning
them is insufficient for evacuation
o Basic services may be disrupted: people need to be evacuated to temporary shelters where food,
water, medical supplies are provided
• Tsunamis waves

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o People need to be evacuated to higher ground and away from the coast
o E.g., during the Tohuku earthquake in Japan 2011, nearly all 3,000 students in Kamaishi city survived
as they evacuated to higher grounds immediately after the earthquake struck, saving them from
the tsunami caused by the earthquake.
• Volcanic eruptions
o Lahars, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and tephra can cause loss of lives
o People need to be evacuated from the danger zone around the volcano
o E.g., in 2010, after a warning of Mount Merapi’s imminent eruption was issued by scientists,
Indonesia’s authorities organised massive evacuation efforts that comprised more than 700
evacuation centres. The quick and massive evacuation efforts were credited for saving more than
10,000 lives
Provision of Water • Medical supplies, food and water may not
basic social • After disasters, there may be water shortage be sufficient and this may cause social
and • Ground shaking during earthquakes can rupture water pipes cutting off or contaminating water supplies unrest
psychological • Volcanic ash can pollute water sources such as rivers • E.g. after the earthquake in Haiti in 2010,
services • Providing clean water can prevent dehydration or water-borne diseases, which may occur when affected looting and fighting broke out as people
communities drink from contaminated sources of water fought for food and medical supplies
• E.g. during the 2010 Haiti earthquake, water supply was disrupted in the capital city Port-au-Prince. The
International Committee of the Red Cross provided water supply for 12,000 people by trucking water in
daily.
Food
• After disasters, they may be food shortages, or people may not have access to food due to shop closures,
and damages to crops
• Available food may not be safe for consumption
• Frozen food may turn bad due to damaged storage equipment
• Providing food can prevent hunger and starvation.
• E.g., after the 2017 Mount Agung eruption in Indonesia, stakeholders such as the government and
international NGOs provided food for more than 75,000 evacuees.
Healthcare
• Healthcare services may be disrupted due to damage to hospitals
• Many require healthcare support after disasters
• Providing access to medicine, doctors, and hospitals can prevent the spread of diseases and save the lives
of the injured
• E.g., after the 2018 Fuego eruption in Guatemala, World Vision, an international charity, provided 30,000
boxes of medical supplies and 1,000 hygiene kits to affected communities
Psychosocial services

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• Experiencing a disaster can result in great emotional distress due to severe injuries, the loss of family
members and friends, homelessness or the loss of livelihoods
• many survivors will need counselling from mental health experts to come to terms with the disaster and
rebuilt their lives for the future
• providing psychological services helps survivor cope with psychological trauma, which can last for a long
time after the disaster
• E.g., after the 2018 Palu, Indonesia earthquake, volunteer groups focusing on mental health worked with
children to help them deal with the trauma of losing their families and homes

Disaster Recovery Strategies (under disaster management)

Strategies Elaboration Evaluation
Restoring • Constructing hazard-resistant buildings and infrastructure • Costly to retrofit buildings with hazard-
and • Retrofitting surviving buildings and infrastructure with hazard-resistant features resistant features
improving • Allowing residents to eventually return to their original homes. This keeps communities intact even after a • Divert important resources away from
facilities and disaster other sectors such as education and food
living • Providing housing assistance, which are hazard resistant and are of better quality, to those who lost their which may be especially significant for
conditions of homes or were displaced less developed countries
affected • These strategies enable the affected communities to rebuild their lives after the disaster, as well as
communities minimising their vulnerability and exposure to tectonic hazards
• E.g., the 2011 Tohuku, Japan earthquake displaced about 500,000 people. By 2016, a majority was rehoused in
settlements with enhanced tsunami-resistant features. In a port town, the ground level of sites for new
houses was raised by ten metres and two more sea walls were built

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