BIODIVERSITY

& CLASSIFICATION OF
MICROORGANISMS

BY: [Link]
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 BIODIVERSITY
• Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life
found in one area/earth ie wide variety of
plants, animals and microorganisms on
Earth.
• They can be macroorganisms (big) or
microorganisms(very small)
• Unicellular (one cell )or multicellular (many
cells )
• Some could be useful and others harmful
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 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

•Kingdom Monera – bacteria

•Kingdom Protista-protists
•Kingdom Fungi-fungi
•Kingdom Plantae-plants
•Kingdom Animalia-animals

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 VIRUSES
• VIRUSE is an infective agent that typically consists of a
nucleic acid molecule in a protein coat, is too small to be
seen by light microscopy, and is able to multiply only
within the living cells of a host.
•. A virus is made up of a
DNA or RNA genome
inside a protein shell
called a capsid. Some
viruses have an external
membrane envelope.
Viruses are very diverse
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 VIRUSES
•.

Bacteriophage: is a virus that attacks bacteria

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VIRUSES CONSIDERED TO BE NON-LIVING BECAUSE:
• Are not cells (They don't have cytoplasm or cellular
organelles)
• Do not grow or respond to their surroundings
• Cannot make food, take in food, or produce wastes
• Viruses do not respond to stimuli.
• They don’t respire
• VIRUSES CONSIDERED TO BE LIVING BECAUSE
• Contain a protein coat called the capsid.
• Have a nucleic acid core containing DNA or RNA (one or
the other - not both)
• Capable of reproducing only when inside a HOST
cell. they are obligate parasites

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 BACTERIA
• Bacteria belong to the Kingdom Monera. They are found
everywhere on earth.
• Some are pathogenic: they cause diseases like T.B and
others are useful.
• . STRUCTURE OF A BACTERIA
Bacteria can be autotrophic
or heterotrophic, they can live
in mutualistic, parasitic or
saprophytic relationship
Bacteria reproduce very
rapidly by binary fission

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA
• unicellular,
• prokaryotic,
• microscopic,
• lacking a nucleus,
• have a plasma membrane.
• Bacteria are classified into groups according to
their basic shapes: spherical (cocci), rod (bacilli),
spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios)

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 CLASSES OF BACTERIA
• coccus
. – round

bacillus – rod-shaped

Spirillum- spiral-shaped

vibrio – comma-shaped

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 [Link]
• Protists are eukaryotic organisms.(have a true
nucleus)
• are typically divided into three categories,
including :
• animal-like protists,
• plant-like protists,
• fungus-like protists.
• Protists vary in how they move, which can range
from cilia, flagella, and pseudopodia.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTISTA
• These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
• Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few
multicellular
• They are eukaryotic, (have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles).
• They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature.
• Symbiosis is observed in the members of this class. (seaweed) is a
provides otters, protection In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that feed
on seaweed .
• Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma
protozoa can cause sleeping sickness in humans.
• Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. A few organisms
belonging to the kingdom Protista have pseudopodia that help them to
move.
• Protista reproduces by asexual means. and sexually but rare

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 THREE GROUPS OF PROTISTA
• 1. Phytoplankton (plant-like Protista)-Autotrophs
• 2. Zooplankton (animal-like Protista)-Heterotrophs, can
move
• 3. Fungi-like protists- heterotrophs, and they have cells
with cell walls and reproduce by forming spores.
• EXAMPLES OF PROTISTS
A
• A)Amoeba D
• B)Euglena
• C)Paramecium
• D)Giardia C B
• E)Diatoms
• F)Plasmodium
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 FUNGI
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms
such as yeasts, molds and mushrooms.
• STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms (a defined nucleus).
• They are heterotrophic as they lack chlorophyll
• Fungi are saprophytic - live off dead organic matter
• or parasitic – live off living organisms
• some are pathogens
• The bodies of multicellular fungi are made up of threads
called hyphae.
• All the hyphae together form a mycelium.
• The hyphae are often multinucleate (have many nuclei).
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 STRUCTURE OF A BREAD MOULD
•.

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 Roles of viruses, bacteria, Protista
and fungi in maintaining balance in
the environment
• They have ability to recycle the primary
elements that make up all living systems,
especially carbon, oxygen, and
nitrogen (N). Primary production involves
photosynthetic organisms which take up
CO2 from the atmosphere and convert it to
organic (cellular) material.

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 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

• It is used in medical industries for the production of

different medicines. Eg penicillin
• It is used in the agricultural industry for the
enhancement of crop quality and production.
• It plays an important role in the release of different gases
in the atmosphere.
• It is also essential for different household purposes.
• It also plays an economically important role in recycling
processes.
• It is used for the production of different food items.

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 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTISTS
• Protists serve as the foundation of the food chain.
• Protists are symbionts – having a close relationship between
two species in which, one is benefited.
• Some protists also produce oxygen and may be used to
produce biofuel.
• Protists are the primary sources of food for many animals.
• In some rare cases, Protists are harvested by humans for food
and other industrial applications.
• Phytoplankton is one of the sole food sources for whales
• Seaweed is an alga, which is considered a plant-like protist.
• Zooplankton is fed on by various sea creatures including
shrimp and larval crabs.
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 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

• Digestion- small intestines

• Vitamin synthesis- colon
• Waste disposal- decomposition
• Agents of disease- pathogens
• Food spoilage- decomposition

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 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
OF VIRUSES
•Since Viruses contain the
characteristics of both living and
non-living organisms, they
are utilized in the field of
Biotechnology research.
Bacteriophage can be used in water
preservation as it can destroy the
bacteria and keep water fresh.
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 SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
• Symbiosis refers to the living together of two or more
species of organism. A symbiotic relationship may
benefit one or both members or it can be beneficial
to one but harmful to the other one.
• Three types of symbiosis occur:
• mutualism – both organisms benefit e.g. lichens
• commensalism – one species benefits whilst the
other does not benefit, nor is it harmed
• parasitism – one species benefits whilst the other is
harmed

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 [Link] between nitrogen fixing
bacteria and plants
 Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in special
nodules in the roots of legumes.
 They produce nitrates for the plant while the
plant provides the bacterium with a habitat,
carbohydrates and water.
 Both the plant and the bacteria benefit in this
relationship. (mutualism)

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 Relationship between E. coli bacteria and humans

1. Relationship between E. coli bacteria and humans

•

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DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES,
BACTERIA, PROTISTA AND FUNGI.

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 INFLUENZA
• The flu attacks the lungs, nose and throat.
• Young children, older adults, pregnant women and
people with chronic disease or weak immune
systems are at high risk.
• Symptoms include fever, chills, muscle aches,
cough, congestion, runny nose, headaches and
fatigue.
• The flu is treated primarily with rest and fluid to let
the body fight the infection on its own. Over-the-
counter anti-inflammatory pain relievers may help
with symptoms. An annual vaccine can help
prevent the flu and limit its complications.

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INFLUENZA

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 TUBERCULOSIS
• The bacteria that cause TB are spread when
an infected person coughs or sneezes.
• Most people infected with the bacteria that
cause tuberculosis don't have symptoms.
When symptoms do occur, they usually include
a cough (sometimes blood-tinged), weight loss,
night sweats and fever.
• Treatment isn't always required for those
without symptoms. Patients with active
symptoms will require a long course of
treatment involving multiple antibiotics.

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TUBERCULOSIS

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 MALARIA
A disease caused by a plasmodium parasite,
transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes.
The severity of malaria varies based on the
species of plasmodium.
Symptoms are chills, fever and sweating, usually
occurring a few weeks after being
People travelling to areas where malaria is
common typically take protective drugs before,
during and after their trip. Treatment includes
antimalarial drugs.
bitten.
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Relationship between E. coli bacteria and
humans

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 RING WORMS
Ringworm is spread by skin-to-skin
contact or by touching an infected
animal or object.
Ringworm is typically scaly and may
be red and itchy. Ringworm of the
scalp is common in children, where
it may cause bald patches.
The treatment for ringworm is
antifungal medication.
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DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES, BACTERIA, PROTISTA
AND FUNGI.
• EFFECTS AND MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES
MICRO- DISEASE EFFECT MANAGEMENT
ORGANISM
Virus Influenza Fever, respiratory problems and Vaccination
muscle pains
Bacteria Tuberculosis Loss of appetite and weight, Treatment of drugs for six
excessive coughing and sweating at months
night

Protista Malaria Headache, fever, joint pain, Sleeping under mosquito

vomiting, convulsions and anaemia nets.

Insect repellents

Fungi Ringworms Itchy circular sores on the skin Antifungal ointments

Avoid sharing clothes

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 IMMUNITY
• immunity is the capability of multicellular organisms to
resist harmful microorganisms. Immunity involves both
specific and nonspecific components. The nonspecific
components act as barriers or eliminators of a wide
range of pathogens irrespective of their antigenic make-
up
• There are two types of immunity:
• Natural immunity – it is present at birth
• Acquired immunity - develops after exposure to
pathogens or after vaccination/immunization.

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 IMMUNITY
• Plants and animals use active and passive
response for protection.
• Plants use the following to prevent
pathogens from entering (Passive
response):
1. Thick buck of woody plants.
2. Closely packed epidermal cells
3. Waxy cuticle keeps out micro-
organisms
4. Chemical secretions of some plants are
poisonous to many organisms
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• Plants use the following to fight the pathogens when
infected (Active response)
1. Releases chemical compounds such as salicylic acid
2. Unaffected cells respond by producing various chemical defences to protect
themselves.

• Animals use the following to prevent pathogens from entering (Passive

response):

1. A multi-layered skin
2. Antiseptic tears
3. Mucus lined air passages which trap pathogens
4. Enzymes (lysozyme) in the saliva
5. Ear wax in the ear canal
6. Hydrochloric acid and enzymes in the stomach

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• Animals use the following to fight the
pathogens when infected (Active
response)
 White blood corpuscles in our blood
produce antibodies (which are specific
in function) to fight diseases.
• Inflammation (swelling and redness) of
infected areas.

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 THE USE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN MEDICINE
PRODUCTION

•• Vaccinations or immunisation is
the process of giving a vaccine
either by injection or orally (by
mouth) to prevent disease.
•• The antibodies stay in the blood
and give long lasting protection
against disease. e.g. vaccination of
corona Virus to prevent COVID-19
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• BIOTECNOLOGY
• It is the use of micro-organisms to make
products which are useful to humans. These
include medicines such as antibiotics and
insulin and foods such as maas (fermented
milk), bread, wine/beer and cheese.

• THE USE OF DRUGS TO FIGHT INFECTING

MICRO-ORGANISMS
• Antibiotics - are drugs that fight infections
caused by bacteria.
• - cannot fight infections caused by viruses.
• Example of antibiotic is penicillin which is
produced from fungus called Penicillium
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insulin production

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• TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGY

• Micro-organisms such as yeast (fungus) can undergo

alcoholic fermentation

• During this process glucose is changed into ethyl alcohol,

carbon dioxide and energy.

 Beer – Beer is made from maize, sorghum, millet, barley or

rice and hops.
 Wine –Yeasts found on the skins of grape ferment the grape
sugar after the
• grapes are crushed.
 Bread – Yeasts are used to make bread dough rise.

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 Cheese – Lactobacillus bacteria can be used to
convert milk sugar called
 lactose into lactic acid.
• - Lactic acid curdles the milk and forms a solid
mass known as curds.
• - Curds are pressed and separated from the
watery whey to make cheese.
 Maas – It is like yoghurt and is made by
bacterial fermentation of milk.
 -Lactic acid thickens the milk and acts as a
preservative.
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BIODIVERSITY
OF
PLANTS
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BRYOPHYTES, PTERIDOPHYTES,
GYMNOSPERMS & ANGIOSPERMS
• Evolution of the plant groups
• The evolution of plants has resulted in a wide
range of complexity,
• from the earliest algal mats, through multicellular
marine and freshwater green algae, terrestrial
bryophytes, lycopods and ferns, to the complex
gymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering
plants) of today.

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 EVOLUTION OF THE PLANT GROUPS
• Currently there are different plant species on earth,
which are said to have emerged from a simple
unicellular algae.
• These plants have been classified into four plant
groups namely:
• Bryophytes- mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
1. Pteridophytes-ferns
2. Gymnosperms- conifers, cycads, ginkgo biloba and
pine tree
3. Angiosperms- flowering plants
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phylogenetic tree

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 BRYOPHYTES
• Bryophytes are an informal division that consists of 3
groups of non-vascular plants, namely mosses,
liverworts, and hornworts.

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 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTES:

• Plants occur in damp and shaded areas

• The plant body is thallus like, i.e. prostrate or erect
• It is attached to the substratum by rhizoids, which are
unicellular or multicellular
• They lack true vegetative structure and have a root-
like, stem-like and leaf-like structure
• Plants lack the vascular system (xylem, phloem)
• Bryophytes reproduce by means of spores
• The dominant part of the plant body is gametophyte
which is haploid.
• Needs water for reproduction
• Do not bear fruit
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structure of a moss plant

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 PTERIDOPHYTES
• A pteridophyte is a vascular plant that disperses spores.
Because pteridophytes produce neither flowers nor
seeds, they are sometimes referred to as "cryptogams",
meaning that their means of reproduction is hidden.
Ferns, horsetails, and lycophytes are examples.

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PTERIDOPHYTE
1. True leaves, roots and stem
2. Sporophyte is dominant
3. Gametophyte: Prothallus
4. Roots: adventitious roots
5. Leaves: monocot Leaves (sessal leaves) & dicot
leaves (attached to petiole)
6. sporophyte (dominant generation)has true roots,
stems and leaves.
• Needs water for reproduction
• Possess xylem and phloem (Vascular tissue)
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 GYMNOSPERM
• The gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants
that includes :
• conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, & gnetophytes.
• The term gymnosperm
comes from the composite
word in Greek: literally
meaning'naked seeds'.
The name is based on the
unenclosedcondition of
their seeds.
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 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GYMNOSPERM

• 1. True roots, stem and leaves

• 2. Sporophyte dominant
• 3. Leaves: needle shaped
• 4. Male cone: In groups, smaller, carries pollen
grains
• 5. Female cones: Larger cones, carries ovary
• 6. Most plants are perennial and woody.
• Does not need water for reproduction
• Possess xylem and phloem (Vascular tissue)
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 ANGIOSPERMS
• Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits,
and form the clade Angiospermae, commonly called
angiosperms.
• The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words
angeion and sperma, and refers to those plants that
produce their seeds enclosed within a fruit

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ANGIOSPERMS
• All plants have flowers at some stage in their life. The
flowers are the reproductive organs for the plant,
providing them with a means of exchanging genetic
information.
• The sporophyte ( dominant) is differentiated into stems,
roots, and leaves.
• The vascular system has true vessels in the xylem and
companion cells in the phloem
• Does not need water for reproduction
• Can have Male and female spores, Produces seeds
• Seeds within fruit.
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 ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Asexual Reproduction occurs when there is only one
parent that gives rise to an offspring which has the
identical genetic makeup of the parent.
• It occurs in most single celled organisms such as bacteria
and some multicellular organisms such as fungi and some
plants.
• Sexual Reproduction involves the combining of genetic
information from two parents to produce a new
organism that is a combination of both parents.
• It occurs in most complex organisms.

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 FEATURES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• No formation of gametes or fertilization takes place.
• Only one parent is involved.
• The process occurs in very less time.
• The offsprings produced are exact copies of the parent, there
is no variation.
• The growth of the offspring is rapid.
• The different ways of asexual reproduction in animals
include:
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Fission
• Regeneration
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION EXAMPLES

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 ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

•The process requires less energy.

•It takes place in various environments.
•It allows for the survival of species.
•A single organism can develop a colony.
•All the positive traits of the species are
transferred to future generations.
•The organisms mature rapidly.
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DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Since the offspring is an exact copy of the parent, any
negative mutation will also pass on to the offspring.
• There is limited diversity within life forms.
• It is difficult to control the increasing population.
• The organisms produced cannot adapt to the changing
environments.
• There is a huge competition for food and space among
the species.
• They have short lifespans.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION EXAMPLES

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 ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

•produces genetic variation in the

offspring.
•the species can adapt to new
environments due to variation, which
gives them a survival advantage.
•a disease is less likely to affect all the
individuals in a population

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 DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• It takes time and energy to find a mate and

reproduce.
• Reproduction through sexual means is
uncertain.
• Favorable genetics might not be passed to
the offspring. Fewer offspring are typically
produced.
• It can be deadly.

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 FLOWERS AS REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
• As a plant's reproductive part, a flower contains a
stamen (male flower part) or pistil (female flower part),
or both, plus accessory parts such as sepals, petals, and
nectar glands
• The stamen is the male reproductive organ. It consists of
a pollen sac (anther) and a long supporting filament.
• Dicots typically also have flower parts (sepals, petals,
stamens, and pistils) based on a plan of four or five, or
multiples thereof, although there are exceptions.

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Answer: From your head

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 FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS
• 1. Petal.
• Petals are the unit of the corolla in flowers
which is the second whorl of a flower.
• Petals are flower leaves that are typically thin,
soft, and colored to attract different pollinators
like animals and insects.
• The most important function of petals is to
attract different pollinators for pollination and
to protect the reproductive units of the flower.

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• 2. Stamen
• Stamens are the male reproductive parts
of flowers
• a. Anther
• The anther is the terminal fertile part of a
stamen which encloses pollen grains.
• b. Filament
• The filament is a stalk that connects the
anther to the rest of the parts of the
flower.
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• 3. Pistil (Carpel)
• a. Stigma
• The stigma is the apical round or flat region of the pistil
which receives the pollen during pollination.
• b. Style
• The style is the long pillar-like stalk of the pistil through
which the pollen tube grows that passes the pollen grains
from the stigma to the ovary.
• c. Ovary
• The ovary is the swollen basal portion of the pistil that
consists of ridges of tissues bearing one or more eggs or
ovules.

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• 4. Sepal.
• The sepal is the unit of the calyx, which is a
vegetative part of the flower that protects the
flower in the bud as well as the final stage of
flowering.
• 5. Receptacle.
• Receptacle or torus is the swollen part of the
pedicel to which different parts of the flower are
attached.
• 6. Pedicel/Peduncle.
• The pedicel is the stalk that connects the flower
to the stem, which is composed of the same set of
tissues as the stem.
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 POLLINATION
• Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains
from the male anther of a flower to the female
stigma.
• Pollination is divided into two types: self pollination and
cross pollination.

self pollination
cross pollination

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AGENTS OF POLLINATION

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECT POLLINATED
FLOWERS
• Flowers are brightly coloured. Butterflies are attracted by all
brightly- coloured flowers, bees by blue, purple and red
flowers and moths by white and yellow flowers.
• The flowers are usually large. In some cases, the individual
flowers are small, they are grouped together to make them
more visible e.g. sunflowers.
• Some flowers give off pleasant smells to attract insects such
as bees, butterflies and months; others give unpleasant smell
to attract insects such as flies.
• Some flowers such as Iris have hairs or special markings
which lead the insects to the nectaries which produce the
nectar.
• The pollen grains are sticky or rough so that they can become
attached to the insects.
• Sweet scent to attract moths and butterflies.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND POLLINATED
FLOWERS
• The flowers are usually small, green, with reduced scent
and nectar
• They produce a large amount of pollen to increase the
chances of pollination since most of the pollen does not
find its ‘target’(the stigma of another flower of the same
species)
• Filaments of the stamens are long and thin so that they
can sway in the wind.
• The anthers are attached to their filaments in such a way
that they are easily moveable
• The stigma is large and sticky to trap as pollen as possible
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRD POLLINATED
FLOWERS
• Long tube-shaped flowers
• Bright red and yellow flowers
• Produce large quantities of dilute nectar
• Stamens and stigmas protrude beyond the
petals
• Open during the day
• Little or no scent because birds have a poor
sense of smell
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BIODIVERSITY OF ANIMALS

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 Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Annelida,
Arthropoda & Chordata
• SIX PHYLA are studied, including:
• Phylum Porifera e.g. sponges
• Phylum Cnidaria e.g. blue bottles, jelly fish, sea
anemones
• Phylum Platyhelminthes e.g. flukes, tapeworms, free-
living planarians
• Phylum Annelida e.g. leeches, earthworms and
polychaetas
• Phylum Arthropoda e.g. crab, spider, locust, millipede,
centipede, fly
• Phylum Chordata e.g. fish, mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians
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 TERMS TO KNOW

• Diploblastic: An animal possessing 2 major tissue

layers. These include the outer layer (the
ectoderm) and the inner layer (the endoderm).
• Triploblastic: An animal possessing 3 major tissue
layers. It has a middle layer (the mesoderm),
between the endoderm and the ectoderm.
• Radial Symmetry: Animals having symmetry
around a central axis. Animals with radial
symmetry are diploblastic.
• Bilateral Symmetry: Symmetry in which the body
can be divided into 2 mirror-image halves.
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• Coelom: Fluid-filled cavity within the
mesoderm. It is not the gut. Having a
coelom gives the animal certain advantages:
1. It enables independent movement of the
gut wall and the body wall.
2. It provides space of the enlargement and
development of internal organs.
3. It may act as a circulatory medium for
transport of materials or a storage area of
excess or waste materials

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PHYLUM PORIFERA

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 PHYLUM PORIFERA
• • aquatic (live in water)
• • asymmetrical with no cephalization
• • function at a cellular level
• • acoelomate
• • no openings to the gut
• • sessile organisms that feed by filtering out
floating particles from the water column
• • the body is made up of millions of spicules
which protect and support the sponge.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 84
PHYLUM CNIDARIA

BY:[Link] 0848331738 85
 PHYLUM CNIDARIA
• • aquatic, mostly marine but some live in freshwater
habitats
• • radially symmetrical with no cephalisation
• • diploblastic which means they have a cellular ectoderm
and a cellular endoderm.
• • they also have an acellular jelly-like layer between these
two layers called the mesoglea.
• • acoelomate
• • one opening to the gut that acts as both the mouth and
the anus. the mouth often has tentacles that help catch
prey.
• •Cnidarians occur in two different body forms:
1. a sessile polyp phase
2. a free-swimming medusa
BY:[Link] 0848331738 86
BY:[Link] 0848331738 87
 PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
• • most are internal parasites but some are aquatic
and free-living
• • bilaterally symmetrical with cephalization – a
definite anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral side
because they are bilaterally symmetrical
• • dorsoventrally flattened which means they appear
squashed from the dorsal to the ventral side
• • have their sense organs and nerve tissue
concentrated in the anterior region of their body
(cephalisation) which allows them to detect what lies
ahead of them – aids in feeding and avoiding danger
BY:[Link] 0848331738 88
• • triploblastic which allows them to develop
tissues and organs e.g. nervous tissue and
reproductive organs
• • acoelomate and therefore no circulatory
system
• • one opening to the gut – the digestive
cavity branches around the body to transfer
nutrients around the body

BY:[Link] 0848331738 89
PHYLUM ANNELIDA

BY:[Link] 0848331738 90
 PHYLUM ANNELIDA
• • aquatic (freshwater and marine) and terrestrial
habitats
• • bilaterally symmetrical with cephalization
• • triploblastic
• • coelomate - coelom is a fluid-filled cavity that is
used as a hydrostatic skeleton for movement
• • segmented which means their bodies consist of
repeating segments, called metameres.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 91
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

BY:[Link] 0848331738 92
 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
• • aquatic (freshwater and marine) and terrestrial
• • bilaterally symmetrical with cephalisation
• • triploblastic
• • coelomate – the coelom is filled with a fluid, which
acts like blood, called a haemocoel. arthropods
therefore have an open circulatory system
• • more advanced segmentation of body parts so that
each segment has a particular form and function i.e.
abdomen, thorax and head
• • all arthropods have jointed appendages that are
used for movement and feeding
• • two openings to the gut (a through-gut)

BY:[Link] 0848331738 93
 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
• • a waterproof exoskeleton made of chitin The
exoskeleton:
1. protects the arthropod from drying out
2. prevents diffusion of gases across its waterproof
surface; arthropods have therefore developed
gaseous exchange organs such as gills and lungs
3. does not grow as the arthropod grows and it
must be shed regularly (ecdysis) and regrown;
the arthropod is vulnerable during regrowth of
the exoskeleton because it is weaker and
requires a lot of energy
BY:[Link] 0848331738 94
PHYLUM CHORDATA

BY:[Link] 0848331738 95
 PHYLUM CHORDATA
• • aquatic (freshwater and marine) and terrestrial
• • bilaterally symmetrical with cephalisation
• • triploblastic
• • coelomate
• • segmented body
• • two openings to the gut (through-gut)
• • all vertebrates have a rod-like support named a
notochord which may develop into the vertebral
column Vertebrates.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 96
 Role of invertebrates in agriculture and
ecosystems
• POLLINATION is the transfer of pollen from the
male parts of a flower to the female parts of a
flower of the same species by a pollinator.
• • Pollination results in fertilisation for the
production of fruits and seeds.
• • Bees are the most important pollinators
because they spend their entire life collecting
pollen and nectar for their developing young.
• • There are many other invertebrates that
pollinate flowers (examples include: ants, moths,
butterflies).
BY:[Link] 0848331738 97
• SOIL AERATION:
• Invertebrates like earthworms, burrow in the soil and
make tunnels through the soil. These tunnels allow
gases to move through and aerate the soil. The
activities of earthworms are important because:
• • Their tunnels accelerate the decomposition of
nutrients to be reused for plant growth.
• • The community structure of the habitat is
dependent on soil nutrients and plant growth.
• • Their tunnels improve drainage of the soil.
• • The earthworms act as pumps when they move
through the tunnels by pushing and pulling air
around their tunnels
• • Their tunnels loosen the soil and allow plant roots
to penetrate deeper into the soil.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 98
• DECOMPOSITION:
• Decomposition is the process that decays or breaks
down organic molecules from dead organisms into
simpler organic molecules that are released into
the environment and reused in nutrient cycles.
• • Invertebrates (worms, beetles etc.) break down
complex organic molecules (detritus), such as leaf
litter, into simpler molecules.
• • Microscopic decomposers (i.e. bacteria and
fungi) can further break down the organic matter
into humus.
• • Humus is the organic part of soils which greatly
improves the quality of soils for plants
BY:[Link] 0848331738 99
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

BY:[Link] 0848331738 100

STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

BY:[Link] 0848331738 101

 RECALL: STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
• Leaves are adapted for:
• Light absorption.
• Gas exchange.
• Adaptations to maximise light absorption:
• Each leaf is not in the shade of another.
• Transparent waxy cuticle – a protective layer that allows
light to enter the leaf. It is waterproof in order to prevent
water loss by evaporation.
• Epidermis – transparent, physical defence layer that does
not contain chloroplasts. It allows light into the leaf.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 102

BY:[Link] 0848331738 103
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Photosynthesis means manufacture (synthesise) energy
in the form of (glucose) carbohydrate stored in plants in
the form of starch and to release oxygen into the
atmosphere using light (photo)

BY:[Link] 0848331738 104

 THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• The process of photosynthesis occurs in the

choloroplast in two phases:
•  LIGHT PHASE: (light dependent) phase
where light is required
•  DARK PHASE: (light independent) phase
where no light is required but occurs when
there is light
• Both the light and dark phase occur in the
organelle called the chloroplast.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 105
LIGHT PHASE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

BY:[Link] 0848331738 106

 The light phase of photosynthesis takes place in the
grana of chloroplasts
• [Link] required radiant energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in
the grana.
• 2. Water is absorbed into the grana of the chloroplast
• 3. Radiant energy causes the water (H2O) molecule to split
(photolysis), into
• H+ and O2. This oxygen is released into the atmosphere via
the stomata.
• 4. Energy rich hydrogen (H+) ions formed during photolysis
are carried by NADP
• ( H- carrier) to form NADPH .
• 5. Radiant energy causes the energy carrier ATP to be formed
by phosphorylation.
• 6. NADPH + ATP formed during light phase will be used in the
dark phase
BY:[Link] 0848331738 107
 DARK PHASE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The dark phase of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts

as follows

BY:[Link] 0848331738 108

•Carbon dioxide (CO2) enters leaves via
stomata from the atmosphere
•Carbon dioxide(CO2) and energy rich
Hydrogen (H+ ) atoms, from the light
phase, are combined using ATP, to from
carbohydrates (glucose)
•Excess glucose is stored as starch in
starch granules in the stroma of
chloroplasts.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 109
GENERALIZED PROCESS

BY:[Link] 0848331738 110

 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE PHASES OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
LIGHT REACTION DARK REACTION
It takes place only in the presence It can take place in
of light. the presence or absence of sunlight.

It is a photochemical phase. It is a biochemical phase.

It takes place in the grana of the It takes place in the stroma of the
chloroplast. chloroplast.
NADP utilizes H+ ions to form The hydrogen of NADPH combines with
NADPH. CO2.
The end products are ATP and Glucose is the end product. ATP and
NADPH. NADPH help in the formation of glucose.

The water molecules split into Glucose is produced. Co2 is utilized in the
hydrogen and oxygen. BY:[Link] 0848331738 dark reaction. 111
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• It supplies energy to almost all living organisms. Plants are
the only organisms that can convert the sun’s energy into
organic compounds.
• Plants convert the simple sugars made during photosynthesis
into more complex organic compounds such as starch, fats,
proteins and vitamins which form food source for all living
organisms.
• Photosynthesis regulates the concentrations of carbon
dioxide, and oxygen in the atmosphere, and plays a key role in
the carbon cycle in preventing global warming.
• Plants absorb more carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
than they release during cellular respiration.
• Organisms require the oxygen released during photosynthesis
for cellular respiration to provide energy to all cells and
organs.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 112

 Effects of variable amounts of light, carbon
dioxide and temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis
• The rate or speed at which photosynthesis
takes place depends on the following three
factors:
1. Light intensity
2. Concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Temperature

BY:[Link] 0848331738 113

 1. Light intensity

• When light intensity increases, the rate of

photosynthesis also increases to an
optimum level. If light intensity continues to
increase, there will be no effect on the rate
of photosynthesis.
• When light intensity decreases, the rate of
photosynthesis also deceases.
• When the light intensity is low, the rate of
photosynthesis is low.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 114
1. Light intensity

BY:[Link] 0848331738 115

 2. Concentration of carbon dioxide
• As the carbon dioxide concentration level increases, the
rate of photosynthesis increases.
• If the carbon dioxide concentration is higher than the
optimum amount,
• photosynthesis will remain constant.
• When carbon dioxide concentration is low, the rate of
photosynthesis is low.
• Light independent phase cannot take place more quickly
than what it does at the optimum level of carbon dioxide
concentration.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 116

2. Concentration of carbon dioxide

BY:[Link] 0848331738 117

 3. Temperature
• When temperature is low, the rate of photosynthesis is
low.
• As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis
also increases.
• When temperature is at the optimum amount, the rate
of photosynthesis will
• reach a maximum.
• If the temperature is higher than the optimum amount,
rate of photosynthesis will decrease.
• The enzymes used in the process will denature at high
temperatures and will no longer function.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 118
3. Temperature

BY:[Link] 0848331738 119

 How does a greenhouse work?
• Greenhouses work by letting in as much light as
possible then trapping this as thermal energy. The
transparent walls and roof of the greenhouse
allow all the visible rays of sunlight to pass
through. This light heats up the air and objects
(like the plants and soil) inside the greenhouse.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 120

 ATP as energy carrier in cells:
• ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate (Energy carrier)
• When a cell needs energy, ATP is broken down and the
energy is released. Cells use this energy to produce
important molecules such as proteins, fats etc.
• During photosynthesis the energy from ATP is used in the
reaction that make energy-rich glucose from the raw
material CO2 and H2O. When this happens, ATP loses a
phosphate and ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is formed.
Radiant energy from sunlight can then be used to change
the less active ADP back to high energy ATP so that there
is more energy available to do more work.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 121

 Investigation: Light is required for
photosynthesis
• Procedure
• Destarch a plant.
• Cover part of a leaf with lightproof paper/foil.
• Make a drawing of the leaf.
• Place the plant in bright light for several hours.
• Test the leaf for starch using the 4-step starch test.
• Make another drawing of the leaf. In this drawing show
the areas of the leaf that tested positive and those that
tested negative for starch.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 122

Results
Only the areas that
have been exposed to
light will
photosynthesise and
therefore test positive
for starch, showing that
light is necessary for
photosynthesis

BY:[Link] 0848331738 123

 STARCH TEST PROCEDURE
• The starch test:
• Place the leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds – this kills
it, stopping any further chemical reactions.
• Place the leaf in boiling ethanol – removes the
chlorophyll making the leaf paler in colour.
• Dip the leaf in water – this softens it.
• Spread the leaf onto a white tile and add iodine to test
for the presence of starch.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 124

STARCH TEST PROCEDURE

BY:[Link] 0848331738 125

 STARCH TEST …
• Results:
• If starch is present the iodine will change from
yellow-brown to blue-black.
• If starch is absent the iodine will remain yellow-
brown.
• Safety:
• As well as wearing goggles throughout the
experiment, ensure that the ethanol is not exposed
to a naked flame during step 2, as it is highly
flammable.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 126

 STARCH TEST …
• Destarching a plant:
• Before carrying out any photosynthesis practical it is
necessary to destarch the plant by placing it in the dark
for at least 48 hours. During this time any starch will be
removed or used.
• This step is important so you can be positive that any
starch present at the end of the experiment has been
produced during the experiment.
• You can check if a plant has been fully destarched by
testing a leaf for starch. If the iodine remains yellow-
brown, all the starch has successfully been removed.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 127

 Investigating the production of oxygen
• If the rate of photosynthesis increases (e.g. by
increasing the light intensity) the number of
oxygen bubbles or volume of oxygen produced
will also increase.
• Measuring the volume of oxygen produced is
more accurate than counting the bubbles of
oxygen produced.
• An oxygen electrode connected to a data logger
can be used to measure the change in oxygen
concentration.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 128

INVESTIGATING THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN

BY:[Link] 0848331738 129

 ANIMAL Gr:11

NUTRITION
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 ANIMAL NUTRITION
All animals need to eat food to
give them nutrients that are used
in the body to provide energy
To repair damaged tissue and to
regulate bodily processes.
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 CATEGORIES OF ANIMALS
• Herbivore: animal that eats only plants or parts of plants
• Omnivore:animal that eats plants, animals or dead animal
flesh
• Carnivore :animal that eats only other animals or the remains of
other animals

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BY: [Link] for help +27848331738 ThunderEDUC
HUMAN NUTRITION: The digestive system

• Digestion : physical and chemical breakdown of complex

molecules into their simplest forms to be absorbed into the
body to sustain life
• It has five major steps

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 • Ingestion: intake of food
• Digestion: physical and chemical breakdown of
food into its simplest form
• Absorption: the products of digestion diffuse
into the blood stream
• Egestion: the removal of undigested and
unabsorbed waste from the body through the
anus in the form of faeces

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 Parts of the digestive system

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•

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 TYPES OF DIGESTION
• 1. Mechanical digestion (no enzymes)
• 2. Chemical digestion (enzymes involved)

• Mechanical/Physical digestion
• is the physical breakdown of large food particles
into smaller particles.
• it increases the surface area.
• occurs during mastication, churning in the stomach
and during peristalsis (rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of circular muscles).
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Peristalsis is a reflex action and is triggered by
the presence of the food in the alimentary canal. Its
impontant to transport food and water
See the mechanism below
Emulsification
is the breaking
down of lipids
into tiny
droplets.
Its also a type of
physical
digestion.

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Chemical digestion
• is the breaking down of large food
compounds into smaller food compounds
using digestive enzymes
• It helps in breaking down large food
particles into small that can be absorbed
into the blood.

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 SUMMARY OF GROUPS OF ENZYMES

• NOTE: Enzymes are very sensitive to changes in temperature

and pH , hence, only work in optimal temperatures and pH
ranges
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 The chemical digestion of large compounds into
smaller compounds : representation

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 ABSORPTION
• It takes place mostly in the small intestine because
food particles here are small enough to be absorbed.
• Small intestine is suitable for absorption due to
the characteristics below
• It is approximately 6 m long.
• The walls contain transverse folds
• The inner wall has millions of finger-like projections
called villi
• Each villus contains microvilli to further increase the
surface area.
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Simple structure of villus

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 ADAPTATION OF THE VILLUS FOR
ABSORPTION
• The epithelium is only one-cell layer thick allowing
nutrients to pass through quickly.
• Goblet cells secrete mucus to ensure the absorptive
surface is moist and nutrients to be dissolved and
absorbed.
• It has many mitochondria to supply energy for active
absorption of nutrients.
• Microvilli further increase the surface area.
• There is a lymph vessel called a lacteal in each villus which
absorbs and transports lipids. ThunderEDUC
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 Transport of amino acids and glucose
Amino acids & glucose are absorbed into blood capillaries of the
villi in the small intestine

Capillaries join together to form large venules to form the hepatic

portal vein transports amino acids and glucose to the liver

Glucose and amino acids flow through hepatic vein to the heart

The liver converts excess glucose to glycogen and stores it

Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea

(waste product) and are removed from the body ThunderEDUC
Assimilation
• is the incorporation of absorbed nutrients into the cells
of the body.
• For example, muscle cells will absorb amino acids to
be converted to proteins and glucose will be absorbed
by cells to provide energy.
• The liver plays a vital role in the assimilation of
nutrients.
• The liver is responsible for the metabolism of glucose,
deamination of amino acids, the breakdown of alcohol,
drugs and hormones.
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Egestion
• All undigested materials are transported
through the colon where most water and
mineral salts are absorbed.
• The undigested material is temporarily
stored in the rectum until it is excreted
through the anus.
• The undigested waste is then referred to as
faeces.
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 Homeostatic control of blood
glucose levels
• homeostasis , the ability of an organism to
maintain stability of internal conditions (e.g.
temperature, chemical balance) despite changes in its
environment
• negative feedback mechanisms ,mechanisms in
the human body that detect changes or imbalances
in the internal conditions and restore homeostasis
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 The following is a general sequence of
events in a negative feedback mechanism:
• Step 1: An imbalance is detected
• Step 2: A control centre is stimulated
• Step 3: Control centre responds
• Step 4: Message is sent to target organ/s
• Step 5: The target organ responds
• Step 6: It opposes / reverses the imbalance
• Step 7: Balance is restored.

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 The influence of insulin and glucagon on blood
glucose levels

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 Blood glucose levels are maintained at a
constant level (homeostasis).

• When blood glucose levels are too high, insulin is

released from the pancreas to stimulate the liver and
muscles convert blood glucose into glycogen to return the
blood glucose level to normal.
• When blood glucose levels are too low, glucagon is
released from the pancreas stimulates the liver and muscles
to convert glycogen to glucose, which enters the blood and
returns
for helpglucose
BY: [Link] levels to normal.
+27848331738
• Diabetes mellitus is a disorder characterized by
high blood glucose levels resulting in increased
fatigue (tiredness), dehydration and lack of energy.

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 Balanced diet
• is required to maintain good health.
• A balanced diet should consist of all the necessary
nutrients in their correct quantities.
• Carbohydrates and fats provide the body with
energy,
• protein is used for building and repair of cells
• vitamins and minerals for maintenance of
immune system and bodily processes.
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 The amount of nutrients required is
dependent on:
• Age
• gender
• level of activity.
• For example,
• growing children need more protein to build and
repair cells;
• active people require more energy foods
• men need more energy foods than women
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 Different diets
• vegan Do not eat any animal products such as meat, eggs
and milk
• vegetarian Do not eat meat but do eat dairy products
and eggs.
• halaal Followers of Islamic faith do not consume pork,
alcohol, carnivorous animals or any food that comes into
contact with carnivorous animals. The slaughter of animals
must follow strict rules.
• kosher Followers of Jewish faith do not eat pork, shellfish,
fish without fins or scales, no predatory birds etc.
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THUNDEREDUC
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 Gr:11
CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
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 Cellular respiration
• is the chemical process where glucose is broken
down gradually, in the presence of oxygen or in the
absence of oxygen to release energy.
• TYPES OF RESPIRATION
• aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of
oxygen to release energy
• anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of
oxygen to release energy
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Importance of energy

• Energy is used by organisms in various ways. Some of

the main ways in which energy is used include:
• growth
• cell division
• movement
• transport of substances
• active transport

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The internal structure of a mitochondrion

ThunderEDUC
 PROCESS OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• 1. Aerobic respiration (needs
oxygen)
• Aerobic respiration takes place:
• in the presence of oxygen;
• inside the cytoplasm and mitochondria
of cells.

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• The requirements for the process are oxygen and glucose
and the by-products released are carbon dioxide and
water as well as ATP energy.
• word equation
• Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
• 2. The stages of aerobic respiration
• 1. Glycolysis – takes place in the cytoplasm
• 2. Krebs Cycle – takes place inside the mitochondrion
• 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation – takes place inside the
mitochondrion

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 [Link]
• takes place outside the mitochondrion,
in the cytoplasm of the cell
• no oxygen is required during this
stage
• glucose is broken down into smaller
molecules, releasing a small amount of
energy that is stored in energy-rich ATP
molecules
• releases high energy hydrogen ions (H+)

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• [Link] Cycle ThunderEDUC

• can only take place if oxygen is present

• occurs inside of the mitochondrion
• releases carbon dioxide and high energy
hydrogen ions (H+)
• transports hydrogen atoms to the third
stage via hydrogen carrier enzymes

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• 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation
• takes place inside of the mitochondrion
and requires oxygen
• passes high energy hydrogen atoms
from one hydrogen carrier enzyme to
the next, releasing energy in the process
• uses released energy to combine a
phosphate molecule to an ADP
(Adenosine Di-phosphate) molecule to
form ATP – called phosphorylation
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• is represented in the formula: ADP + P ATP
• oxygen acts as a final hydrogen acceptor binding with
the hydrogen forming water which is released as a waste
product of cellular respiration

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 Anaerobic respiration (without
oxygen)
• it occurs for short periods of time,
• mainly during physical exercise
• occurs differently in plants and
animals
• produces less ATP than aerobic
respiration.
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 Anaerobic respiration in animals
• is known as lactic acid fermentation
• occurs in muscles during intense exercise
• enables glycolysis in the cytoplasm of animal cells
• results in the accumulation of lactic acid causing the
muscles to become tired and painful
• produces only a small amount of ATP
• The lactic acid can be converted back to pyruvic acid
when the muscles receive oxygen
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 Anaerobic respiration in plants
• is known as alcoholic fermentation
• enables glycolysis in the cytoplasm of plant cells
• results in the accumulation of pyruvic acid
• forming ethanol (alcohol) and releasing carbon
dioxide
• can be summarized as:
• glucose → ATP + pyruvic acid → ethanol + carbon dioxide

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 Uses of anaerobic respiration in
industry
• Yeast and other fungi respire anaerobically
and are used to produce alcoholic
beverages such as beer and wine.
• Yeast cells are also used to cause bread to
rise during the baking process.

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 Comparison between aerobic and
Anaerobic (fermentation) respiration

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 Carbon dioxide is produced during
aerobic cellular respiration
• Aim: To prove that carbon dioxide is produced
during aerobic respiration

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Method:

• Use a small organism (e.g. snail, rat etc).

• Sterilise the equipment so that no micro-organisms
can influence the result.
• Place the snail into a large jar.
• Set- up the apparatus , making sure that the test
tubes are tightly sealed.
• Examine the test tubes the following day and record
the results.
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Results:
• Test tube B: the lime water remains clear,
• carbon dioxide is removed by the soda lime and
sodium hydroxide.
• Test tube D: the lime water turns milky due
to carbon dioxide produced by the snail.
• Conclusion:
• Carbon dioxide is produced during aerobic
respiration by living organisms (the snail).
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 NEXT
CLASS
GASEOUS
EXCHANGE

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 ThunderEDUC
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 GASEOUS Gr:11

EXCHANGE
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 the exchange of O2
and CO2 at a
respiratory surface
 occurs at two places in
mammals:
 1. at a gaseous
exchange surface
(lungs) and the blood
 2. between the blood
and the body cells at
the tissue level

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 Breathing is the taking of air in and
out of the lungs.
 Gas exchange is the intake of oxygen
and the excretion of carbon dioxide at
the lung surface. Oxygen moves into
the blood and carbon dioxide moves
out of the blood.
 Cell respiration is the process that
releases energy from the food

ThunderEDUC
  Large – to ensure the
maximum exchange of gases can take place.
 Thin and permeable – so that diffusion can
take place easily and rapidly.
 Moist – so that gases can dissolve to form a
solution.
 Well ventilated – good oxygen supply and
carbon dioxide removal.

ThunderEDUC
 The human gas
exchange system
consists of the
following distinct
sections:
 air passages
 lungs
 muscles involved
in the mechanism
of breathing
(ventilation)

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HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

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Human lung alveolus

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 PART FUNCTION
nostrils air inhale air into the nose
Nasal cavities cilia trap dirt and
sweep it out of the nose; keeps cavity moist
trachea C-shaped cartilage rings protect trachea and keep it
open for
easy movement of air
bronchus / held open by O-shaped cartilage rings; lined with
bronchi mucous
membranes
bronchioles Transport air from bronchi to alveolus
/ bronchioles
alveoli increase the surface area to maximize the gas
Exchange right bronchus bronchiole alveolus (air sac)
Ribs diaphragm intercostal muscles

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lungs Contans the alveoli for gass exchange , also aid in
inhalation and exhalation
ribs protect the lungs from injury
Intercostal muscles contract and relax during inhalation and exhalation
altering the volume of air in the chest (thoracic
cavity)
diaphragm contracts and flattens altering the volume of the
chest cavity
and is important in the breathing

ThunderEDUC
 ThunderEDUC

 a.) Name the tissue forming

the wall of the alveolus
(labeled 1) (1)
 b.) Name the gases shown
at A and B in the diagram.(2)
 c.) For which process do the
cells need a constant supply
of gas A? (1)

 d.) State and explain three ways in which

the alveolus is structurally suited to the
process of gaseous exchange. (6)
 The process of breathing is a mechanical
process.
 Air moves in and out of the lungs as a result
of differences in atmospheric air pressure
and the air pressure inside the lungs.
 It involves different muscles and volume and
pressure changes in the thoracic cavity.
 Inhalation: the breathing in of air
 Exhalation: the breathing out of air

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 inhalation is an active process
involving muscle contraction
 During inhalation, diaphragm
muscle contracts, it flattens and
moves downwards
 external intercostal muscles
between the ribs contract
 ribcage lifts upwards and pushes
outwards
 air pressure in the lungs decreases
as the chest volume increases
 atmospheric pressure is greater
than the pressure inside the lungs
and air flows in

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 exhalation is a passive process
when muscles relax
 During exhalation, air is pushed
out of lungs
 diaphragm relaxes and moves
upwards
 external intercostal muscles
relax
 ribcage moves down and inward
 air pressure in lungs increases
relative to the outside air
pressure
 air is forced out to equalize the
pressure
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 QUESTION
 1. For each of the
model parts listed
below, provide an
appropriate name for
the
 corresponding part in
the human
respiratory system.
 a) Glass tube (1)
 b) Balloon (1)
 c) Bell jar (1)
 d) Rubber sheet (1)
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 2. Does B represent an active or passive
process in the human mechanism of
breathing? (1)
 3. What happens to the air pressure in the
bell jar at B? (1)
 4. What happens to the volume (size) of the
space in the bell jar at B? (1)
 5. What do you see as restrictions to the
models when comparing them to the actual
human body? Mention 2 possible limitations
of the model shown in the Figure above. (2)

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 The air entering the alveoli
after inhalation has a high
oxygen concentration
 Compared to blood of the
surrounding capillaries.
 The inhaled air has a lower
carbon dioxide
concentration compared to
the blood in the
surrounding capillaries.
 This results in oxygen
diffusing (moving) from
the alveoli into the blood
and carbon dioxide
diffusing (moving) from
the blood and back into
the alveoli.
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 The cells will have high carbon dioxide
concentrations due to continuing cellular
respiration.
 This carbon dioxide moves out of the cells and into
the blood and is transported back to the heart and
then to the lungs where it is exhaled.
 This carbon dioxide
moves out of the
cells and into the
blood
 Its transported back
to the heart and then
to the lungs where it
is exhaled
ThunderEDUC
BY: [Link] for help +27848331738 ThunderEDUC
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the
blood increase above normal
levels
 Receptor cells in the carotid artery
in the neck are stimulated
 Cells send impulses to the
medulla oblongata in the brain
 Which stimulates breathing
muscles (intercostal muscles and
diaphragm) and heart
 Breathing muscles contract more
actively – increases the rate and
depth of breathing; the heart
beats faster
 More CO2 is taken to and exhaled
from the lungs
 The CO2 levels in the blood return
to normal
ThunderEDUC
EXCRETION IN
HUMANS
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 EXCRETION IN HUMANS

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 The removal or elimination of metabolic
waste from an organism
 Eg CO2, H2O, bile pigments, urea and
mineral salts
 NOTE:
 metabolism. chemical reactions that take
place within every cell of the body.
 Egestion. the removal of undigested food
solid waste from the digestive tract

ThunderEDUC
 EXCRETORY ORGANS
organ WASTE PRODUCTS ORIGIN
LUNGS carbon dioxide cellular respiration
and water vapour
SKIN (SWEAT mineral salts, extracted from the blood
GLANDS) traces of urea,
water
LIVER urea deamination of excess amino acids
bile pigments breakdown of haemoglobin
COLON bile pigments, bile pigments, excess mineral salts
excess mineral from the breakdown of
salts haemoglobin in the liver
KIDNEY urea deamination of excess amino acids
in the liver
mineral salts mineral salts excess taken in with
food
water excess water consumed and taken
in as food
 its also known as the renal system.
 The kidneys make urine by filtering wastes and
extra water from blood.
 Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin
tubes called ureters and fills the bladder.

 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

 Osmoregulation – regulation of levels of H2O in
body fluids
 Excretion – removal of nitrogenous waste e.g.
urea
 Regulation of pH of body fluids
 Regulation of salt concentration of body fluids
 The kidneys are bean shaped structures
 found half-way down the back just under the
ribcage.
 They are protected by adipose (fat) tissue and
each kidney is covered by a renal capsule
which protects the kidney and its internal
structures from infections.
 Oxygenated Blood with waste products is by
the renal artery which branches off the aorta.
 Deoxygenated blood with the waste products
removed, leaves the kidney through the renal
vein.
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ThunderEDUC
 The kidneys are highly complex filtration
organs.
 Its functional unit is called a nephron
 Nephrons are microscopic coiled structures
made up of tubes, arterioles, capillaries and
ducts.
 Their main function is to filter the blood,
regulate the waste, water and other important
substances the body needs.
The nephron is divided into two
 the Malpighian body
 the renal tubule.
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By: [Link] 0848331738 ThunderEDUC
nephron functional unit of the kidney

podocytes specialised cells lining the Bowman’s capsule

afferent arteriole blood vessel bringing blood from the renal artery
into
efferent arteriole blood vessel taking blood from the glomerulus

glomerulus a dense capillary network in the Bowman’s capsule

Bowman’s capsule a cup-shaped structure surrounding the

glomerulus
Malpighian body / made up of the glomerulus plus Bowman’s capsule
renal corpuscle
proximal the folded portion of the nephron that lies
convoluted tubule between
Bowman's capsule and the loop of Henle
distal convoluted the folded portion of the nephron between the
tubule loop of Henle
and the collecting tubule.
[Link] all the parts
[Link] is part 2, 9 &
8 adapted to its
function

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Name all the parts
This is also called function of the
kidney or nephron
Its divided into four major processes
 1. glomerular filtration or ultrafiltration
 2. tubular re-absorption
 3. tubular secretion
 4. excretion

ThunderEDUC
 It takes place in the Malpighian body.
 Blood enters the glomerulus from the renal artery
in the afferent arteriole with high pressure and
leaves the glomerulus in the efferent arteriole with
low pressure.
NOTE:
The formation of the glomerular
filtrate is a non-selective process,
i.e. both
1. useful (e.g. glucose, amino
acids, vitamins, minerals and
water)
2. waste substances (e.g. urea
and uric acid) are filtered
through into the capsule. By: [Link] 0848331738 ThunderEDUC
 The afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent
arteriole. This results in the blood being put under
high pressure forcing the plasma with dissolved
substances into the capsular space of the
Bowman’s capsule.
 The walls of the glomerulus capillaries are thin and
consist of a single layer of cells for fast filtration
 The podocytes found on the inner wall of the
Bowman’s capsule make ultra-filtration possible.
 Glomerulus is coiled to increase the surface area
for filtration
 Bowman’s capsule is cup-shaped to enlarge the
contact area with the glomerulus.
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 It occurs in the proximal convoluted
tubule and involves an active re-
absorption of the glucose, amino acids,
vitamins and other important substances
that ended up in the glomerular filtrate.
 Most water also moves back into the blood
of the peritubular capillaries by osmosis.
 This prevents dehydration and any
unnecessary loss of important substances

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 NOTE:
 Substances are actively reabsorbed which require
energy. Hence many mitochondria here
 Microvilli present increase surface area for maximum
re-absorption.
 water is by the passive process of osmosis. The fluid
in the renal tubule is now called tubular filtrate.
 The Loop of Henle ensures that water is conserved
and recovered from the filtrate and returned to the
blood.
 Salt is actively pumped out of the loop this creates a
concentration gradient
 The distal convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts
are very permeable to water
 amount of what is controlled by ADH
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 It involves the active removal of unnecessary substances
from the blood in the peritubular capillaries into the
tubular filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule.
 THE SUBSTANCES REMOVED INCLUDE:
 hydrogen ions (H+)
 sodium ions (Na+)
 bicarbonate ions
 drugs e.g. penicillin
 creatinine
 ammonia
 potassium ions (K+)
 NOTE: The ability of the distal convoluted
tubule to take up hydrogen and bicarbonate
ions is important in the regulation of the pH
of the blood.
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 The filtrate that enters the collecting duct is now
called urine.
 Urine consists of urea, excess water and salts.
 Urine collected from all the collecting ducts in
the medulla region and empties into
 the pelvic region of the kidney.
 Urine passes down the ureter and into the
bladder.
 The bladder has muscles that control the release
of urine into the urethra and urination occurs.

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 Homeostasis is the ability of human body to
maintain a stable internal environment eg

 body’s temperature is kept within a narrow range

of around 37°C.
 The pH of the body fluids
 composition of these fluids need to be kept
 This help for effective metabolism to occur.
 The kidney is involved in 3 homeostatic
mechanisms:
 the regulation of pH of the blood
 the regulation of water levels (osmoregulation)
 the regulation of salt levels in the blood
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 The regulation of water balance in the
internal environment (osmoregulation)
ThunderEDUC

When blood has less water When blood has more water
than normal than normal
 The hypothalamus is  The hypothalamus is
stimulated stimulated
An impulse is sent to the An impulse is sent to the
pituitary gland to secrete pituitary gland to secrete less
more ADH ADH
Which travels in blood to less travels in blood to
kidneys kidneys
ADH increases the Decrease in the
permeability of the nephron permeability of the nephron
More water is re-absorbed Less water is re-absorbed
and passed to the and passed to the
surrounding blood vessels surrounding blood vessels
 The water level in the blood  The water level in the blood
returns to normal returns to normal
 Pituitary secretes Permeability of collecting
more ADH ducts and distal convoluted
tubules increases

Water level More water reabsorbed

decreases into blood

Normal water levels in blood

Less water reabsorbed into

Water level
blood More water is lost
increases

Permeability of collecting
Pituitary stops secreting ducts and distal convoluted
ADH/Less ADH secreted tubules decreases
 THE REGULATION OF SALT BALANCE
How to write it in exam

When the salt level in When the salt level in

the blood increases the blood decreases
The adrenal gland is The adrenal gland is
stimulated to secrete less stimulated to secrete
aldosterone more aldosterone
Aldosterone decreases Aldosterone increases
the re-absorption of the re-absorption of
sodium ions from the sodium ions from the
renal tubules in the renal tubules in the
kidney to blood vessels kidney to blood vessels
The salt level in the The salt level in the
blood vessels deceases blood vessels increases
and returns to normal and returns to normal
Adrenal gland secretes Re-absorption of sodium
more aldosterone ions increases

Salt level Salt level increases

decreases

Normal salt levels in blood

Salt level increases Salt level decreases

Adrenal gland stops

secreting aldosterone / less Re-absorption of sodium
aldosterone secreted ions decreases
TOGETHER WE MAKE SOUTH AFRICA
BETTER

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NEXT CLASS: POPULATION ECOLOGY

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 POPULATION
ECOLOGY
BY: [Link]

BY:[Link] 0848331738 226

 POPULATION ECOLOGY
• Population ecology is the study of populations in
relationship to their environment and the social
interactions amongst each other.
• Population size: Total number of individuals in a population
• Population density: refers to the number of individuals of a
population per unit area, e.g. 10 COWS per hectare (100 m X
100 m)
• Population size
• Population size is influenced by both abiotic and
biotic factors present in the environment.
• Natality
• Mortality
• Migration (including immigration and emigration)

BY:[Link] 0848331738 227

Positive and negative population growth
• A positive growth rate means a population is increasing. A
negative growth rate means it is decreasing.

• Population increases because of

• Natality: Birth rate within a population.
• Immigration: Introduces new members into the original
population. These members could have entered the
population temporarily for the breeding season, or
permanently. This is species dependent.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 228
Population decreases because of
• Mortality :Death rate within a population.
• Emigration :Individuals leaving a population
because of migrations at the end of a
season or the original population splitting
into sub-populations across a large
geographical area. is species dependent.
• The change in the number of individuals in
a population can be determined using the
following equation:
BY:[Link] 0848331738 229
• When the balance is positive, population
size increases and
• when negative, population size decreases.
Population Change = (Number of births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)

• Causes of fluctuations in natural populations:

• Density dependent and independent factors
contribute to fluctuations in population size.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 230

 TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
• Environmental resistance includes carrying capacity,
density dependent and density independent
factors.
• Carrying capacity: refers to the number of
individuals an environment can support in a specific
season.
• If populations exceed their environmental carrying
capacity, there will not be enough resources to
sustain the population and so the population size
will fall because of increased environmental
resistance.
• Population size may fluctuate in natural populations
around the carrying capacity .This is known as a
stable population size.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 231
Stable population size fluctuating around
carrying capacity

BY:[Link] 0848331738 232

 Density dependent and density
independent factors
• DENSITY DEPENDENT FACTORS
1. those factors that have a direct correlation
(relationship) to the size of the population in an area
2. exert a greater influence when a population is large
:Examples:
• territorial behavior:
• predation and competition
• accumulation of waste
• food, space and shelter
• parasitism and disease
BY:[Link] 0848331738 233
 DENSITY INDEPENDENT FACTORS
• factors that will exert an influence on a
population regardless of its size
• are abnormal events in nature and occur
randomly
• Examples (natural disasters)
• Tsunamis
• Landslides
• Volcanic eruptions
• veld fires
• floods
BY:[Link] 0848331738 234
 DETERMINING POPULATION SIZE
• Depending on the type of population, the size of
the population can be determined either
directly or indirectly.
• Direct technique involves total counting of all individuals: like
Aerial photography, Census.
• Indirect technique involves the counting of only part of the
population: (mark-recapture technique and quadrant
technique).
• Formula used to determine the estimated population size:
P = FxS
M
• F = Number caught in the first sample
• S = Number caught in the second sample
• M = Number marked in the second sample
BY:[Link] 0848331738 235
 The following precautions must be
taken to ensure reliable results:
• The sample must be large enough to truly represent a
population.
• The markings used must remain for the entire period of
the procedure.
• The markings must be suitable for the type of organism
and must not harm or interfere with its movements and
behaviour.
• The marked organisms should be released into the
environment close to the site of capture and be given
enough time to mix.
• Several secondary samples should be taken, and
population sizes calculated. The average of each trial
should be recorded to improve the reliability of the
investigation.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 236
 POPULATION GROWTH FORMS
• Populations have characteristic patterns of
growth. When population sizes are plotted
over time, two different growth patterns can
be found in nature. They are referred to as
geometric (or a J-shaped growth curve) and
logistic (or S-shaped growth curve) growth.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 237

 Geometric growth curve
• Geometric growth is characteristic of many micro-
organisms e.g., bacteria and protists.
• Three distinct phases can be seen in
geometric growth curves
• Lag phase – population number inceases slowly because:
• o individuals may still be acclimatising to their
environment
• o they need time to find mates
• o most of the population is sexually immature

BY:[Link] 0848331738 238

• Geometric (or accelerated) growth phase –
individuals have acclimatised, many reproducing
individuals exist and in favourable conditions
produce many offspring. The birth rate is higher
than the death rate. There is very little
environmental resistance.
• Extinction or death phase – resources become
limited, i.e. food, space, etc.,
• and the population is no longer able to reproduce
as effectively. The mortality rate becomes greater
than the natality rate. The population decreases
rapidly.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 239
GEOMETRIC GROWTH IN A POPULATION

BY:[Link] 0848331738 240

 LOGISTIC GROWTH FORM
• Logistic S-shaped growth is normally found in higher-order
organisms
• (e.g. mammals) which typically reproduce slower. Populations
tend not to exceed the
• carrying capacity and, if they do, they show higher levels of
resilience to environmental resistance
• An S-shaped graph forms typically consists of five phases.
1. Lag phase: As in the geometric growth curve, the
population numbers increase slowly.
2. Exponential or accelerating growth phase: The population
can reach higher natality levels because of more sexually
mature individuals procreating and environmental
resistance being low (because of enough food, space and
shelter).
BY:[Link] 0848331738 241
3. Decelerating growth phase: Natality rate is still higher
than the mortality rate, however, the mortality rate is
gaining momentum because of higher levels of
environmental resistance and old age.
4. Equilibrium / stationary phase: Carrying capacity of
the environment has been reached. One or more
limiting factors are exerting a toll on the population.
The carrying capacity is somewhat stable and able to
maintain the population at a set value.
5. Death / extinction phase (not shown on graph): Some
populations cannot regulate their resource usage
and/or changes to abiotic and biotic factors in their
environment and are then unable to sustain
themselves.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 242
LOGISTIC GROWTH CURVE

BY:[Link] 0848331738 243

 INTERACTIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
• Species interact with each other in a variety of ways.
These include:
1. predation
2. competition
3. symbiotic relationships
• A predator is an organism that actively hunts, kills and
consumes its prey to meet its
energy needs.
predation the act of preying on
another animal

BY:[Link] 0848331738 244

• Predator :heterotrophic organisms (usually
animals) that hunt, kill and eat other organisms
(or animals).
• predator – prey curve
• a curve that describes the dynamics of biological
systems in which two species interact
• Predators play an important role in regulating the
number of other species. The relationship
between the number of predators and their prey,
can be represented by a predator-prey graph

BY:[Link] 0848331738 245

PREDATOR-PREY GRAPH

BY:[Link] 0848331738 246

 COMPETITION
• Competition is the interaction between individuals over
scare resources
• When individuals of the same species compete, it is
called intraspecific competition.
• When individuals of different species compete, it is
interspecific competition
• The competitive exclusion principle states that when two
species competing for the same resources, one species
will out-compete the other.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 247

 RESOURCE PARTITIONING
• a specialization that limits interspecific competition;
through resource partitioning, different carnivores,
herbivores and even plant species can co-exist and
survive in the same environment since each occupies a
different ecological niche

BY:[Link] 0848331738 249

 SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
• Symbiosis is a close, long-term biological relationship
between individuals of two or more species.
• mutualism
• commensalism
• Parasitism
• Mutualism: is an example
of a symbiotic relationship
between two different species
in which both species benefit.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 250

 COMMENSALISM
• In a commensalistic relationship, one species benefits
while the other neither benefits nor is it negatively
affected from the shared interaction.
• Eg Whales and barnacles share a commensalistic
relationship (Figure 20).
• Barnacles attached to whales filter water for food while
the whale moves
• through the ocean. The whale is not harmed by the
barnacles.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 251

 PARASITISM
• In parasitic relationships, one species (the parasite)
benefits while the other species (the host) is harmed.
• ENDOPARASITES: those that parasitise the host
internally e.g. tapeworms; or
• ECTOPARASITES: those that parasitize the host
externally e.g. leeches and ticks
• Obligatory parasitism
• parasite which cannot complete its life cycle without
exploiting the bodies of suitable host(s)

BY:[Link] 0848331738 252

 HUMAN POPULATION
• Modern humans evolved 200 000 years ago. The
population size then, was probably less than several
hundred. Today, the human population stands at 8.0
billion.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 253

 REASONS FOR EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
• Agricultural improvements
• Through agricultural improvements, man has been able
to increase and secure food availability.
• Medicinal improvements.
• Our medical technology has improved drastically in the
space of a few hundred years. We can counter the effects
of pathogenic diseases and their subsequent spread
• Technological improvements
• Technology has made our daily lives easier and more
convenient. Carrying capacity was further increased.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 254

AGE-GENDER POPULATION PYRAMIDS
• Three types of population pyramids can be observed
according to whether or not the population size is
growing or declining, namely:
1. expanding or growing population pyramid
2. stable population pyramid
3. declining population pyramid.

BY:[Link] 0848331738 255

 RAPID GROWTH OR YOUTHFUL POPULATION

• LEDCs have a triangular shaped pyramid. They have lots

of children and people do not tend to live for a long
time (low Life expectancy). These countries populations
grow rapidly as many more children are added to the
population than people die. The Philippines pyramid
shows this perfectly and has a population growing at
2.1% per year.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 256
 STABLE POPULATION GROWTH
PYRAMID

• Most MEDCs have a space rocket shape, with old people

living for a long time (high life expectancy), lots of
workers and reasonable numbers of children. These
populations are stable and are growing slowly as the
number of young is just above the number of people
dieing.
BY:[Link] 0848331738 257
 DECLINING OR AGEING POPULATION

• Some MEDCs actually have declining populations where

there are not enough children being born each year to
replace those dieing. Germany is experiencing a period
of negative growth (-0.1%). As negative growth in a
country continues, the population is reduced. A
population can shrink due to a low birth rate and a
stable death rate. Increased emigration may also be a
contributor to a declining population.
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• part from the above, human populations are
also regulated by the prevailing global
environment at the time, e.g. wars, famines,
economic recessions, incurable superbugs
that are easily transmitted through
international travel.
• Governments can also regulate their
population sizes through legislation. Some
countries choose a more direct method to
regulate their population whereas other
would want to decrease it through
legislation and policy.
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HUMAN IMPACT
ON
ENVIRONMENT

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HUMAN IMPACT ON
THE ENVIRONMENT

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 THE ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
• Climate refers to the long-term weather
conditions of an area. The atmosphere is
made up of nitrogen, oxygen and other
gases, which include the greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide and methane.
Greenhouse gases absorb infrared (long
wave radiation) long wave radiation emitted
from the Earth and prevent it from escaping
back into the atmosphere. This is known as
the ‘greenhouse effect’
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•The greenhouse effect is important in
keeping the Earth warm so that it can
sustain life. However, an increase in the
concentration of greenhouse gases
leads to the ‘enhanced greenhouse
effect’. As a result, there may be a
significant rise in the average
temperature of the surface of the Earth
over a period of time. This is known as
‘global warming’.
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 Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is due mainly to:
• Burning of fossil fuels (for electricity, to
power vehicles and for industrial processes):
Combustion of carbon-rich fuels such as coal
or plants (wood) releases carbon that was
stored in them, as carbon dioxide.
• Deforestation: Cutting down trees and
removing vegetation from the land
decreases the amount of carbon dioxide
taken up by plants during photosynthesis.
This increases the amount of carbon dioxide
available in the atmosphere.
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 Increased concentration of the methane in the
atmosphere is due mainly to:
1. the increased number of landfills:
decaying organic matter in waterlogged
soils such as landfills releases methane.
2. the increased number of livestock:
ruminants such as cows release methane
gas through their digestive tracts.
3. Mining of coal.

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 Increased temperatures may lead to:
• More evaporation of water which can lead to
increased precipitation which eventually increases
the potential for flooding.
• Rising sea levels caused by melting ice in the
glaciers which can eventually increase the potential
for flooding.
• Increased wildfires that increase the chances of soil
erosion and eventually desertification.
• Increased loss of biodiversity, as species are unable
to cope with rapidly rising temperatures, eventually
leading to desertification.
• Increased droughts in some areas leading to
desertification and food insecurity.
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 CARBON FOOTPRINT
• This is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide
emissions of an individual, a defined population or a
company per year.
• Strategies to reduce the carbon footprint include the
following:
1. • Reuse and recycle: less fossil fuels burnt in the
production of some of the material.
2. • Drive less: by using public transport, walking,
bicycles.
3. • Reduce the need for heating: insulating walls and
building energy efficient homes.
4. • Carbon offsetting: by using alternative energy (solar
and wind) and reforestation to act as a carbon
reservoir.
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 DESTRUCTION OF THE OZONE LAYER
• Ozone is a greenhouse gas that is found at low concentrations
15 – 50 km above the Earth’s surface. It absorbs the
ultraviolet rays from the sun.
• The ultraviolet rays damage the DNA and cause skin cancer.
• Measurements in certain areas have shown a significant
decrease in the amount of ozone layer.
• The damage to the ozone layer is caused mainly by chemicals
called CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), released by refrigerators,
aerosol sprays and fast-food packaging.
• If the measures to reduce the destruction of ozone layer fail
there will be a significant increase in the number of skin
cancer cases.
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1.2 WATER QUALITY AND WATER AVAILABILITY

• It is estimated that as many as 2 billion

people won’t have sufficient access to clean
water by 2050.
• There are many efforts directed towards
making good quality water available.

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 1.2.1 AVAILABILITY OF WATER
• The availability of water may be influenced by
the following factors
1. Construction of Dams
• The construction of additional dams plays a
major role in increasing the quantity of water
stored and made available for later use by people
and in agriculture.
2. Destruction of wetlands
• Wetlands should not be destroyed because they
influence both the availability and quality of
water
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3. Water wastage
I. • A large amount of water used for irrigation
is lost due to poor farming practices. The use
of water for irrigation further up a river
decreases the availability of water for other
users lower down the river.
II. • Availability is also affected by wastage of
water through leaking taps and toilets and
faulty pipelines.
III. • Wastage of water can be reduced by
reducing the pressure in the pipes, by
educating people to use water wisely and by
maintaining all plumbing in good condition.
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4. Cost of water
• The cost per kilolitre (kl) of water increases with
the increased use of water.
• A certain amount of water is available free to all
citizens to ensure that water is available to the
poorest.
5. Poor farming practices
• Contamination of water sources by fertilizers
and pesticides has decreased the amount of clean
water available, thus increasing the costs involved
in purification.
• Over-grazing leads to soil erosion. On land that
is eroded, water runs off rapidly rather than
soaking into the ground, and is thus wasted.
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6. DROUGHTS AND FLOODS
I. • During periods of drought, water availability
decreases. Water used from dams during the
drought periods cannot be easily replaced.
II. • Natural vegetation can hold back water from
floods. If the natural vegetation is removed,
flood waters are lost.
BOREHOLES AND THEIR EFFECT ON AQUIFERS
• Boreholes have been used to increase water
availability in areas that do not have direct access to
other sources of water.
• Constant use of boreholes eventually leads to the
drying up of aquifers (the source of borehole water)
thus decreasing water availability in the future.

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• 7. Water recycling
• The availability of water can be increased if
existing water is used for more than one
purpose. For example, some water used in
the household can be used for the garden
• 8. Exotic plantations and the depletion of
the water table
• Some exotic plants use a large quantity of
water from the ground. As a result, this
decreases the level of the water table,
making less water available to other
vegetation in the area
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 QUALITY OF WATER
• The quality of water may be influenced by the
following factors:
• 1. Eutrophication and algal bloom
• Water used for agriculture may contain
pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers which pollute
the water in rivers, dams and lakes, causing
eutrophication.
The added nutrients lead to an increase in algal
growth (algal bloom). These algae over-use and
thus deplete the oxygen in the water, thus
reducing the potential for life in such water.
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2. Thermal pollution: The quality of water is affected
because heated water has lower oxygen content, making
it difficult to support life. Pollution of water through do
3. Pollution of water through domestic, agricultural and
industrial use.
4. Mining: Water returned to the environment from mines is
generally acidic and toxic. This water is hot and thus also
contributes to thermal pollution.
5. Alien Plants: Alien invasive water plants block the
waterways, reducing light to other aquatic plants. These
plants eventually die and decompose. Bacteria that
decompose these plants eventually deplete the oxygen
supply in the water.
6. Water purification: The quality of water is improved
through purification methods. Undrinkable water can be
made drinkable.
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 3 FOOD SECURITY
• Food security refers to the access, by all people
at all times, to adequate, safe and nutritious
food for a healthy and productive life. Food
security may be influenced by the following
factors:
1. Exponential growth of the human population
2. Droughts and floods
3. Poor farming practices – monoculture, pest
control, loss of topsoil and the need for
fertilizers
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• Alien plants and reduction of agricultural
land
• The loss of wild varieties and the impact on
gene pools
• Food wastage: Includes food thrown away
and food not eaten. Wastage increases the
prices of food to consumers
• Genetically engineered food: gene for
drought resistance could be inserted into a
crop plant

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 1.4 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
• Biodiversity refers to the variety of plant and
animal species on Earth.
• Biodiversity ensures that we have food, fresh
water, medicines and fuel that we obtain from
our environment.
• It also ensures that the climate is regulated,
floods are controlled (wetlands), diseases are
kept in check (predators eat the sick animals)
and water is purified (filtering by wetlands).
• As biodiversity declines, these things do not
occur as they should and the survival of humans
becomes threatened.
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 FACTORS THAT REDUCE OUR BIODIVERSITY
• Habitat destruction through: Farming methods
1) Monoculture:
2) Overgrazing:
3) Golf Estates
4) Mining
5) Urbanisation
6) Deforestation
7) Loss of wetlands and grasslands
8) Poaching
9) Alien plant invasions
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 1.4.2 WAYS IN WHICH OUR BIODIVERSITY CAN
BE MAINTAINED
• Control of alien plant invasions:
• Alien invasive species may be controlled by
mechanical, chemical and biological methods.
Mechanical methods involve chopping down
plants or physically removing them by hand and
is very time consuming. Chemical control
involves spraying herbicides onto the plants; this
can pollute the environment and is expensive.
Biological methods involve introducing a natural
enemy from the alien plant’s environment and
allowing it to reproduce and feed on the invasive
plant.

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• Sustainable use of the environment:
• Sustainable use of the environment means
using resources without harming the ability
of future generations to use that resource.
Substances from indigenous plants such as
the African potato, Hoodia, rooibos and
Devil’s claw all have economic and medicinal
value. These indigenous plants can be used
sustainably by encouraging traditional
healers to grow their own plants and
through improving education of the women
who generally gather the plants in the wild.
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 1.5 SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL
• Solid waste is any solid material that is of no use
to humans and which needs to be disposed of in
a safe and environmentally friendly way.
• Managing dumpsites for rehabilitation and
prevention of soil and water pollution: The
simplest and most cost effective way of
disposing of solid waste is to bury it in landfill
sites. A landfill site is a hole where solid waste is
dumped and then covered by soil. However, this
way of disposing of solid waste contributes to
soil and groundwater pollution, so plastics
shouldbe used.
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 The need for recycling
• Various methods may be used to manage solid
waste, they include the reduction of waste, re-using
waste and recycling of waste.
• • Re-using waste products includes re-using plastic
shopping bags re-using glass and plastic containers
– this helps to reduce the waste produced.
• • Recycling is a process whereby used
materials/waste products are recycled to make new
products, for example plastic, glass, tin and paper.
• The advantage of recycling is that it provides
employment, reduces the use of raw materials and
energy, and reduces air, ground and water pollution
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•Using methane from dumpsites for
domestic use: heating and lighting:
•Methane is a gas produced as a result of
the decomposition of organic waste.
The methane gas can be used as a fuel.
Methane can be collected from landfill
sites and used to generate electricity for
domestic use – heat for cooking and
electricity for lighting.

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 Safe disposal of nuclear
waste
• South Africa also uses radioactive material
such as uranium to power its nuclear power
station at Koeberg in the Western Cape.
Unfortunately, a by-product of using
uranium is nuclear waste that is still
radioactive and therefore dangerous to
living organisms. The nuclear waste is stored
in thick steel drums and buried in trenches
at special protected sites.
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