FOR 160 [WOOD STRUCTURE & IDENTIFICATION]

LESSON THREE
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD

Isagani Marlo H. Cayabyab

SOFTWOOD AND HARDWOOD

People in the timber industry or wood-using industry often classify timber or wood
into two general classes: softwoods and hardwoods. Softwoods belong to the Gymnosperm
subdivision of Spermatophytes (seed plants) while hardwoods belong to the dicotyledonous
class of the Angiosperm subdivision.

The terms softwood and hardwood are misnomers and are often misleading. Not all
hardwoods have hard woody tissues; in fact, some are relatively soft. The same is true with
softwoods, as some of them are quite hard. Technically, softwoods are called non-porous
woods, while hardwoods are called porous woods. Softwoods are also sometimes called
coniferous woods or conifers since they are derived from conifers such as pines.

Most softwoods thrive in the colder and temperate regions. Thus, only few softwoods
are found in the Philippines such as Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya), Mindoro pine (Pinus
merkusii), almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) and igem (Podocarpus imbricatus).

Hardwoods thrive in both the temperate and the tropical regions. Since the
Philippines is in the tropics, most Philippine trees are hardwoods. Some common example
include narra (Pterocarpus indicus), molave (Vitex parviflora), ipil (Intsia bijuga), tanguile
(Shorea polysperma), guijo (Shorea guiso), apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), agoho
(Casuarina equisitifolia) and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla).

Difference Between Softwood and Hardwood

The wood of softwoods differs from those of hardwoods in terms of appearance,

particularly when viewed on the cross section, and in terms of cell composition.

1. Appearance. The woody tissues of softwoods have no pores. Thus, they are also
called non-porous woods. Hardwoods have pores; thus, they are also called porous
woods.
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Pores are numerous tiny openings viewed on the cross section of wood. These
openings are actually the cross sections of the cell lumina of the vessel elements or
cells. Lumina (singular: lumen) are the cavities of cells. Hardwoods contain vessel
elements, hence are porous. Softwoods lack vessel elements, hence are non-porous.

2. Composition. Hardwoods are more complex in composition than the softwoods. The
cell composition or elements of hardwoods is more diverse than softwoods.

ELEMENTS OF WOOD

All kinds of wood are cellular in structure, meaning they are made up of cells. The
cells are also called the elements of wood. They are tiny or minute in size and are referred
to as the microscopic structure of wood. Figure 1 below is an illustration of the microscopic
or cellular structure of wood, enlarged many times to show the cells.

Figure 1. The microscopic or cellular structure of wood.

A. Elements or Cell Composition of Softwoods. The wood of softwoods contains the

following elements:

1. Tracheids - these are long linear cells that can be as much as 75 times longer than
their diameter. They have bordered pits and imperforated ends.
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2. Ray tracheids - these are cells with bordered pits and make up the wood rays.

3. Cells of ray parenchyma - these cells also make up the wood rays. They are somewhat
longer than the ray tracheids and possess simple pits.

4. Epithelial cells - these cells surround the resin canals. The epithelial cells are secreting
cells (epithelium) that secrete resin or gum that flows into the canals or ducts. The
resin or gum is usually released from the stem if it is injured.

B. Elements or Cell Composition of Hardwoods. The wood of hardwoods is made up of the

following elements:

5. Vessel member or elements - these are individual cells that compose an axial tube-
like system of indeterminate length known as vessel. The opening between two vessel
members is known as perforation, and serves as the avenue through which materials
(such as water) move between two vessel members. Vessel members possess
bordered pits.

6. Tracheids - these can be (1) vascular tracheids, which resemble small vessels, have
bordered pits, but do not have perforations; and (2) vasicentric tracheids, which
resemble the coniferous tracheids, but are shorter and irregularly shaped, and with
bordered pits. The vascular tracheids differ from the vasicentric tracheids in that the
latter have tapered or rounded ends and that they are not arranged in definite
longitudinal rows.

7. Fibers - they serve as supporting cells. There are two types of fibers in hardwoods.
One type is the libriform fiber which is elongated and has simple pits, and the fiber
tracheid which has pointed ends and bordered pits.

8. Cells of longitudinal parenchyma - these cells are involved in carbohydrate / starch

storage. They extend along the grain and are therefore, also known as axial
parenchyma.

9. Ray parenchyma cells - these are the cells that made up the wood rays. They also
store starch.

10. Epithelial cells - these are the cells that surround gum canals or resin ducts. The
epithelial cells are secreting cells (epithelium) that secrete resin or gum that flows into
the canals or ducts. The resin or gum is usually released from the stem if it is injured.
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CATEGORIES OR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD ELEMENTS

The different elements or cells of wood could be classified based on their orientation
in the tree stem and based on their functions.

A. Based on Stem Orientation. Wood elements are elongated and could be oriented along
the longitudinal axis or transverse axis of the stem.

1. Longitudinal cells. These are wood elements that are oriented along the
longitudinal axis or length of the tree stem. Most wood elements are longitudinal.
Some examples are tracheids, vessel elements, fibers, and longitudinal
parenchymas.

2. Transverse cells. These are wood elements that are oriented along the transvere
direction (across the longitudinal axis or length of the tree stem). These cells make
up the wood rays, such as ray tracheids and ray parenchymas.

B. Based on Function. The different wood elements can be further categorized according
to their functions.

1. Prosenchymatous cells. These are wood elements whose functions are

conduction of materials (mainly water) and / or mechanical support. In addition,
their cell walls are equipped with bordered pits. These are the vessel elements,
tracheids and fibers.

2. Parenchymatous cells. These are wood elements whose function is storage of

food (mainly starch). In contrast, their walls are equipped with simple pits. These
are the longitudinal and ray parenchymas, and the epithelial cells.

OUTLINE SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENT WOOD ELEMENTS

OF SOFTWOODS AND HARDWOODS

The different elements of softwoods and hardwoods can be classified into the
different categories as outlined in the table next page. It can be seen from the outline
summary that hardwoods have more diverse elements than softwoods, making their
microscopic structure more complex. Specifically, vessel elements and fibers are absent in
softwoods.
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The absence of vessel elements is the reason why softwoods have non-porous woody
tissues. On the other hand, the presence of vessel elements makes the woody tissues of
hardwoods porous.

SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD
A. LONGITUDINAL CELLS A. LONGITUDINAL CELLS

1. Prosenchymatous cells 1. Prosenchymatous cells

a. Tracheids a. Vessel elements or members
b. Tracheids
2. Parenchymatous cells ▪ Vascular tracheids
a. Longitudinal parenchymas ▪ Vasicentric tracheids
b. Epithelial cells c. Fibers
▪ Labriform fibers
B. TRANSVERSE CELLS ▪ Fiber tracheids

1. Prosenchymatous cells 2. Parenchymatous cells

a. Ray tracheids a. Longitudinal parenchymas
b. Epithelial cells
2. Parenchymatous cells
a. Ray parenchymas B. TRANSVERSE CELLS
b. Epithelial cells
1. Prosenchymatous cells
None

2. Parenchymatous cells
a. Ray parenchymas
b. Epithelial cells

EARLYWOOD AND LATEWOOD

The woody stem produces one growth ring every year. In between two rings is a layer
of wood added in one year (or one growing season). This layer has two sublayers: the
earlywood, also called springwood; and the latewood, also called the summerwood.

In the temperate or colder regions, tree stems grow in diameter during the growing
seasons of spring and summer. Spring is the early growing season while summer is the late
growing season. During the non-growing season (autumn and winter), the wood cambium is
dormant and the stem ceases from growing. In the tropical region, growth in tree stem
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diameter is all-year round. However, growth is generally faster during the wet season than
during the dry season.

Earlywood is the wood produced during the early growing season of the year, which
is in the spring (or wet season in the tropics). Latewood is the wood added during the late
growing season of the year, which is in summer (or dry season in the tropics).

These two layers can be distinguished through their color, particularly among
softwoods. The latewood is usually darker than the earlywood. Figure 2 below is a cross
section of a softwood magnified several times to show the earlywood and the latewood
sublayers. A layer of earlywood followed by a latewood is produced in one year or one
growing season. Additional pairs of earlywood and latewood are produced in the succeeding
years. Note that softwoods are non-porous; they do not have pores.

Figure 2. Cross section of a softwood showing the earlywood (light

colored) and the latewood (dark colored) layers. (magnified 15x)

Among hardwoods, the earlywood is made up of larger vessel elements, characterized

by wider cell lumina and thinner cell walls. The vessel elements are also more numerous. As
a result, the earlywood is more porous, characterized by bigger and more plentiful pores. On
the other hand, the latewood is made up of smaller vessel elements, characterized by
narrower cell lumina and thicker cell walls. The vessel elements are less numerous. As a
result, the latewood is less porous, characterized by smaller and fewer pores.
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Figure 3 below is a cross section of a hardwood magnified several times to show the
earlywood and the latewood sublayers. A layer of large and numerous pores (comprising the
earlywood) followed by a layer of smaller and fewer pores (comprising the latewood) is
produced in one year or one growing season. Additional pairs of earlywood and latewood
are produced in the succeeding years. This arrangement of pores is called ring-porous.

Figure 3. Cross section of a hardwood showing the earlywood (bigger

pores) and the latewood (smaller pores) layers. (magnified 15x)

The differences between earlywood and latewood are summarized in the following
table.

EARLYWOOD LATEWOOD
Produced during early Produced during late growing
Season of growth
growing season (spring) season (summer)
Color (in softwoods) Lighter in color Darker in color
Size and amount of Larger vessel elements, Smaller vessel elements,
vessel elements (in characterized by wider cell characterized by narrower cell
hardwoods) lumina and thinner cell walls lumina and thicker cell walls
More porous, characterized
Size and amount of Less porous, characterized by
by bigger and more plentiful
pores (in hardwoods) smaller and fewer pores
pores
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In some hardwoods, the transition in the size of pores from earlywood to latewood is
more gradual. In this case the pore arrangement is described as semi-ring porous. The
earlywood has slightly bigger pores than the latewood.

In other hardwoods, the earlywood cannot be distinguished from the latewood

because all the pores have the same size and are evenly distributed. This type of pore
arrangement is called diffuse-porous.

Ring-porous and semi-ring porous woods are usually found in trees in the temperate
region. This is due to the slowing down of the growth of their woody stems as the non-
growing season (autumn to winter) approaches. Diffuse-porous woods are more common in
the tropical region because of year-round growth of the woody stem. In the Philippines, for
example, most trees have diffuse-porous wood. Only few trees, such as narra (Pterocarpus
indicus) and kalantas (Toona kalantas), have ring-porous or semi-ring porous wood.

All hardwoods are porous wood; they possess pores. However, the arrangement of
their pores differ from one species to another. Figure 4 below illustrates the three types of
pore arrangement among hardwoods: ring-porous, semi-ring porous, and diffuse porous.

Ring-porous Semi-ring porous Diffuse-porous

Figure 4. The three types of pore arrangement in hardwoods.

IMPORTANCE OF THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD

The microscopic structure of wood, particularly the element or cell composition, is

important in the different fields of wood science. Some examples are as follows:
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1. In wood identification. The size and arrangement of pores vary from one species
of wood to another. For example, the wood of narra (Pterocarpus indicus) is ring
porous, while raintree (Samanea saman) is diffuse porous. Another example, the
wood of tangile (Shorea polysperma) has bigger pores than guijo (Shorea guiso),
although they belong to the same genus. These differences could be used in
identifying one type of wood from another.

2. In wood physics and mechanics. The size of the wood elements affects the
wood’s density and strength properties. A wood with thicker cell walls but
narrower lumina is denser than a wood with thinner cell walls but wider lumina.
The denser wood will also tend to have superior physical and strength properties
(such as weight, hardness and toughness) than the less dense one.

3. In pulp and paper manufacture. Tracheids are much longer than the other
elements of wood. Being longer, they are the best raw material for the
manufacture of pulp and paper products. Since, softwoods (such as pines) are
mainly composed of tracheids, they yield paper products of superior quality. On
the other hand, hardwoods are made up of a mixture of different elements, most
of which have shorter lengths (such as vessels), yielding paper products that are
comparatively lower in quality.

Now that you are through with Lesson 3, try to answer the Practice Task
presented next page. Through the Practice Task you will be able to determine
how much you have learned from the lesson presented.

NOTE: Do NOT submit your answers to your teacher; the Practice Task is only
for self-assessment. After answering all the questions, compare your answers
to the Feedback to Practice Task.
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PRACTICE TASK THREE

A. TRUE OR FALSE. Each of the following items could be correct or wrong. Write the word
true in the allotted blank if it is correct; write the word false if it is wrong.

________ 1. Most wood elements are longitudinal. These elements are oriented
across the longitudinal axis or length of the tree stem.
________ 2. Not all hardwoods have hard woody tissues; in fact, some are relatively
soft. The same is true with softwoods, as some of them are quite hard.
________ 3. The earlywood of conifers is more porous, characterized by bigger and
more plentiful pores. The latewood of conifers is less porous,
characterized by smaller and fewer pores.
________ 4. Ring porous wood is more common in the tropical region because of the
year-round growth of the woody stem. In the Philippines, for example,
most trees have ring porous wood.
________ 5. Tracheids are long linear cells that can be as much as 75 times longer than
their diameter. They have bordered pits and have openings at their ends
which are called perforations.

B. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Each of the following items has four choices of answers. Choose the
correct or best answer for each item and write its corresponding letter in the blank
provided for.

________ 1. Which of the following wood elements has perforations (or perforated
ends)?
a. Tracheids c. Vessel elements
b. Fibers d. Parenchyma cells
________ 2. Which of the following elements have cell walls equipped with simple
pits?
a. Tracheids c. Vessel elements
b. Fibers d. Parenchyma cells
________ 3. Which of the following elements of hardwood are classified as transverse
cells?
a. Ray parencymas c. Fibers
b. Vessel elements d. Tracheids
________ 4. What is the arrangement of pores in the wood of Benguet pine (Pinus
kesiya)?
a. Ring porous c. Diffuse porous
b. Semi-ring porous d. None of the above
________ 5. What wood element is lacking in softwoods which makes them non-
porous?
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a. Vessel elements c. Epithelial cells

b. Ray tracheids d. Libriform fibers

C. IDENTIFICATION. Identify what concepts in the microscopic structure of wood is referred

to by each of the following descriptions.

___________________ 1. Type of pore arrangement in which the earlywood cannot

be distinguished from the latewood because all the pores
have the same size and are evenly distributed.
___________________ 2. These are wood elements whose functions are conduction
of materials (mainly water) or mechanical support. In
addition, their cell walls are equipped with bordered pits.
___________________ 3. These are long linear cells that can be as much as 75 times
longer than their diameter. They have bordered pits and
imperforated ends.
___________________ 4. These are openings between two vessel members and
serves as the avenue through which materials (such as
water) move between two vessel members.
___________________ 5. These are secreting cells that release resin or gum in ducts
or canals which they surround.
___________________ 6. These are tiny openings in the cross section of wood which
are actually the cell lumina of the vessel elements or cells.
___________________ 7. These are the cavities of woody cells.

NOTE: Now, turn to the next page and compare your answers with the
Feedback to Practice Task.
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FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE TASK THREE

A. TRUE OR FALSE B. MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. False 1. C
2. True 2. D
3. False 3. A
4. False 4. D
5. False 5. A

C. IDENTIFICATION
1. Diffuse porous
2. Prosenchymatous cells
3. Tracheids
4. Perforations
5. Epithelial cells
6. Pores
7. Cell lumina (or lumen)

Did you get all the answers correctly? If you did, CONGRATULATIONS!!!
If you did not get all the correct answers, review the topics presented in
Lesson 3 again.