Chapter 7-Photosynthesis (Intro)

● Photosynthesis, the process by which solar energy is converted into food energy, was first
conducted by prokaryotic cyanobacteria, and later this was developed into a eukaryotic cell
(endosymbiotic theory)
○ In simple terms, photosynthesis is the process of solar energy being converted into
chemical energy (energy through bonds between atoms)
○ Photosynthesis is how O2 was first brought into the atmosphere, which eventually led to
the beginning of life here on Earth
○ Photosynthesis is composed of two stages, light reactions (light-dependent reactions)
and dark reactions (light-independent reactions)
○ The process of photosynthesis begins when a photon (the most basic unit of light) touches
the surface of a leaf, which activates chlorophyll and then excites electrons - chlorophyll
then sends these electrons to electron carriers to produce ATP and NADPH - ATP,
NADPH, and carbon dioxide are then used in the dark reaction to produce sugars - along
the way water is lysed and oxygen is released

Chapter 8-Chloroplast Structure

● Leaves of plants contain a lot of chlorophyll in their mesophyll, the interior tissue of a leaf, which
is the primary site of photosynthesis
○ The chloroplasts contain the stroma (the fluid-filled region of a chloroplast) and grana
(stacks of thylakoids)
■ Stroma is the sight of the independent-light reaction
■ The stack-like structure of the grana increases the surface area of the chloroplast
to allow for more photosynthesis to occur without having to take up a lot of space
within the cell
○ Thylakoids, poker-like structures, contain chlorophyll, a light-absorbing pigment, and
enzymes - thylakoids are the main location for light-dependent reactions and all of it
happens within its thylakoid-lumen: the interior of the thylakoid
■ The chlorophyll within the thylakoids - chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and
carotenoids - are all clustered in the thylakoid lumen into units called antenna
complexes
■ All of the pigments in the unit can “gather” light
○ However, pigments cannot “excite” electrons, only a special molecule located in the
reaction center may “excite” electrons and transform solar energy into chemical energy
■ There are two types of reaction centers, photosystem I (PS I) and photosystem
II (PS II) - the special molecule of the former is P700 and the latter is P680
■ Its given those names because that is the nm value it absorbs best at (PS I absorbs
best at 680 nm and PS II is best at 700 nm) - and these “special molecules” are
called special pairs
○ When light is used to make ATP, its called photophosphorylation
Chapter 9-Light Spectrums
● The absorption Spectrum shows how well a pigment absorbs electromagnetic radiation (light) and
it shows the wavelengths of each color
○ Wavelengths that are absorbed are shown to be higher in the spectrum
○ Wavelengths that are reflected are shown to be lower in the spectrum
● The emission Spectrum shows how well a pigment emits electromagnetic radiation and it also
shows the wavelengths of each color
○ Wavelengths that are absorbed are shown to be lower in the spectrum
○ Wavelengths that are reflected are shown to be higher in the spectrum
● Chlorophyll a and b have high wavelengths in the absorption spectrum for both blue and red, but
low wavelengths for green
○ In other words, chlorophyll a and b absorb blue and red but reflect the color green, which
is why plants look green
○ Carotenoids absorb blue and green and reflect yellow, orange, and red

Chapter 10-Light-Dependent Reaction

● Photosynthesis always begins with sunlight hitting the surface of a leaf…
1. The “excited electron” is sent to the P680 to the special pair molecule called the primary
acceptor - the PS II then sends “excited electrons” down an electron transport chain
(ETC) to produce ATP
a. As electrons are pumped into the ETC, hydrogen ions are pumped into the
thylakoid lumen which creates a proton gradient
b. As H+ ions exit the lumen back into the stroma through ATP synthase, ATP is
produced
2. The “excited electrons” then enter PS I where they are put through a second ETC, these
electrons finally reach their final electron acceptor NADP+ to form NADPH
a. NADPH stores a lot of energy within its chemical bonds
b. The NADPH, like ATP, is used in the light-independent reaction to form sugar
3. To replenish the electrons in thylakoids, water is split into oxygen, hydrogen ions, and
electrons in a process called photolysis
a. The electron replaces the missing electron in the PSII
b. This process creates O2, which is then released into the environment
● Most plants follow this flow of electrons, which is a linear process - hence its name the noncyclic
process - however, some plants, such as C4 plants, perform a cyclic process
○ Both cyclic and noncyclic are similar processes, however, cyclic does not produce
NADPH and only occurs in PS I
○ The electron in PS I is sent through the ETC using electron acceptor molecules (like
noncyclic) however, instead of using water to replenish the electron, the cyclic process
sends that same electron lost back towards PS I to repeat the process
Chapter 11-Light-Independent Reactions
● The dark reaction, also called the Calvin-Benson Cycle, was first discovered by Melvin Calvin,
James Bassham, and Andrew Benson
○ The Calvin Cycle uses the products of the light-dependent reaction - 9 ATP and 6
NADPH - and carbon dioxide from the air to produce carbohydrates
○ The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma of a chloroplast, additionally, carbon fixation, the
process by which carbon dioxide is converted into carbohydrates, occurs in the stroma
○ The products of the dark reaction are carbohydrates, ATP, and NADPH+

Chapter 12-Photorespiration
● Stomata, pores on the leaf surface that allow CO2 to enter the leaf and O2 and water to exit, are
closed on hot, dry days to prevent water loss by transpiration: the evaporative loss of water from
leaves
○ Although it conserves water, it also limits the plant’s access to CO2 which, in turn,
reduces photosynthetic yields
○ With less CO2 available, O2 accumulates and plants start performing photorespiration:
a wasteful process in which ATP and O2 are used to produce more CO2 and, in the end,
does not produce sugar
● Plants have evolved around the issue of photorespiration…
○ CAM Plants, plants mainly found in hot climates, open their stomata at night when its
coolest to convert CO2 into organic acids, and during the day, they release CO2 from the
organic acids during the light reactions
○ C4 Plants, plants that have evolved to prevent photorespiration, perform CO2 fixation in
a different part of the leaf than the Calvin Cycle (this is due to different leaf anatomy)