A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BLENDED CEMENT

CONCRETES AGAINST CHLORIDE, SULPHATE ATTACK AND

WATER ABSORPTION
A Project report submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering for the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree

Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering
Submitted By
M.S.V.V. Ram Durga Prasad (20135A0115)
V.Venkata Manoj (19131A0191)
P.Shyam Kumar (19131A0162)
P.Hasith Bhuvan (19131A0163)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Dr. N. RamaKrishna
Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

GAYATRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING(AUTONOMOUS)
(Affiliated to J.N.T. University, Kakinada)
VISAKHAPATNAM – 530 048
2022-2023

I
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report titled “A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BLENDED CEMENT
CONCRETES AGAINST CHLORIDE, SULPHATE ATTACK AND WATER ABSORPTION”
is bonafide work carried out during academic year 2022-2023 by

M.S.V.V. Ram Durga Prasad (20135A0115)

V.Venkata Manoj (19131A0191)
P.Shyam Kumar (19131A0162)
P.Hasith Bhuvan (19131A0163)

Under the Guidance Dr. N. RamaKrishna, Assistant Professor of Department of Civil Engineering,
Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering (Autonomous), Visakhapatnam in the partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil engineering

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

(Dr. N. RamaKrishna) (Dr. G. PAPA RAO)
Assistant Professor Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
GVPCOE (Autonomous) GVPCOE (Autonomous)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to our esteemed institute Gayatri Vidya
Parishad College of Engineering (Autonomous), which has provided us an opportunity to
fulfil our cherished desire.

We express our deep sense of Gratitude to Prof. Dr. G. PAPA RAO, Head of the Department
of Civil Engineering, Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering for giving us an
opportunity to do the project in college.

We express our sincere thanks to our Principal Prof. Dr. A. B. KOTESWARARAO for his
encouragement to us during the course of this project, giving us a chance to explore and learn
new technologies in the form of mini project.

We express our profound gratitude and our deep indebtedness to our guide Dr. N.
RamaKrishna whose valuable suggestions, guidance and comprehensive assistance helped us
a lot in realizing our present project.

We deeply obliged to our faculty coordinators Mrs. A. CHANDRA KALA, Assistant

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of
Engineering (Autonomous) for keeping us motivated and helping through the headway.

Finally, we would also like to thank all the members of the teaching and non-teaching staff of
the Civil Engineering Department for all their support in completion of our project.

III
 ABSTRACT

Generally ordinary Portland cement is used for major constructions now-a-days. Sometimes
Portland Pozzolana cement(PPC), Portland Slag Cement (PSC) and composite cement (CC)
are also used now-a-days for some other constructions to stabilize the economy and
environmental friendly. The primary goal of this project is to compare durability for different
cements like PPC, PSC, CC with OPC. The concrete cubes of size 100mm x100mm x 100mm
were casted with all the cements and kept in water curing for 28 days. After attaining the
maximum strength, the cubes are immersed in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) for sulphate attack
resistance test and sodium chloride (NaCl) for chloride attack resistance test. And the concrete
cylinder specimens of 100mm diameter and 50mm height were casted with all the cements and
kept for curing for 28 days and tested for water absorption test. Finally, all the cubes are tested
for compressive strength as well as some durability tests are compared in between OPC, PPC,
PSC, CC concrete cubes and final results were obtained.

Durability of concrete specimens in terms of Chloride, Sulphate Attack & Water Absorption is
tested separately over a period of 28, 56 days. The compressive strength test results shows that
Portland Slag cement (PSC) concrete has good resistance to chloride, sulphate Attack & Water
Absorption when compared to all blended cements OPC, PPC, CC.

IV
V
VI
 List of Figures
Figure 1: Sodium Sulphate……………………………………………………………..…..11

Figure 2: Sodium Chloride……………………………………………………………....…11

Figure 3: Normal Consistency……………………………………………………………..13

Figure 4: Mortar Cube Vibrator…………………………………………………………..15

Figure 5: Concrete Mixer…………………………………………………………………..35

Figure 6: Casting of concrete Cubes………………………………………………………35

Figure 7: Curing of Specimens…………………………………………………………….36

Figure 8: Slump Cone Test………………………………………………………………...38

Figure 9: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes……………………………………..39

VII
 List of Tables

Table 1: Physical Properties of Cement…………………………………………………..14

Table 2: Compressive Strength of Cement……………………………………………….15

Table 3: Sieve Analysis of Fine aggregate………………………………………………...16

Table 4: Test Results of Fine Aggregate…………………………………………………..17

Table 5: Test Results of Coarse Aggregate……………………………………………….19

Table 6: Classification of Grades as per IS 456:2000……………………………………20

Table 7: M35 Mix Design Proportion as per IS 10262:2019…………………………….21

Table 8: Slump Test Results……………………………………………………………….38

Table 9: Compressive Strength of Concrete as per IS 10262:2019……………………...39

Table 10: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes After Chloride Attack…………...41

Table 11: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack……………42

Table 12: Weight Reduction of Cement Concrete Cubes after Chloride Attack………43

Table 13: Weight Reduction of Cement Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack………44

Table 14: Water Absorption Test of Cement Concrete Cylinders after Water Curing..45

VIII
 List of charts

Chart 1: Compressive Strength of Concrete Specimen After Chloride Attack…………41

Chart 2: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack……………...42

Chart 3: Weight Reduction of Cement Concrete Cubes after Chloride Attack………...43

Chart 4: Weight Reduction of Cement Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack………...44

Chart 5: Water Absorption Test of Cement Concrete Cylinders after Water Curing…45

IX
 Chapter 1:
INTRODUCTION

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1.1 INTRODUCTION:

In today’s world concrete is most used material in the construction works. On the other hand
concrete is quite expensive and also leads to the release of carbon dioxide in to the atmosphere.
In order to control the various disadvantages of concrete the following research been made.

Most of the industrial waste by-products, such as ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica
fume, fly ash etc.. are being used as replacement of cement in concrete to minimize greenhouse
gases and improve the sustainable construction.

The current practice is intended to use different blended cements and OPC to know its Strength
and Durability properties.

1.2 Cement:

It was introduced by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 at Portland in England. Cement is a mixture of

calcareous materials i.e., lime stone & argillaceous material i.e clay. Grinding of raw materials,
mixing & heating in kiln at 1300 0 to 15000 C are the steps involved in manufacturing of
Portland cement. Depending upon grinding & mixing of materials they are two process i.e wet
process & dry process. 3% to 5% of gypsum is added to cement to prevent flash-setting of the
cement.

1.2.1 Ordinary Portland Cement:

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is a type of cement that is widely used in construction as a
binding material. It is a hydraulic cement that is made by heating a mixture of limestone, clay,
and other minerals in a kiln at high temperatures. OPC is produced in different grades,
depending on the strength requirements of the construction project.

OPC is widely used in various construction applications, including the production of concrete,
mortar, and plaster. It has good compressive strength, durability, and resistance to chemical
attacks, making it suitable for use in structures such as buildings, bridges, roads, and dams.
However, OPC has some environmental concerns, as it requires high temperatures to produce
and generates a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions. As a result, there has been a
growing trend towards the use of alternative types of cement, such as blended cements and
low-carbon cements, to reduce the carbon footprint of the construction industry.

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 1.2.2 Portland Pozzolona Cement:

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is a type of cement that is manufactured by combining

Portland cement clinker, gypsum, and pozzolanic materials. Pozzolanic materials such as fly
ash, volcanic ash, and calcined clay are added to the mixture to enhance the properties of the
cement. PPC is commonly used in the construction of dams, bridges, and other structures that
are exposed to harsh environmental conditions. It is also suitable for use in precast concrete
products and for general construction purposes.Overall, PPC offers several benefits over OPC
in terms of durability, sustainability, and environmental impact, making it a popular choice for
construction projects around the world.

1.2.3 Portland Slag Cement:

Portland Slag Cement(PSC), which is a type of cement that is made by combining Portland
cement clinker, gypsum, and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) in appropriate proportions.
GBFS is a byproduct of the iron and steel industry, and its addition to cement helps to improve
the properties of the cement. PSC has several advantages over ordinary Portland cement (OPC).
One of the main advantages is its higher long-term strength and durability, which makes it
suitable for use in construction projects where the structure needs to last for a long time. PSC
also has a higher resistance to chemical attacks, making it suitable for use in marine and coastal
construction projects.

1.2.4 Composite Cement:

Composite cement is a type of cement that is made by blending two or more different types of
cementitious materials, typically Portland cement and pozzolanic materials such as fly ash,
silica fume, or slag. The combination of these materials results in a cement that has enhanced
properties compared to a single type of cement.

1.3 Hydration of cement:

Hydration of cement is a chemical process that occurs when cement is mixed with water to
form a paste. During this process, the cement particles react with water molecules to form a
hardened mass, which binds together the aggregate particles and creates a strong, durable
material.The chemical reaction that occurs during hydration is known as the hydration of
tricalcium silicate (C3S), which is the primary component of cement. The reaction involves the
dissolution of C3S in water, followed by the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and
calcium hydroxide (CH).

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1.4 Fine Aggregate:

Fine aggregate is a type of building material that is typically composed of sand, crushed stone,
or gravel. It is commonly used in construction projects to create a smooth and even surface for
concrete or asphalt. Fine aggregate is typically less than 4.75mm in size and is used as a filler
between larger coarse aggregates to help create a dense and strong mixture. The properties of
fine aggregate, such as particle size, shape, texture, and cleanliness, can significantly impact
the quality of the finished product. Clean, well-graded sand is typically the preferred choice
for fine aggregate, as it provides good workability and stability to the mixture, while also
reducing the risk of bleeding, segregation, or shrinkage.

1.5 Coarse Aggregate:

Coarse aggregate is a building material that consists of crushed stone, gravel, or recycled
concrete. It is typically used in construction projects to provide bulk and stability to concrete,
asphalt, or other composite materials. Coarse aggregate is usually larger than 4.75mm in size
and is mixed with fine aggregate and cement to create a strong, durable, and load-bearing
material.The properties of coarse aggregate, such as shape, size, texture, and strength, can
significantly impact the quality of the finished product. Well-graded and angular aggregates
are typically preferred as they provide better interlocking and bonding with the cement paste.
Clean, durable, and sound aggregates are also essential to ensure the long-term durability and
resistance to weathering, abrasion, and chemical attack.

1.6 Water:

The amount of water in concrete controls many fresh and hardened properties in concrete
including workability, compressive strengths, permeability and watertightness, durability and
weathering, drying shrinkage and potential for cracking. For these reasons, limiting and
controlling the amount of water in concrete is important for both constructability and service
life. In general, less water produces better concrete. However, concrete needs enough water to
lubricate and provide a workable mixture that can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.

1.7 Durability of Concrete:

The durability of concrete refers to its ability to resist weathering, erosion, chemical attack, and
other forms of degradation over time. The durability of concrete is influenced by many factors,
including the quality of materials, the design and construction practices, the environment, and
the maintenance and repair strategies. The primary factors affecting the durability of concrete
include its water-cement ratio, the quality of aggregates and cement used, the curing process,
-4-
and the exposure conditions. The use of high-quality materials, proper design and construction
practices, effective curing, and regular maintenance and repairs are all important factors that
contribute to the durability of concrete.

1.7.1 Sulphate Attack:

Sulphate attack is a chemical reaction that can occur in concrete when it is exposed to high
levels of sulphates, which can come from sources such as groundwater, soil, or industrial waste.
This reaction can cause significant damage to the concrete over time, leading to cracking,
scaling, and loss of strength.There are two types of sulphate attack: external and internal.
External sulphate attack occurs when sulphates come into contact with the surface of the
concrete, while internal sulphate attack occurs when sulphates are present within the concrete
itself.

External sulphate attack usually occurs in structures exposed to sulphate-rich soil or water,
such as foundations, retaining walls, or underground structures. The sulphates react with the
calcium hydroxide in the concrete to form gypsum, which takes up more space than the original
components of the concrete, causing expansion and cracking.

Internal sulphate attack occurs when the concrete contains a source of sulphate, such as a high-
sulphate-content aggregate or cement. The sulphates react with the hydrated cement paste in
the concrete, causing it to expand and crack.

1.7.2 Chloride Attack:

Chloride attack is a common form of chemical attack that can occur in concrete structures
exposed to chloride ions, which can come from sources such as seawater, de-icing salts, or
contaminated water. This reaction can cause significant damage to the concrete over time,
leading to corrosion of the reinforcing steel and loss of structural integrity. There are two types
of chloride attack: pitting corrosion and uniform corrosion. Pitting corrosion occurs when
localized areas of the reinforcing steel are corroded, leading to the formation of pits or holes.
Uniform corrosion occurs when the entire surface of the reinforcing steel is corroded, leading
to a reduction in its cross-sectional area and loss of strength.

1.7.3 Water Absorption:

Water absorption is the process by which water penetrates into the pores or capillaries of a
material, such as concrete, and is absorbed into its structure. The amount of water that can be
absorbed by a material depends on its porosity, which is the volume of voids or spaces in the

-5-
material. In the case of concrete, water absorption is an important property that affects the
durability and performance of the structure. When water is absorbed into the concrete, it can
cause several problems, such as freeze-thaw damage, corrosion of reinforcing steel, and
chemical reactions that lead to the breakdown of the concrete. To reduce the water absorption
of concrete, several measures can be taken, such as using low-permeability aggregates, using
a lower water-to-cement ratio in the mix, and providing adequate curing and sealing of the
concrete surface. These measures can help improve the durability and performance of the
concrete structure and reduce the risk of water-related damage. water absorption is an important
property of concrete that affects its durability and performance.

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Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

-7-
Y. Sunarno, et al., 2020. (Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 419)

Preliminary study on early compressive strength of foam concrete using Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) and Portland Composite Cement (PCC).

Over view:

 To determine the initial characteristics of foam concrete mixtures by using OPC &
PCC.

 Tests conducted for density and compressive strength.

 When compared to the PCC, the OPC has a higher Compressive Strength.

B Siva Prasad, T Sahithi 2018(International Research Journal of Engineering and

Technology (IRJET)), Vol.5

An Experimental Investigation on Durability Studies of Concrete By Using Different Types of

Cements (OPC, PPC & PSC).

Over view:

 The durability studies of concrete were determined for OPC, PPC and PSC.

 Portland slag cement gave more strength when compare with OPC and PPC for
normal water curing.
 Sea water curing the strength was increased with time upto 60 days later it was decreased for
all three types of cement.
 In acid attack and Sulphate attack test PSC gave more strength compared with OPC and PPC.

Velu Saraswathy, et al., 2017. (Advances in Materials Science and Engineering,Vol.

2017)

Comparative Study of Strength and Corrosion Resistant Properties of Plain and Blended
Cement Concrete Types.

-8-
Over view:

 The compressive strength from 28 days to 90 days was found to be similar in M30
grade and M40 grade concrete types. Comparable compressive strength values were
obtained for PPC and PSC concrete types when compared with OPC concrete.
 Better corrosion resistant properties were observed for PSC concrete by showing a minimum
current flow, lowest free chloride contents, and lesser porosity.
 The effective porosity and coefficient of water absorption in the decreasing order as follows:
OPC > PPC > PSC.

Krisnamurti , A Soehardjono , A Zacoeb and A Wibowo 2017 (Journal of physics:

Conference series)

Development of Mix Design Method in Efforts to Increase Concrete Performance Using

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC).

Over view:
 This study aims to develop a concrete mix design method using PPC to fulfil the criteria of
HPC.
 It is concluded that the method of mix design that has been developed can simplify the process
of planning a mixture of concrete, which using Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) to achieve
the certain desired performance of concrete.

Summary:
 Most of the studies are done using Ordinary & Blended Cements.
 Using Ternary cement no studies are identified.
 Study and compare the Ordinary Cement, Blended Cement & Ternary cement which was
manufactured from the same unit.

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Chapter 3: WORKING METHODOLOGY

- 10 -
3.1 Collection of Materials:
3.1.1 Cement:

Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC), Portland Pozzolona Cement(PPC), Pozzolona Slag

cement(PSC), Composite Cement(CC) are used in this experimental purpose.

3.1.2 Coarse and Fine Aggregate:

Zone II River sand is used for this experimental purpose. 20mm size coarse aggregates are
used. The fine and coarse aggregate are brought from the local market.

3.1.3 Chemicals:

Sodium Chloride & Sodium Sulphate

These chemicals are brought from the coastal chemicals, Visakhapatnam

Figure 1: Sodium Sulphate Figure 2: Sodium Chloride

3.2 Tests on Cement:

For laboratory tests Special apparatus are necessary. Following are the laboratory tests
conducted in lab:

 Fineness test

 Normal Consistency Test

 Specific Gravity
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  Setting time of Cement

o Initial setting time

o Final setting time

 Compressive Strength

3.2.1 Fineness of cement:

The fineness of cement refers to the particle size distribution of the cement particles in the
cement powder. A finer cement will have more particles and a higher surface area, which can
affect the cement's setting time, strength, and other properties. The fineness of cement is
typically measured using the Blaine air permeability method or the sieve analysis method. In
the Blaine method, the air permeability of the cement is measured, and the specific surface area
of the cement is calculated based on the permeability. In the sieve analysis method, the cement
powder is passed through a series of sieves with varying mesh sizes, and the amount of cement
retained on each sieve is measured.

The fineness of cement is important because it affects the rate of hydration and the strength
development of the concrete. A finer cement will have a higher early strength, but may also
lead to faster setting times and a higher heat of hydration, which can cause cracking or other
issues. On the other hand, a coarser cement may have a slower strength development but can
provide better workability and reduce the risk of cracking. The appropriate fineness of cement
depends on the specific application and mix design.

3.2.2 Normal Consistency test:

The consistency test is performed to determine the amount of water required to produce a
cement paste of standard consistency. The standard consistency of the cement paste is defined
as the percentage of water, by weight of dry cement, required to produce a cement paste that
has a certain degree of consistency. The test involves preparing a cement paste by mixing a
specified amount of cement with a fixed quantity of water using a standard method of mixing.
The paste is then placed in a standard mould and a plunger of standard dimensions is attached
to the top of the mould. The plunger is then lowered onto the surface of the paste and the depth
of penetration is measured.

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The test is repeated with different amounts of water until the plunger penetrates the paste to a
specific depth that corresponds to the standard consistency. The percentage of water required
to achieve the standard consistency is then calculated. The consistency of cement paste is an
important property because it affects the workability and setting time of concrete. A paste that
is too stiff will be difficult to work with, while a paste that is too fluid may result in segregation
and bleeding of concrete. The appropriate consistency of cement paste depends on the specific
application and mix design.

Figure 3: Normal Consistency

3.2.3 Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of cement refers to the ratio of the mass of a given volume of cement to
the mass of an equal volume of water at a standard temperature. The specific gravity of cement
is typically determined by the pycnometer method or the Le Chatelier flask method. In the
pycnometer method, a known mass of dry cement is added to a pycnometer, which is then filled
with water up to a known mark. The pycnometer is then weighed, and the specific gravity of
the cement is calculated based on the mass of the pycnometer, cement, and water. In the Le
Chatelier flask method, a known mass of dry cement is mixed with a fixed volume of water to
form a paste, which is then poured into a Le Chatelier flask. The flask is then filled with water
up to a fixed mark, and the volume of the water displaced by the cement paste is measured.

The specific gravity of the cement is then calculated based on the mass of the cement and the
volume of water displaced. The specific gravity of cement is an important property because it
is used to calculate the quantities of cement required in a concrete mix. The specific gravity of
ordinary Portland cement typically ranges between 3.10 to 3.16, which means that a given
volume of cement weighs between 3.1 to 3.16 times the weight of an equal volume of water.

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 3.2.4 Setting time of Cement:

The setting time of cement refers to the time it takes for the cement paste to harden and develop
sufficient strength to resist certain forces. The setting time of cement is important to ensure
that it can be used properly for construction purposes. There are two main types of setting time
for cement: initial setting time and final setting time.

Initial setting time is the time elapsed between the addition of water to the cement and the point
at which the paste starts losing its plasticity and becomes hard enough to resist certain forces.
The standard initial setting time for ordinary Portland cement is 30 minutes.

Final setting time, on the other hand, is the time elapsed between the addition of water to the
cement and the point at which the paste becomes hard enough to resist certain forces and is no
longer workable. The standard final setting time for ordinary Portland cement is 600 minutes
or 10 hours. The Setting time of cement can be affected by several factors, such as the fineness
of the cement, the water-cement ratio, the temperature, and the presence of chemical additives.
Cement with a finer particle size tends to have a shorter setting time, while higher water-cement
ratios can lead to longer setting times. In construction, it is important to monitor and control
the setting time of cement to ensure that it can be used effectively and safely. For example, if
the setting time is too short, the cement may not be able to develop sufficient strength before
it is exposed to certain forces, while if the setting time is too long, it may become difficult to
work with and cause delays in construction.
Table 1: Physical Properties of Cement

Properties of OPC PPC PSC CC

Cement

Fineness of Cement 8% 5% 7% 4%

Normal Consistency 34% 32% 33% 32%

Specific Gravity 3.12 2.42 2.37 2.25

Initial Setting Time 40 min 58 min 91 min 93 min

(minutes)

Final Setting Time 208 280 223 250

(minutes)

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 3.2.5 Compressive Strength:

Mortar is a combination of cement, sand & water. It is mainly used for masonry works. Most
commonly used mix ratios of mortar are 1:3, 1:4 and 1:6 of cement to sand ratio. Standard size
of 7.06 cm is selected to find the compressive strength of mortar cubes. Take 200 grams of
fresh cement & 600 grams of sand (200 grams of each grade i.e., grade 1,2 &3) & sand should
be free from silt. First the cement & sand are mixed well thoroughly. As per standard
consistency, the water is added. The mixing shall not exceed 4 minutes. After mixing, the
mortar is poured into the cubes. Then the cubes is placed in vibrator for 2 minutes. After 24
hours the cubes are de-moulded & immersed in water for curing purpose.7 days & 28 days
compressive strength results are calculated.
Table 2: Compressive Strength of Cement

Number Compressive Strength of Cement (N/mm2 )

of Days PSC
OPC PPC CC
(33
(53 Grade) (33 Grade) (33 Grade)
Grade)
3 27.148 16.3 16.38 16.38
7 37.17 22.4 23.07 24.07
28 53.6 33.05 34.58 34.16

Figure 4: Mortar Cube Vibrator

3.3 Tests on Fine Aggregate:

3.3.1 Fineness Modulus:

The term "fines" in the context of fine aggregates refers to the materials that pass through a
particular sieve size during the grading process. Fineness modulus, also known as fineness
factors or fineness ratios, are used to measure the proportion of fine aggregate particles that
fall within certain size ranges. The fineness modulus of a fine aggregate is the sum of the
cumulative percentages retained on the sieves of the standard test sieves used to grade the
- 15 -
aggregate. The fineness modulus is an important parameter in determining the proportion of
fine aggregate required in a concrete mix, as it helps to ensure that the mix is workable and has
the desired strength and durability properties. The fineness modulus is calculated by dividing
the sum of the cumulative percentages retained on the standard sieves by 100. The resulting
number is then rounded up or down to the nearest 0.1. Different types of fine aggregates may
have different fineness modules, depending on their particle size distributions. For example,
sand with a high fineness modulus may have more fine particles and less coarse particles than
sand with a lower fineness modulus. Fineness modules are a way of measuring the particle size
distribution of fine aggregate, which is important in determining the workability and strength
of concrete mixes.
Table 3: Sieve Analysis of Fine aggregate

Sieve Size Retained Agg. % Retained Agg. % % Passing

inch mm (g) Retained( g ) (g) Retained ( % ) (%)

3/8" 9.5 0 0 0.00 0.00 100.00

#4 4.75 0 0 0.00 0.00 100.00

#8 2.36 8 8 1.60 1.60 98.40

# 16 1.18 37 45 7.40 9.00 91.00

# 30 0.60 250 295 50.00 59.00 41.00

# 50 0.30 140 435 28.00 87.00 13.00

# 100 0.150 65 500 13.00 100.00 0.00

# 200 0.075 0 500 0.00 100.00 0.00

Pan 0 500 0.00 100.00 0

Total 500 100.00

3.3.2 Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of a fine aggregate is a measure of its density in relation to the density of
water. It is an important parameter used in designing concrete mixes, as it helps to ensure that
the mix has the desired workability and strength properties. The specific gravity of fine
aggregate is typically determined using the pycnometer or water-displacement method. In the
pycnometer method, a sample of the fine aggregate is placed in a small container and weighed.
The container is then filled with water and weighed again. The specific gravity of the fine
aggregate is calculated by dividing the weight of the dry sample by the weight of the water
- 16 -
displaced by the sample. In the water-displacement method, a known volume of water is poured
into a container, and the weight of the container and water is measured. A sample of the fine
aggregate is then added to the container, and the weight of the container, water, and aggregate
is measured. The specific gravity of the fine aggregate is calculated by dividing the weight of
the dry sample by the weight of the water displaced by the sample. The specific gravity of fine
aggregate can range from 2.5 to 3.0, depending on the type of aggregate and its mineral
composition. A higher specific gravity generally indicates that the aggregate is denser and may
have a higher strength, but it can also lead to a higher mix cost. The specific gravity of fine
aggregate is an important parameter in designing concrete mixes to ensure the desired
workability, strength, and durability properties are achieved.

3.3.3 Water Absorption:

The water absorption of a fine aggregate is a measure of the amount of water that the aggregate
can absorb, and is an important parameter in designing concrete mixes. The water absorption
of the fine aggregate can affect the workability, strength, and durability of the concrete mix.
Water absorption is typically determined by soaking a sample of the fine aggregate in water
for a specified period of time, then weighing the sample before and after the soaking. The
difference in weight is then divided by the weight of the dry sample, and the result is expressed
as a percentage. A low water absorption percentage indicates that the fine aggregate is
relatively impermeable, which can lead to better workability and higher strength in the concrete
mix. Conversely, a high water absorption percentage can indicate that the fine aggregate may
be more porous and may require more water in the concrete mix to achieve the desired
workability, which can negatively impact the strength and durability of the concrete.

It is important to note that the water absorption of fine aggregate can vary depending on factors
such as the type of aggregate, its mineral composition, and the shape and texture of its particles.
Therefore, it is important to test the water absorption of each type of fine aggregate that will
be used in a concrete mix to ensure that the desired properties are achieved.
Table 4: Test Results of Fine Aggregate

PROPERTIESTIES RESULTS AS PER IS CODE

PROVISIONS
Specific gravity 2.77 IS 383-1970
Sieve Analysis Zone-II IS 383-1970
Water Absorption 1.23 IS 383-1970

- 17 -
3.4 Tests on Coarse Aggregate:
3.4.1 Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of coarse aggregate is a measure of its density in relation to the density of
water. It is an important parameter used in designing concrete mixes, as it helps to ensure that
the mix has the desired workability and strength properties. The specific gravity of coarse
aggregate is typically determined using the pycnometer or water-displacement method. In the
pycnometer method, a sample of the coarse aggregate is placed in a small container and
weighed. The container is then filled with water and weighed again. The specific gravity of the
coarse aggregate is calculated by dividing the weight of the dry sample by the weight of the
water displaced by the sample. In the water-displacement method, a known volume of water is
poured into a container, and the weight of the container and water is measured. A sample of
the coarse aggregate is then added to the container, and the weight of the container, water, and
aggregate is measured. The specific gravity of the coarse aggregate is calculated by dividing
the weight of the dry sample by the weight of the water displaced by the sample. The specific
gravity of coarse aggregate can range from 2.5 to 3.0, depending on the type of aggregate and
its mineral composition. A higher specific gravity generally indicates that the aggregate is
denser and may have a higher strength, but it can also lead to a higher mix cost. The specific
gravity of coarse aggregate is an important parameter in designing concrete mixes to ensure
the desired workability, strength, and durability properties are achieved.

3.4.2 Water Absorption:

The water absorption of coarse aggregate is the measure of the amount of water that the
aggregate can absorb, and it is an important factor in the design of concrete mixes. The water
absorption of coarse aggregate can affect the workability, strength, and durability of the
concrete mix. Water absorption is determined by soaking a sample of the coarse aggregate in
water for a specified period of time, then weighing the sample before and after soaking. The
difference in weight is then divided by the weight of the dry sample, and the result is expressed
as a percentage. A low water absorption percentage indicates that the coarse aggregate is
relatively impermeable, which can lead to better workability and higher strength in the concrete
mix. Conversely, a high water absorption percentage can indicate that the coarse aggregate
may be more porous and may require more water in the concrete mix to achieve the desired
workability, which can negatively impact the strength and durability of the concrete. It is
important to note that the water absorption of coarse aggregate can vary depending on factors
such as the type of aggregate, its mineral composition, and the shape and texture of its particles.

- 18 -
 Therefore, it is important to test the water absorption of each type of coarse aggregate that will
be used in a concrete mix to ensure that the desired properties are achieved.
Table 5: Test Results of Coarse Aggregate

PROPERTIESTIES RESULTS AS PER IS CODE

PROVISIONS
Specific gravity 2.75 (20mm Aggregate) IS 383-1970
2.77 (10mm Aggregate)
Water Absorption 0.45% IS 383-1970
0.60%

3.5 Amount of Chemical Required:

3.5.1 Sodium Chloride:

The amount of Sodium Chloride required for curing are calculated from the following formula:

Moles of solute Weight

Molarity= Liters of solution Moles of solute = Molecular Weight

For 1 litre 14.25 grams of NaCl is required to maintain 0.25 M

Similarly, 43.87 grams of NaCl is required to maintain 0.75 M

3.5.2 Sodium sulphate:

Sulphate solutions of 4% and 6% were selected for this investigation purpose.

For 1 litre, 40 grams of Na2SO4 is required to maintain 4%.

Similarly, 60 grams Na2SO4 of is required to maintain 6%.

3.6 Grade of concrete:

It is defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete & determining their
relative quantities with the purpose of producing an economical concrete which has certain
minimum properties, workability, strength & durability. The grade of concrete has two
components, namely a letter ‘M’ & whole number. ‘M’ stands for mix & whole number stands
for characteristic compressive strength.

- 19 -
 Table 6: Classification of Grades as per IS 456:2000

Classification Designation of grade

Ordinary M10, M15 & M20

concrete

Standard M25, M30, M35, M40, M45, M50 &

concrete M55
High strength M60, M65, M75 & M80
concrete

3.6.1 Methods of Mix Proportioning:

There are two methods of mix proportioning namely nominal mix & design mix. The nominal
mix proportion is only used for the grades less than or equal to M20. For Grades more than
M20 Design Mix Should be adopted as per the strength requirements.

Factors Influencing Mix Design:

Following are the factors influencing mix design

 Water-cement ratio
 Standard deviation
 Type of aggregates
 Size of aggregates
 Water absorption & moisture content
 Specific gravity of cement & aggregates
 Exposure conditions
 Type of admixture
 Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days

3.6.2 Steps involved in concrete mix design as per IS: 10262:2009

 Selecting the grade of concrete

 Calculating the target strength

 Selection of water-cement ratio

 Selection of water content

- 20 -
  Calculation of cement content

 Selection of admixture dosage & calculation of admixture content

 Calculation of coarse aggregate content

 Calculation of fine aggregate content

3.6.3 Trial mix Design:

The calculated mix proportions should be checked by making trial mixes. The trial mix should
be tested for workability, cohesiveness and finishing properties.

Table 7: M35 Mix Design Proportion as per IS 10262:2019

Mix proportions (M-35)

Water Fine Coarse
Cement Cement W/C
content Aggregate Aggregate
kg/m3 Ratio
(lit) kg/m3 kg/m3
OPC 175 370 695 1198 0.47
PPC 175 380 656 1131 0.46
PSC 175 380 672 1167 0.46
CC 175 395 621 1177 0.44

MIX DESIGN as per (10262:2019)

A-1 Stipulations for Proportioning

1 Grade Designation = M35

2 Type of Cement = OPC 53 grade

3 Maximum Nominal Aggregate Size = 20 mm

4 Minimum Cement Content =340 kg/m3

5 Maximum Water Cement Ratio = 0.5

6 Workability (IS 10262-2019, Table 2) = 80-100mm (Slump)

7 Exposure Condition = Very Severe

- 21 -
 8 Degree of Supervision = Good

= Crushed Angular
9 Type of Aggregate
Aggregate
Maximum Cement (IS 456-2000,
10 = 450 kg/m3
Cl.8.2.4.2)

A-2 Test Data for Materials

1 Cement Used = OPC 53 grade

2 Sp. Gravity of Cement = 3.12

3 Sp. Gravity of 20 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.76

4 Sp. Gravity of 10 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.75

5 Sp. Gravity of Fine Aggregate = 2.66

6 Sp. Gravity of Water = 1.00

Water Absorption of 20 mm Coarse

7 = 0.40%
Aggregate
Water Absorption of 10 mm Coarse
8 = 0.65%
Aggregate

9 Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate = 1.23%

A-3 Target Strength for Mix Proportioning

f1ck = fck + 1.65(s)

1 Target Mean Strength (IS 10262-2019) = 35 + 1.65(5)
= 43.25 N/mm2
2 Characteristic Strength @ 28 days = 35 MPa
A-4 Selection of Water Cement Ratio
Maximum Water Cement Ratio (IS 456-
1 = 0.50
2000,Table 5)

2 Adopted Water Cement Ratio = 0.47

A-5 Selection of Water Content

- 22 -
 Maximum Water content (IS 10262-2019,
1 = 186 lit
Table2), kg
Estimated Water content for 100 mm = 186 + ((6/100) *186)
2
Slump, kg = 197.16 lit
3 Based on trails, Adopt water content = 175 lit

Calculation of Cement Content

A-6

1 Water Cement Ratio = 0.47

= (175/0.47)
2 Cement Content
= 370kg/m3

Proportion of Volume of Coarse Aggregate & Fine Aggregate

A-7
Content

1 Vol. of C.A. (IS 10262-2019, Table-3) = 0.62

2 Adopted Vol. of Coarse Aggregate = 0.625

= 1 – 0.625
3 Adopted Vol. of Fine Aggregate
= 0.375

A-8 Mix Calculations

1 Volume of Concrete in m3 =1
Volume of Cement in m3
= (370/3.12) *(1/1000)
2 (Mass of Cement) / (Sp. Gravity of Cement)
= 0.118 m3
x 1000
Volume of Water in m3
= (175/1) *(1/1000)
3 (Mass of Water) / (Sp. Gravity of Water) x
= 0.175 m3
1000
Volume of All in Aggregate in m3 = ((1-0.01)-(0.118 + 0.175))
4
Sr. no. 1 – (Sr. no. 2+3+4+5) = 0.697 m3

= (0.697*0.625* 2.75*1000)
5 Volume of Coarse Aggregate in m3
= 1198 kg

- 23 -
 =(0.697*0.375* 2.66*1000)
6 Volume of Fine Aggregate in m3
= 695 kg

A-9 Mix Proportions for One Cum of Concrete (SSD Condition)

1 Mass of Cement in kg/m3 = 370 kg

2 Mass of Water in kg/m3 = 175 lit

3 Mass of Fine Aggregate in kg/m3 = 695 kg

4 Mass of Coarse Aggregate in kg/m3 = 1198 kg

5 Mass of 20 mm in kg/m3 - 70 % = 839 kg

6 Mass of 10 mm in kg/m3 - 30 % = 359 kg

7 Water Cement Ratio = 0.47

Concrete mix design calculation is done as per IS 10262:2019 for M35 grade of concrete:

Water Content Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

175 lit 370 kg/m3 695 kg/m3 1198 kg/m3

0.47 1 1.87 3.23

PPC

A-1 Stipulations for Proportioning

1 Grade Designation = M35

2 Type of Cement = PPC

3 Maximum Nominal Aggregate Size = 20 mm

4 Minimum Cement Content =340 kg/m3

5 Maximum Water Cement Ratio = 0.45

- 24 -
 6 Workability (IS 10262-2019, Table 2) = 80-100mm (Slump)

7 Exposure Condition = Very Severe

8 Degree of Supervision = Good

9 Type of Aggregate = Crushed Angular

Aggregate

10 Maximum Cement (IS 456-2000, = 450 kg/m3

Cl.8.2.4.2)
A-2 Test Data for Materials

1 Cement Used = PPC

2 Sp. Gravity of Cement = 2.42

3 Sp. Gravity of 20 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.76

4 Sp. Gravity of 10 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.75

5 Sp. Gravity of Fine Aggregate = 2.66

6 Sp. Gravity of Water = 1.00

7 Water Absorption of 20 mm Coarse = 0.40%

Aggregate
8 Water Absorption of 10 mm Coarse = 0.65%
Aggregate
9 Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate = 1.23%

A-3 Target Strength for Mix Proportioning

1 Target Mean Strength (IS 10262-2019) f1ck = fck + 1.65(s)
= 35 + 1.65(5)
= 43.25 N/mm2
2 Characteristic Strength @ 28 days = 35 MPa

A-4 Selection of Water Cement Ratio

1 Maximum Water Cement Ratio (IS 456- = 0.50

2000,Table 5)

- 25 -
 2 Adopted Water Cement Ratio = 0.47

A-5 Selection of Water Content

1 Maximum Water content (IS 10262-2019, = 186 lit

Table2), kg
2 Estimated Water content for 100 mm = 186 + ((6/100) *186)
Slump, kg = 197.16 lit

3 Based on trails, Adopt water content = 175 lit

A-6 Calculation of Cement Content

1 Water Cement Ratio = 0.46

2 Cement Content = (175/0.46)

= 380kg/m3

A-7 Proportion of Volume of Coarse Aggregate & Fine Aggregate

Content
1 Vol. of C.A. (IS 10262-2019, Table-3) = 0.62

2 Adopted Vol. of Course Aggregate = 0.625

3 Adopted Vol. of Fine Aggregate = 1 – 0.625 = 0.375

A-8 Mix Calculations

1 Volume of Concrete in m3 =1
2 Volume of Cement in m3 = (380/2.42) *(1/1000)
(Mass of Cement) / (Sp. Gravity of = 0.157 m3
Cement) x 1000
3 Volume of Water in m3 = (175/1) *(1/1000)
(Mass of Water) / (Sp. Gravity of Water) = 0.175 m3
x 1000
4 Volume of All in Aggregate in m3 = ((1-0.01)-(0.157+0.175))
Sr. no. 1 – (Sr. no. 2+3+4+5) = 0.658 m3
5 Volume of Coarse Aggregate in m3 = (0.658*0.625* 2.75*1000)
= 1131 kg

- 26 -
 6 Volume of Fine Aggregate in m3 =(0.658*0.375*2.66*1000)
= 656 kg

A-9 Mix Proportions for One Cum of Concrete (SSD Condition)

1 Mass of Cement in kg/m3 = 380 kg

2 Mass of Water in kg/m3 = 175 lit

3 Mass of Fine Aggregate in kg/m3 = 656 kg

4 Mass of Coarse Aggregate in kg/m3 = 1131kg

5 Mass of 20 mm in kg/m3 - 70 % = 792 kg

6 Mass of 10 mm in kg/m3 - 30 % = 339 kg

7 Water Cement Ratio = 0.46

Concrete mix design calculation is done as per IS 10262:2019 for M35 grade of concrete:

Water Content Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

175 lit 380 kg/m3 656 kg/m3 1131 kg/m3

0.46 1 1.72 2.97

PSC

A-1 Stipulations for Proportioning

1 Grade Designation = M35

2 Type of Cement = PSC

3 Maximum Nominal Aggregate Size = 20 mm

4 Minimum Cement Content =340 kg/m3

5 Maximum Water Cement Ratio = 0.45

6 Workability (IS 10262-2019, Table 2) = 80-100mm (Slump)

- 27 -
 7 Exposure Condition = Very Severe

8 Degree of Supervision = Good

= Crushed Angular
9 Type of Aggregate
Aggregate

Maximum Cement (IS 456-2000,

10 = 450 kg/m3
Cl.8.2.4.2)

A-2 Test Data for Materials

1 Cement Used = PSC

2 Sp. Gravity of Cement = 2.69

3 Sp. Gravity of 20 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.76

4 Sp. Gravity of 10 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.75

5 Sp. Gravity of Fine Aggregate = 2.66

6 Sp. Gravity of Water = 1.00

Water Absorption of 20 mm Coarse

7 = 0.40%
Aggregate
Water Absorption of 10 mm Coarse
8 = 0.65%
Aggregate

9 Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate = 1.23%

A-3 Target Strength for Mix Proportioning

f1ck = fck + 1.65(s)

1 Target Mean Strength (IS 10262-2019) = 35 + 1.65(5)
= 43.25 N/mm2

2 Characteristic Strength @ 28 days = 35 MPa

A-4 Selection of Water Cement Ratio

Maximum Water Cement Ratio (IS 456-

1 = 0.50
2000,Table 5)

- 28 -
 2 Adopted Water Cement Ratio = 0.47

A-5 Selection of Water Content

Maximum Water content (IS 10262-2019,

1 = 186 lit
Table2), kg
Estimated Water content for 100 mm = 186 + ((6/100) *186)
2
Slump, kg = 197.16 lit

3 Based on trails, Adopt water content = 175 lit

A-6 Calculation of Cement Content

1 Water Cement Ratio = 0.46

= (175/0.46)
2 Cement Content
= 380kg/m3
Proportion of Volume of Coarse Aggregate & Fine Aggregate
A-7
Content

1 Vol. of C.A. (IS 10262-2019, Table-3) = 0.62

2 Adopted Vol. of Course Aggregate = 0.625

3 Adopted Vol. of Fine Aggregate = 1 – 0.625 = 0.375

A-8 Mix Calculations

1 Volume of Concrete in m3 =1

Volume of Cement in m3
= (380/2.69) *(1/1000)
2 (Mass of Cement) / (Sp. Gravity of
= 0.141 m3
Cement) x 1000
Volume of Water in m3
= (175/1) *(1/1000)
3 (Mass of Water) / (Sp. Gravity of Water) x
= 0.175 m3
1000
= ((1-0.01)-(0.141 +
Volume of All in Aggregate in m3
4 0.175))
Sr. no. 1 – (Sr. no. 2+3+4+5)
= 0.674 m3

- 29 -
 = (0.674*0.625* 2.75*1000)
5 Volume of Coarse Aggregate in m3
= 1167 kg
=(0.674*0.375* 2.66*1000)
6 Volume of Fine Aggregate in m3
= 672 kg

A-9 Mix Proportions for One Cum of Concrete (SSD Condition)

1 Mass of Cement in kg/m3 = 380 kg

2 Mass of Water in kg/m3 = 175 lit

3 Mass of Fine Aggregate in kg/m3 = 672 kg

4 Mass of Coarse Aggregate in kg/m3 = 1167kg

5 Mass of 20 mm in kg/m3 - 70 % = 817 kg

6 Mass of 10 mm in kg/m3 - 30 % = 350 kg

7 Water Cement Ratio = 0.46

Concrete mix design calculation is done as per IS 10262:2019 for M35 grade of concrete:

Water Content Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

175 lit 380 kg/m3 672 kg/m3 1167 kg/m3

0.46 1 1.76 3.07

Composite Cement

A-1 Stipulations for Proportioning

1 Grade Designation = M35

2 Type of Cement = Composite Cement

3 Maximum Nominal Aggregate Size = 20 mm

4 Minimum Cement Content =340 kg/m3

- 30 -
 5 Maximum Water Cement Ratio = 0.45

6 Workability (IS 10262-2019, Table 2) = 80-100mm (Slump)

7 Exposure Condition = Very Severe

8 Degree of Supervision = Good

9 Type of Aggregate = Crushed Angular

Aggregate

10 Maximum Cement (IS 456-2000, = 450 kg/m3

Cl.8.2.4.2)

A-2 Test Data for Materials

1 Cement Used = Composite Cement

2 Sp. Gravity of Cement = 2.25

3 Sp. Gravity of 20 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.76

4 Sp. Gravity of 10 mm Coarse Aggregate = 2.75

5 Sp. Gravity of Fine Aggregate = 2.66

6 Sp. Gravity of Water = 1.00

7 Water Absorption of 20 mm Coarse = 0.40%

Aggregate
8 Water Absorption of 10 mm Coarse = 0.65%
Aggregate
9 Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate = 1.23%

A-3 Target Strength for Mix Proportioning

1 Target Mean Strength (IS 10262-2019) f1ck = fck + 1.65(s)
= 35 + 1.65(5)
= 43.25 N/mm2
2 Characteristic Strength @ 28 days = 35 MPa

A-4 Selection of Water Cement Ratio

- 31 -
 1 Maximum Water Cement Ratio (IS 456- = 0.50
2000,Table 5)

2 Adopted Water Cement Ratio = 0.44

A-5 Selection of Water Content

1 Maximum Water content (IS 10262-2019, = 186 lit

Table2), kg
2 Estimated Water content for 100 mm = 186 + ((6/100) *186)
Slump, kg = 197.16 lit
3 Based on trails, Adopt water content = 175 lit

A-6 Calculation of Cement Content

1 Water Cement Ratio = 0.44

2 Cement Content = (175/0.44)

= 395kg/m3
A-7 Proportion of Volume of Coarse Aggregate & Fine Aggregate
Content
1 Vol. of C.A. (IS 10262-2019, Table-3) = 0.62

2 Adopted Vol. of Course Aggregate = 0.635

3 Adopted Vol. of Fine Aggregate = 1 – 0.635 = 0.365

A-8 Mix Calculations

1 Volume of Concrete in m3 =1
2 Volume of Cement in m3 = (395/2.25) *(1/1000)
(Mass of Cement) / (Sp. Gravity of = 0.175 m3
Cement) x 1000
3 Volume of Water in m3 = (175/1) *(1/1000)
(Mass of Water) / (Sp. Gravity of Water) x = 0.175 m3
1000
4 Volume of All in Aggregate in m3 = ((1-0.01)-(0.175 +
Sr. no. 1 – (Sr. no. 2+3+4+5) 0.175))
= 0.64 m3

- 32 -
 5 Volume of Coarse Aggregate in m3 = (0.64*0.635*2.75*1000)
= 1177 kg

6 Volume of Fine Aggregate in m3 =(0.64*0.365*2.66*1000)

= 621 kg
A-9 Mix Proportions for One Cum of Concrete (SSD Condition)

1 Mass of Cement in kg/m3 = 395 kg

2 Mass of Water in kg/m3 = 175 lit

3 Mass of Fine Aggregate in kg/m3 = 621 kg

4 Mass of Coarse Aggregate in kg/m3 = 1177kg

5 Mass of 20 mm in kg/m3 - 70 % = 824 kg

6 Mass of 10 mm in kg/m3 - 30 % = 353 kg

7 Water Cement Ratio = 0.44

Concrete mix design calculation is done as per IS 10262:2019 for M35 grade of concrete:

Water Content Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

175 lit 395 kg/m3 621 kg/m3 1177 kg/m3

0.44 1 1.63 2.98

- 33 -
3.7 Batching and Mixing of Concrete:

Batching and mixing are critical processes in the production of concrete. Batching refers to the
process of measuring and combining the components of concrete, such as cement, aggregates,
and water, while mixing involves the blending of these components to create a homogenous
mixture.

Batching: The components of concrete are typically measured by weight or volume using
specialized equipment, such as scales or meters. The desired proportions of each component
are determined based on the desired strength and other properties of the concrete. The
components are typically stored in separate bins or silos, and are released into the mixer in the
correct proportions through a system of conveyors or pumps. Once the components have been
added to the mixer, they are blended together until a homogenous mixture is achieved.

Mixing: The mixer is a specialized machine designed to blend the components of concrete into
a homogenous mixture. There are several types of mixers available, including batch mixers and
continuous mixers. The mixing process typically involves adding the components of concrete
to the mixer in a specific order, starting with the water, followed by the cement and aggregates.
The mixer should be operated for a sufficient amount of time to ensure that all of the
components are thoroughly blended. During the mixing process, it may be necessary to adjust
the amount of water or other components to achieve the desired consistency and workability
of the concrete. Once the mixing process is complete, the concrete should be immediately
transported to the construction site or poured into moulds for curing.

In conclusion, the batching and mixing processes are critical steps in the production of high-
quality concrete. Proper batching and mixing ensure that the concrete has the desired strength
and consistency, and can perform as expected in the construction project. It is important to
follow industry standards and best practices to ensure accurate measurement, thorough
blending, and proper handling of the concrete components.

3.7.1 Casting of Specimens:

Casting of concrete specimens is the process of making samples of concrete in order to test its
compressive strength, durability, and other properties. The process involves the following
steps:

Preparation of the mould: The mould for the specimen should be clean and free from any
debris or previous residue. The mould should be coated with a thin layer of oil or release agent
- 34 -
to facilitate the easy removal of the specimen.

Mixing the concrete: The concrete mixture should be prepared according to the desired
specifications, such as the water-to-cement ratio and the strength requirement. The concrete
should be mixed thoroughly until it is homogeneous and free from any lumps.

Filling the mould: The concrete should be poured into the mould in layers, compacting each
layer by tamping or vibration to ensure the removal of any air pockets. The mould should be
filled to slightly more than its height to account for any settlement during the curing process.

Curing the specimen: After the concrete has been poured, it should be covered with a plastic
sheet or wet burlap to prevent moisture loss and promote proper hydration. The specimen
should be cured for a period of time depending on the desired strength, typically 28 days.

Removing the mould: Once the curing period is complete, the mould should be carefully
removed from the specimen by gently tapping it or using a releasing agent. The specimen
should then be marked with a unique identifier and stored in a curing tank until it is ready for
testing.

Casting of concrete specimens is a critical process in testing the quality and properties of
concrete, and it should be carried out with care and attention to detail to ensure accurate and
reliable test results.

Figure 5: Concrete Mixer Figure 6: Casting of concrete

Cubes

- 35 -
 3.7.2 Curing of Specimens:

Curing of concrete specimens is the process of maintaining adequate moisture content and
temperature to promote proper hydration and strength development in the concrete. The curing
process involves the following steps:

Initial curing: Immediately after casting, the concrete should be covered with a plastic sheet
or wet burlap to prevent moisture loss and promote proper hydration. The concrete should be
kept moist and at a temperature between 50-80°F (10-27°C) for at least 24 hours.

Continued curing: After the initial curing period, the concrete should be kept moist and at a
temperature between 50-80°F (10-27°C) for a period of time depending on the desired strength,
typically 28 days.

Curing methods: There are various methods for curing concrete, including wet curing,
membrane curing, and steam curing. Wet curing involves keeping the concrete wet by
periodically spraying it with water or keeping it submerged in water. Membrane curing
involves covering the concrete with a membrane to prevent moisture loss. Steam curing
involves heating the concrete to accelerate the curing process.

Testing: After the curing period is complete, the concrete specimen should be tested to
determine its strength and other properties. The testing process involves compressing the
specimen using a testing machine and recording the maximum load it can withstand Top of
Form.

The specimens of 100mm x100mm x 100mm size of cubes for durability studies and the
cylinder specimens of 100mm diameter and 50mm height for Water Absorption.

Figure 7: Curing of Specimens

- 36 -
Chapter 4: TESTS ON CONCRETE

- 37 -
3.8 Workability of Concrete:

Workability is the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full compaction.
Internal work is a physical property of concrete alone & is the work or energy is required to
overcome the surface friction between the individual particles in the concrete.

3.8.1 Slump cone test:

The mould for slump test is a cone of 300 mm high, the bottom diameter is 200 mm & top
diameter is 100 mm. The tamping rod is 16 mm diameter & 60 mm high. The slump cone is
cleaned properly & then oil is applied to inner surface of the mould. Each layer is tamped 25
times with tamping rod. After that the cone is slowly lifted & the unsupported concrete will
now slump. The decrease in the height of the centre of the slumped concrete is called slump.

Figure 8: Slump Cone Test

Table 8: Slump Test Results

Type of Cement Value of Slump (mm)

OPC 90
PSC 85
PPC 85
CC 80

3.9 Compressive Strength of Concrete:

 After the completion of respective curing period, the specimens are taken out from the
water.
 Keep the specimens in dry place. After some time the specimens become dry. Place
the specimen in testing i.e. CTM.
 The rough cast surface will be vertical & smooth surfaces should touch the top &
- 38 -
 bottom of the plates & then apply the load constantly.
 Record the ultimate load P & type of failure i.e. columnar, conical or combination.
 Compute the cross sectional area of the load bearing surface of the specimen
A= L × B mm2
 Compute the compressive strength for specimen
Compressive strength = P/A (N/mm2)
 Compute the average compressive strength for different specimens.

Figure 9: Compressive Strength of

Concrete Cubes

Table 9: Compressive Strength of Concrete as per IS 10262:2019

Number Compressive Strength of Concrete (N/mm2)

of Days OPC PPC PSC CC
7 25.3 23.32 22.9 22.65
28 43.5 42.8 41.7 40.3

- 39 -
Chapter 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

- 40 -
 Table 10: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes After Chloride Attack

Type of Compressive Strength of Concrete Compressive Strength of Concrete

(N/mm2) for 28 days (N/mm2) for 56 days
Cement
Load (KN) Compressive Load (KN) Compressive
Strength Strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)

OPC 405 40.5 470 47

PPC 380 38 455 45.5

PSC 390 39 420 42

CC 380.5 38.05 445 44.5

Compressive Strength for CA

50 47 45.5 44.5
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

45 40.5 42
38 39 38.05
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
28 Days 56 Days
No. of Days

OPC PPC PSC CC

Chart 1: Compressive Strength of Concrete Specimen After Chloride Attack

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 Table 11: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack

Type of Compressive Strength of Concrete Compressive Strength of Concrete

(N/mm2) for 28 days (N/mm2) for 56 days
Cement
Load (KN) Compressive Load (KN) Compressive
Strength Strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)

OPC 390 39 470 47

PPC 365 36.5 445 44.5

PSC 375 37.5 430 43

CC 370 37 435 43.5

Compressive Strength for SA

50 47
44.5
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

43 43.5
45
39 37.5
40 36.5 37
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
28 Days 56 Days
No. of Days

OPC PPC PSC CC

Chart 2: Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack

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 Table 12: Weight Reduction of Cement Concrete Cubes after Chloride Attack

Type of Weight Reduction of Concrete Cube Weight Reduction of Concrete Cube

Cement Specimens for 28 days Specimens for 56 days

Initial Final (%) Weight Initial Final (%) Weight

Weight Weight Loss Weight Weight Loss
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

OPC 2.68 2.676 0.149 2.7 2.693 0.259

PPC 2.73 2.725 0.183 2.71 2.702 0.295

PSC 2.69 2.682 0.297 2.698 2.689 0.333

CC 2.7 2.692 0.296 2.68 2.67 0.373

Weight Reduction
0.4 0.373
0.35 0.333
% of Weight Reduction

0.297 0.296 0.295

0.3
0.259
0.25

0.2 0.183
0.149
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
28 Days 56 Days
No. of Days

OPC PPC PSC CC

Graph
Chart4:3:Graph
Weight
showing
Reduction
Weight
of Cement
reduction
Concrete
resultsCubes
for Blended
after Chloride
Cement Concrete
Attack

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 Table 13: Weight Reduction of Cement Concrete Cubes after Sulphate Attack

Type of Weight Reduction of Concrete Cube Weight Reduction of Concrete Cube

Cement Specimens for 28 days Specimens for 56 days

Initial Final (%) Weight Initial Final (%) Weight

Weight Weight Loss Weight Weight Loss
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

OPC 2.75 2.73 0.727 2.76 2.737 0.82

PPC 2.78 2.766 0.50 2.8 2.779 0.72

PSC 2.61 2.59 0.766 2.58 2.559 0.81

CC 2.54 2.524 0.60 2.56 2.554 0.62

Weight Reduction
0.9 0.82 0.81
0.8 0.766
0.727 0.72
% of Weight Reduction

0.7 0.62
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
28 Days 56 Days
No. of Days

OPC PPC PSC CC

Graph
Chart4:4:Graph
Weight
showing
Reduction
Weight
of Cement
reduction
Concrete
resultsCubes
for Blended
after Sulphate
Cement Concrete
Attack

- 44 -
 Table 14: Water Absorption Test of Cement Concrete Cylinders after Water Curing

Type of Water Absorption Test for 28 days Water Absorption Test for 56 days
Cement
Initial Final Water Initial Final Water
Weight Weight Absorption Weight Weight Absorption
(kg) (Kg) (%) (kg) (Kg) (%)

OPC 1.1 1.118 1.636 1.1 1.125 2.3

PPC 1.128 1.146 1.595 1.128 1.153 2.215

PSC 1.062 1.082 1.88 1.062 1.088 2.52

CC 1.092 1.104 1.11 1.092 1.111 1.82

Water Absorption
3
2.52
% of Water Absorption

2.5 2.3 2.215

2 1.88 1.82
1.636 1.595
1.5
1.11
1

0.5

0
28 Days 56 Days
No. of Days

OPC PPC PSC CC

Chart
Chart5:4:Water
WaterAbsorption
AbsorptionTest
Testofresults
Cement forConcrete
Blended Cylinders
Cement Concrete
after Water
Specimen
Curing

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 Chapter 6:
CONCLUSIONS

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3.10 Chloride attack:

 significant changes were observed in weight when the specimens were exposed to 0.5M
of Sodium Chloride.

 For 56 days the percentage loss in compressive strength for Sodium Chloride for OPC,
PPC, PSC and CC are 16,14,12 & 9.3 respectively.

 There was no damage to test specimen after exposed up to 28 days and 56 days.

 There was no colour change to the specimens after exposure to Sodium Chloride.

3.11 Sulphate Attack:

 significant changes were observed in weight when the specimens were exposed to 0.5M
of Sodium Sulphate.

 For 56 days the percentage loss in compressive strength for Sodium Sulphate for OPC,
PPC, PSC and CC are 3.4, 6.1, 4.5 & 4.3 respectively.

 There was no damage to test specimen after exposed up to 28 days and 56 days.

 There was no colour change to the specimens after exposure to Sodium Sulphate.

3.12 Water Absorption:

The percentage increase in water Absorption for OPC, PPC, PSC, CC are 18.97, 11.6 and 30
respectively when compared with ordinary Portland cement.

3.13 Future scope:

 Investigation of performance of different cement binded concrete can be extended for

higher grades.

 The work will be extended for remaining durability properties like water absorption,
alkali silica reaction...etc.

 The work can be extended for different chemical concentration levels.

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 Chapter 7:
REFERENCES

- 48 -
 Sunarno Y & Tjaronge, M.W. & Irmawaty, Rita. “Preliminary study on early compressive
strength of foam concrete using Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and Portland Composite
Cement (PCC)”. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Vol.419,no.1 ,
2020,pp.(1-7).

 Velu Saraswathy, Subbiah Karthick, Han Seung Lee, Seung-Jun Kwon, Hyun-Min
Yang, "Comparative Study of Strength and Corrosion Resistant Properties of Plain and
Blended Cement Concrete Types", Advances in Materials Science and
Engineering, vol. 2017, Article ID. 9454982, 2017,14 pages.

 Vinayak Patki& Metan Shriniwas & Jahagirdar Shrikant. “Evaluation of Physical and
Chemical Properties of OPC and PPC Cement”, International Journal of Recent Technology
and Engineering (IJRTE) ,Volume-8, Issue-2S11, September 2019, pp 840-845.

 Yuvaraj Dhandapani, T.Sakthivel, ManuSanthanam, Ravindra Gettu, Radhakrishna

G.Pillai“Mechanical properties and durability performance of concretes with Limestone
Calcined Clay Cement (LC3)”,Volume 107, May 2018, pp136-151.

 Arya Anuj Jee, Bulu Pradhan, (2019). “Study on development of empirical relationships
between durability parameters of concrete made with different types of binder and exposed
to chloride environment”.(Construction and Building Materials, Vol.212), pp 799-817.

 Krisnamurti, A Soehardjono, A Zacoeb and A Wibowo , “ Development of Mix Design

Method in Efforts to Increase Concrete Performance Using Portland Pozzolana Cement
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 N. Voglis, G. Kakali, E. Chaniotakis, S. Tsivilis, “Portland-limestone cements. Their

properties and hydration compared to those of other composite cements”, Cement &
Concrete Composites,Volume 27, Issue 2, February 2005, pp 191-196.

 Poornima & Subramanian, Sindhu & Arunachaleshwaran, A. & Girish, R. & Ahamed, K. &
Isai, I.Nerainjan. (2021). “Effect of silica fume and limestone powder on abrasion
resistance of OPC and PPC concrete”. Materials Today: Proceedings. Volume 46, Part
10, 2021, Pages 5123-5130.

 Runzhuo Cao , Junfen Yang , Guoxin Li , Feipeng Liu , Mengdie Niu , Wenzhao Wang (2022).
“Resistance of the composite cementitious system of ordinary Portland/ calcium sulfoaluminate
cement to sulfuric acid attack”. (Construction and Building Materials, Vol.329),pp 1-11

- 49 -
 IS 1489 (part 1):1991 Portland Pozzolana Cement- Specification, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.

 IS 16415:2015 Indian standard specification for composite cement, Bureau of Indian

Standards, New Delhi.

 IS 9103:1999 Specification for concrete admixtures, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

 IS 456:2000 plain and reinforced concrete code of practice.

 IS 2386 (Part I-VIII) -1960, Indian standards method of testing for concrete, (First revision),
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.

 IS 10262:2019, Indian standard concrete mix proportioning - Guidelines (First revision),

Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.

 IS 516: 1959 –Method of tests for strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.

 IS 383: 1970-Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

 IS: 650:1991, “Specification for standard sand for testing of cement” Bureau Indian standard,
New Delhi.

 IS: 12269:2013, “Specification for ordinary Portland cement, 53 grade” Bureau Indian
standard, New Delhi.

 IS: 4031.1.1996, “Specification for fineness of cement” Bureau Indian standard, New Delhi.

 IS: 4031.4.1988, “Specification for consistency of cement” Bureau Indian standard, New
Delhi.

 IS: 4031.5.1988, “Specification for initial and final setting time” Bureau Indian standard,
New Delhi.

 IS 4031.6.1988, “Specification for compressive strength of cement” Bureau Indian standard,

New Delhi.

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