Topics in elementary set theory, real numbers, sequences and series,

quadratic equations, complex numbers, trigonometry, and related topics:

1. Elementary Set Theory, Subsets, Union, Intersection,

Complements, Venn Diagrams:

Example1: Find the union of sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.

Solution: A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Example2: Determine the intersection of sets X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {3,

4, 5}.
Solution: X ∩ Y = {3}.

Example3: Consider sets P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Q = {3, 4}. Find the

complement of set Q.
Solution: Q' = {1, 2, 5}.

Example4: Given sets R = {1, 2, 3, 4} and S = {3, 4, 5, 6}, draw a Venn

diagram to represent their relationship.
Solution:

2. Real Numbers, Integers, Rational and Irrational Numbers:

Example1: Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational: a) 5,
b) √2, c) -3/4.
Solution: a) Rational, b) Irrational, c) Rational.

Example2: Is 0 an integer? Rational? Irrational?

Solution: Yes, 0 is an integer and rational but not irrational.

Example3: Express 0.75 as a rational number.

Solution: 0.75 = 75/100 = 3/4.

3. Mathematical Induction, Real Sequences and Series:

Example4: Prove by induction that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n+1)/2 for all

positive integers n.
Solution: Base case: For n = 1, 1 = 1(1+1)/2 is true.
Inductive step: Assume true for n = k, i.e., 1 + 2 + ... + k = k(k+1)/2.
Show true for n = k + 1, i.e., 1 + 2 + ... + k + (k+1) = (k+1)(k+2)/2.
LHS = k(k+1)/2 + (k+1) = (k^2 + 3k + 2)/2 = (k+1)(k+2)/2 = RHS.
Hence, true for all n.

Example5: Find the sum of the first 10 positive integers.

Solution: 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 10 = 55.

4. Theory of Quadratic Equations, Binomial Theorem:

Example1: Solve the quadratic equation x^2 - 5x + 6 = 0.
Solution: Factorizing, (x - 3)(x - 2) = 0. So, x = 3 or x = 2.

Example2: Expand (a + b)^3 using the binomial theorem.

Solution: (a + b)^3 = a^3 + 3a^2b + 3ab^2 + b^3.

5a Complex Numbers, Algebra of Complex Numbers, Argand

Diagram:

Example3: Add the complex numbers 3 + 2i and 1 - 4i.

Solution: (3 + 2i) + (1 - 4i) = 4 - 2i.

Example4: Multiply the complex numbers (2 + 3i) and (4 - 5i).

Solution: (2 + 3i)(4 - 5i) = 8 - 10i + 12i - 15i^2 = 8 + 2i + 15 = 23 + 2i.

5b De-Moivre’s Theorem, nth Roots of Unity:

Example1: Find the square root of -1 using De Moivre’s theorem.

Solution: (-1)^(1/2) = cos(π) + i sin(π) = -1.

Example2: Determine the fourth roots of unity.

Solution: The fourth roots of unity are 1, i, -1, -i.
 5. Circular Measure, Trigonometric Functions, Addition and
Factor Formulae:

Example1: Convert 45 degrees to radians.

Solution: 45 degrees = π/4 radians.

Example2: Find sin(π/3).

Solution: sin(π/3) = √3/2.

Example3: Simplify cos(x) * cos(y) - sin(x) * sin(y).

Solution: cos(x) * cos(y) - sin(x) * sin(y) = cos(x + y).

Example4: Prove the addition formula for cosine: cos(a + b) =

cos(a)cos(b) - sin(a)sin(b).
Solution: Using Euler's formula, e^(ix) = cos(x) + i sin(x).
e^(i(a+b)) = e^(ia) * e^(ib).
Expanding, cos(a + b) + i sin(a + b) = (cos(a) + i sin(a))(cos(b) + i
sin(b)).
Equating real parts, cos(a + b) = cos(a)cos(b) - sin(a)sin(b).

Example5: Express sin(3x) in terms of sin(x).

Solution: Using the triple angle formula, sin(3x) = 3sin(x) - 4sin^3(x).
Example6: Determine the value of tan(π/4).
Solution: tan(π/4) = sin(π/4) / cos(π/4) = 1/1 = 1.

Example7: Solve the equation sin(x) = 1/2 for x in the interval [0, 2π).
Solution:Since sin(x) = 1/2 for x = π/6 or 5π/6 in the given interval.

Example8: Find the value of cos(2θ) if cos(θ) = 3/5 and θ is in quadrant

I.
Solution:From the double angle formula, cos(2θ) = 2cos^2(θ) - 1.
Substitute cos(θ) = 3/5: cos(2θ) = 2(3/5)^2 - 1 = 18/25 - 1 = -7/25.

Example9: Express cos(5x) in terms of cos(x).

Solution: Using the multiple angle formula, cos(5x) = 16cos^5(x) -
20cos^3(x) + 5cos(x).

Example10: Find the value of sin(π/12) using the half-angle formula.

Solution:Using the half-angle formula, sin(π/12) = ±√((1 - cos(π/6)) / 2).
Substitute cos(π/6) = √3/2: sin(π/12) = ±√((1 - √3/2) / 2).

Example11: Find the value of cos(π/8) using the half-angle formula.

Solution:
Using the half-angle formula, cos(π/8) = ±√((1 + cos(π/4)) / 2).
Substitute cos(π/4) = √2/2: cos(π/8) = ±√((1 + √2/2) / 2).
Example12: Simplify tan(x) + cot(x).
Solution: tan(x) + cot(x) = (sin(x)/cos(x)) + (cos(x)/sin(x)) = (sin^2(x) +
cos^2(x)) / (sin(x)cos(x)) = 1/(sin(x)cos(x)).

Example13: Prove the Pythagorean identity: sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.

Solution:Rewrite sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1 as (sin^2(x)/1) + (cos^2(x)/1)
= 1.
Using the definition of sin(x) and cos(x) on the unit circle, sin^2(x) +
cos^2(x) = (y^2 + x^2) / r^2 = 1.

Example14: Simplify sec(x) * tan(x).

Solution: sec(x) * tan(x) = (1/cos(x)) * (sin(x)/cos(x)) = sin(x)/cos^2(x).

Example15: Express cos(x) as a function of sin(x) if x is acute.

Solution: From the Pythagorean identity, sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1, so
cos^2(x) = 1 - sin^2(x). Thus, cos(x) = ±√(1 - sin^2(x)).

Example16: Find the value of sin(π/3)cos(π/6) - cos(π/3)sin(π/6).

Solution:Using the angle addition formula, sin(π/3)cos(π/6) -
cos(π/3)sin(π/6) = sin(π/3 + π/6).
Sin(π/3 + π/6) = sin(π/2) = 1.

Example17: Find the value of sin(75°).

Solution:Using the angle addition formula, sin(75°) = sin(45° + 30°).
Sin(45° + 30°) = sin(45°)cos(30°) + cos(45°)sin(30°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(30°) = √3/2: sin(75°) = (√2/2)(√3/2) +
(√2/2)(1/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.

Example18: Find the value of cos(105°).

Solution: Using the angle addition formula, cos(105°) = cos(45° + 60°).
Cos(45° + 60°) = cos(45°)cos(60°) - sin(45°)sin(60°).
Substitute cos(45°) = √2/2 and sin(60°) = √3/2: cos(105°) = (√2/2)(1/2) -
(√2/2)(√3/2) = (1 - √6) / 4.

Example19: Find the value of tan(105°).

Solution:Using the angle addition formula, tan(105°) = tan(45° + 60°).
Tan(45° + 60°) = (tan(45°) + tan(60°)) / (1 - tan(45°)tan(60°)).
Substitute tan(45°) = 1 and tan(60°) = √3: tan(105°) = (1 + √3) / (1 - √3).

Example20: Express sin(θ) * cos(θ) in terms of sin(2θ).

Solution: Using the double angle formula, sin(θ) * cos(θ) = sin(2θ)/2.

Example: Express cos(2θ) in terms of sin(θ) if θ is acute.

Solution: Using the double angle formula, cos(2θ) = 1 - 2sin^2(θ).

Example: Express sin(2θ) in terms of tan(θ) if θ is acute.

Solution: Using the double angle formula, sin(2θ) = 2tan(θ) / (1 +
tan^2(θ)).
Example: Prove the half-angle formula for tangent: tan(θ/2) = (1 -
cos(θ)) / sin(θ). Solution: Using the half-angle formula for sine and
cosine, tan(θ/2) = sin(θ/2) / cos(θ/2) = (1 - cos(θ)) / sin(θ).

Example: Simplify sec(θ) - cos(θ).

Solution: Recall that sec(θ) = 1 / cos(θ), so sec(θ) - cos(θ) = 1 / cos(θ) -
cos(θ) = (1 - cos^2(θ)) / cos(θ) = sin^2(θ) / cos(θ).

Example: Simplify (1 - cos(x)) / (1 + cos(x)).

Solution: Rewrite as a single trigonometric function: (1 - cos(x)) / (1 +
cos(x)) = tan^2(x/2).

Example: Express sin(x) + sin(2x) in terms of sin(x).

Solution: Using the double angle formula, sin(2x) = 2sin(x)cos(x).
So, sin(x) + sin(2x) = sin(x) + 2sin(x)cos(x) = sin(x)(1 + 2cos(x)).

Example: Express cos(x) - cos(2x) in terms of sin(x).

Solution: Using the double angle formula, cos(2x) = cos^2(x) - sin^2(x).
So, cos(x) - cos(2x) = cos(x) - (cos^2(x) - sin^2(x)) = cos(x) - cos^2(x) +
sin^2(x).

Example: Simplify sin(θ)cos(θ) - sin(2θ).

Solution:Using the double angle formula, sin(2θ) = 2sin(θ)cos(θ).
So, sin(θ)cos(θ) - sin(2θ) = sin(θ)cos(θ) - 2sin(θ)cos(θ) = -sin(θ)cos(θ).
Example: Express tan(2x) in terms of tan(x).
Solution: Using the double angle formula for tangent, tan(2x) = (2tan(x))
/ (1 - tan^2(x)).

Example: Simplify (1 + sin(x))^2 - cos^2(x).

Solution: Expand and simplify: (1 + sin(x))^2 - cos^2(x) = 1 + 2sin(x) +
sin^2(x) - cos^2(x) = 1 + 2sin(x) - cos^2(x) + sin^2(x).
Using the Pythagorean identity, 1 - cos^2(x) + sin^2(x) = 1, so the
expression simplifies to 2sin(x) + 1.

Example: Express cos(3x) in terms of cos(x).

Solution:Using the triple angle formula for cosine, cos(3x) = 4cos^3(x) -
3cos(x).

Example: Simplify sin^2(x) - cos^2(x).

Solution:Using the Pythagorean identity, sin^2(x) - cos^2(x) = sin^2(x) -
(1 - sin^2(x)) = 2sin^2(x) - 1.

Example: Find the value of cos(15°) using trigonometric identities.

Solution:
Using the sum and difference formula for cosine, cos(15°) = cos(45° -
30°).
Cos(45° - 30°) = cos(45°)cos(30°) + sin(45°)sin(30°).
Substitute cos(45°) = √2/2 and sin(30°) = 1/2: cos(15°) = (√2/2)(√3/2) +
(√2/2)(1/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.
Example: Find the value of sin(75°) using trigonometric identities.
Solution:Using the sum and difference formula for sine, sin(75°) =
sin(45° + 30°).
Sin(45° + 30°) = sin(45°)cos(30°) + cos(45°)sin(30°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(30°) = √3/2: sin(75°) = (√2/2)(√3/2) +
(√2/2)(1/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.

Example: Simplify (1 - sin(x))/(1 + sin(x)).

Solution:Multiply the numerator and denominator by (1 - sin(x)): (1 -
sin(x))^2 / (1 - sin^2(x)).
Using the Pythagorean identity, 1 - sin^2(x) = cos^2(x), so the
expression simplifies to cos^2(x) / (1 - sin^2(x)).
Finally, using the Pythagorean identity again, cos^2(x) / (1 - sin^2(x)) =
cos^2(x) / cos^2(x) = 1.

Example: Express tan(θ) in terms of sin(θ) if θ is acute.

Solution:
Recall that tan(θ) = sin(θ) / cos(θ).
So, tan(θ) = sin(θ) / √(1 - sin^2(θ)).

Example: Find the value of sin(105°) using trigonometric identities.

Solution:
Using the sum and difference formula for sine, sin(105°) = sin(45° +
60°).
Sin(45° + 60°) = sin(45°)cos(60°) + cos(45°)sin(60°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(60°) = 1/2: sin(105°) = (√2/2)(1/2) +
(√2/2)(√3/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.

Example: Express tan(π/8) in terms of sin(π/4).

Solution:
Using the double angle formula for tangent, tan(π/8) = 2tan(π/4) / (1 -
tan^2(π/4)).
Substitute tan(π/4) = 1: tan(π/8) = 2(1) / (1 - 1) = undefined.

Example: Simplify sin(2x) + cos(2x).

Solution:
Using the double angle formulas for sine and cosine, sin(2x) + cos(2x) =
2sin(x)cos(x) + (cos^2(x) - sin^2(x)).
Simplify using the Pythagorean identity: 2sin(x)cos(x) + (cos^2(x) -
sin^2(x)) = 2sin(x)cos(x) + cos(2x).

Example: Simplify (1 + tan(x))^2 - sec^2(x).

Solution:
Expand and simplify: (1 + tan(x))^2 - sec^2(x) = 1 + 2tan(x) + tan^2(x) -
sec^2(x).
Substitute sec^2(x) = 1 + tan^2(x): 1 + 2tan(x) + tan^2(x) - (1 +
tan^2(x)) = 2tan(x).

Example: Find the value of sin(75°) using trigonometric identities.

Solution:
Using the sum and difference formula for sine, sin(75°) = sin(45° + 30°).
Sin(45° + 30°) = sin(45°)cos(30°) + cos(45°)sin(30°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(30°) = √3/2: sin(75°) = (√2/2)(√3/2) +
(√2/2)(1/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.

Example: Express cos(75°) in terms of trigonometric identities.

Solution:
Using the sum and difference formula for cosine, cos(75°) = cos(45° +
30°).
Cos(45° + 30°) = cos(45°)cos(30°) - sin(45°)sin(30°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(30°) = √3/2: cos(75°) = (√2/2)(√3/2) -
(√2/2)(1/2) = (√6 - √2) / 4.

Example: Express sin(75°) in terms of trigonometric identities.

Solution:
Using the sum and difference formula for sine, sin(75°) = sin(45° + 30°).
Sin(45° + 30°) = sin(45°)cos(30°) + cos(45°)sin(30°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(30°) = √3/2: sin(75°) = (√2/2)(√3/2) +
(√2/2)(1/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.

Example: Express cos(75°) in terms of sin(15°).

Solution:Using the complementary angle identities, cos(75°) = sin(15°).
Example: Express cos(15°) in terms of cos(45°).
Solution: Using the complementary angle identities, cos(15°) = sin(75°).

Example: Express tan(75°) in terms of tan(15°).

Solution: Using the complementary angle identities, tan(75°) = 1 /
tan(15°).

Example: Find the value of cos(105°) using trigonometric identities.

Solution: Using the sum and difference formula for cosine, cos(105°) =
cos(45° + 60°).
Cos(45° + 60°) = cos(45°)cos(60°) - sin(45°)sin(60°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(60°) = 1/2: cos(105°) = (√2/2)(1/2) -
(√2/2)(√3/2) = (√6 - √2) / 4.

Example: Find the value of sin(105°) using trigonometric identities.

Solution: Using the sum and difference formula for sine, sin(105°) =
sin(45° + 60°).
Sin(45° + 60°) = sin(45°)cos(60°) + cos(45°)sin(60°).
Substitute sin(45°) = √2/2 and cos(60°) = 1/2: sin(105°) = (√2/2)(1/2) +
(√2/2)(√3/2) = (√6 + √2) / 4.

Example: Express cos(15°) in terms of cos(75°).

Solution: Using the complementary angle identities, cos(15°) = sin(75°).

Example: Find the value of sin(105°) using trigonometric identities.

Solution: Using the sum and difference formula for sine, sin(105°) =
sin(45° + 60°).