SEMINAR 3

BASIC LINGUISTIC NOTIONS (1):

DICHOTOMIES.
LEXICAL vs GRAMMATICAL MEANING, SYNTAGMATIC AND
PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS.

1. DICHOTOMIES.
a) synchronic – diachronic, synchrony – diachrony
synchronic – diachronic, synchrony – diachrony:
Do we want to describe the state of a language at a particular point or
period in time (i. e. take a snapshot of a language), or do we want to
document linguistic change ‘through time’ (Greek dia = through, chronos
= time) by comparing successive (synchronic) language states with one
another and exploring the transitions from one language state to the next?

b) descriptive – prescriptive
descriptive – prescriptive:
In a synchronic approach, do we want to give a neutral description of the
actual language use, or do we want to adopt a normative approach and
formulate rules for ‘correct’ language use?

c) form – function
form – function, language system – language use:
In a descriptive approach, do we want to investigate purely formal
aspects, thus the structure (or: the system) of a language on its different
levels (sound, word, sentence structure) in abstraction from language use,
or do we want to investigate which functions linguistic structures fulfill
and, dependent on the speaker and the speech situation, for which
communicative purposes they can be used?
d) language system – language use
e) language-specific – comparative
In a descriptive synchronic approach, do we want to investigate
merely one language, contrast two languages with each other (e. g. for
pedagogical reasons in foreign-language teaching; contrastive
linguistics), or compare a multitude of languages
with one another, with the aim of determining the patterns and limits of
language variation and even language universals (language typology)?

f) applied – not applied

 Applied in foreign language teaching, translation, dictionary compilation
(lexicography), or police work and law enforcement (forensic
linguistics)?
 Not applied of purely academic relevance
 It is either of descriptive interest (i. e. we want to learn more about a
particular language – either looked at in isolation or in comparison with
other languages), or of theoretical or general interest.
 We may want to learn more about language as the most important medium
of communication among human beings, about general principles of
language structure, language use, language acquisition, language processing,
language change, etc., and about the most appropriate theories or theoretical
frameworks within which general (especially grammatical) properties of
language can be modelled.
g) system and structure of language
The systemic approach to language and its grammar were developed in
the linguistics of the XX c. after the publication of the works by
Baudouin de Courtenay and Ferdinand de Saussure
(they demonstrated the difference between lingual synchrony and
diachrony).
 Are closely connected
 The system: is viewed as the language as a whole, is characterized by
regulated complex of language units
 The structure is the element of the system.
 i.e. systemic is the language, and structural is the system.
 Language structure is a complex of regular links and relations within lg
units, which depend on their nature and thus determining qualitative
peculiarity of the language system and its specific functioning.
 is determined by the character of links and relations between language units.

h) empirical – introspective

empirical – introspective:

What should form the basis of our linguistic analysis? Should it be based on
authentic data, for example in large machine-readable corpora of the English
language (the largest corpus available at present being the Corpus of Global
Web-based English with 1.9 billion words)?

Should linguistic research thus increasingly work quantitatively and with

statistical methods (corpus linguistics, experimental designs)? Or should it
 be based on introspection, that is on the intuitions of linguists concerning
what is and what is not possible in language or a language?

Depending on the answers to these questions, we are engaged in

synchronic or diachronic linguistics, descriptive or prescriptive linguistics,
formal or functional linguistics, contrastive linguistics or language typology,
applied, theoretical or general linguistics.

Whichever of these is or are chosen the different approaches often come

with particular theories and models of language and linguistics and, as a
consequence, with different viewpoints, methods and terminology.

For this reason, it is frequently the case that different terms coexist for one
and the same phenomenon, and that this phenomenon is judged and
interpreted in different ways by different people following different schools
of thought.

2. Categorization. Grammatical category. Distinctive features of the

grammatical categories. Types of grammatical categories. Strengthened vs.
weakened categories.

Categorization is no trivial matter. As Lyons (1968) notes, ‘‘there is very

little consistency or uniformity in the use of the term ÔcategoryÕ in modern
treatments of gram-matical theory’’: different linguists have used wider or
narrower definitions of what theyregard as linguistic categories. For some,
the categories of language are the word classes.For others, tense, mood,
person, number, etc., are also categories.
Conceptions of categorization in the history of linguistics.
Grammatical category is the unity of two or more grammatical forms
opposed or related in terms of grammatical meaning. The grammatical
meaning is revealed through a number of forms (paradigm)
The grammatical category does not exist without its formal markers.
The grammatical category includes no less than two opposed forms
2 – the category of number (singular :: plural)
3 - the category of gender (masculine :: feminine :: neuter); the category of
degrees of comparison
The word category (from Greek kate ́goria) derives from Aristotle, and
originally meant ‘statement’. Perhaps the oldest ideas on categorization were
those of Aristotle, as expounded in his Metaphysics and The Categories.
 Aristotle held that a particular entity can be defined by listing a number of
necessary and sufficient conditions that apply to it. This view has been
referred to as the classical, scholastic or Aristotelian theory of categorization
(Lakoff,1987, p. 6; Taylor, 2003, p. 20f).
Distinctive features of grammatical category
1. It must be represented by, at least, two grammatical forms (they are
limited in number and regular).the Category of case in English (Common -
Possessive), in Ukr - 6 forms.
2. No grammatical category can be represented by all the word forms of the
word.
3. One word form can combine different grammatical categories.
4. No word form can combine 2 grammatical meanings of the same
category.
5. Every word form must represent at least one categorial form or belong to
some grammatical category. There are no word forms without grammatical
categories.
Types of grammatical categories
 Classifying: distribute words of a certain part of speech (countable ::
uncountable nouns; definite :: indefinite nouns)
 form-building (gender, number, tense)
 Lexico-grammatical belong to one class of words (degrees of comparison
of adjectives)
 The basic feature of grammatical category is the absence of independent
nominativefunction.
 referential (immanent) have references in the objective reality.
 significational (reflective, relational) do not correspond to anything in the
objective reality and correlate only with conceptual matters.

3. Lexical and grammatical meaning Types of grammatical meaning

(implicit :: explicit; general :: dependent; referential :: relational).
Provide your own examples which illustrate general and dependent,
referential and relational grammatical meaning (4+4, total 8 examples).
Grammatical meaning
Generalized abstract meaning, embracing large word classes that are
expressed through formal markers (or zero markers)
Countability, plurality, posteriority, continuity, future tense, passiveness,
superlative degree.
 Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole (sub)class
 The class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness.
 Besides, the noun has the grammatical meaning of a subclass –
(un)countableness.
 The verb has the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote
actions or states.
 The adjective has the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives
– qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities.
Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to
denote quality of qualities.
There are some classes of words – articles, particles, prepositions, etc. - that
are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning
only.
Types of grammatical meaning
 The implicit grammatical meaning is
not expressed formally
the word “plate” does not contain any hints in its form as to it being
inanimate.
The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically (has
its marker).
The general grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class,
of a part of speech. Nouns have the general grammatical meaning of
thingness
The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning
of a subclass within the same part of speech which
influences the realization of grammatical categories
restricting them to a subclass. countability/uncountability - the category of
number
(in)animateness - the category of case,
(non-)terminativeness - the category of tense
(in)transitivity – the category of voice.
Referential
which reflect objective properties of real phenomena (quantity, time, etc)
Relational
syntactic) which serve to combine words into phrases and sentences
Verbal number and person
Gender and number of Ukrainian adjectives
Strengthened vs. weakened categories:
Whereas verbal categories have been strengthened in the history of English,
all inflectional categories of the noun are weakened categories. From the
relatively elaborate case system of Old English nouns, only two cases have
 survived: the unmarked common case and the possessive. English has
completely lost its grammatical gender distinction (in German: der Baum,
die Tasse, das Mädchen), nowadays distinguishing pronouns either by
natural (e. g. the boy – he, the girl – she, the tree – it) or, marginally,
metaphorical gender (e. g. the sun – he, the moon – she, England – it/she, car
– it/she).
Lexical meaning refers to the meaning of a word in isolation, based on the concept or object it
represents (like "dog" meaning a four-legged animal). Grammatical meaning, on the other hand,
involves the word's role in a sentence (its tense, number, case, etc.).
Types of Grammatical Meaning:
1. Implicit vs. Explicit:
o Implicit grammatical meaning is conveyed indirectly, often through word order
or context.
o Explicit grammatical meaning is directly indicated by inflections or grammatical
markers (such as verb endings, plural forms, etc.).
2. General vs. Dependent:
o General grammatical meaning refers to a category common to a group of words,
like plurality or past tense.
o Dependent grammatical meaning relies on the specific form or function of a
word in relation to another word, like the case of a noun depending on its function
in the sentence.
3. Referential vs. Relational:
o Referential grammatical meaning is connected to the real-world object or action
that the word refers to.
o Relational grammatical meaning indicates the relationship between words in a
sentence, often shown by function words or inflections that specify syntactic
roles.
Examples of General and Dependent Grammatical Meaning
1. General Grammatical Meaning (common to a category of words):
o Example 1: "Books" (general meaning of plurality).
o Example 2: "Ran" (general meaning of past tense for verbs).
o Example 3: "She walks" (general meaning of third-person singular present tense).
o Example 4: "The cat" (general meaning of noun).
2. Dependent Grammatical Meaning (dependent on sentence structure or context):
o Example 1: "He gave her the book." (The dependent meaning of "her" as an
indirect object).
o Example 2: "I admire his dedication." (Dependent meaning of "his" as a
possessive determiner).
o Example 3: "She stood by the door." (Dependent meaning of "door" as the object
of a preposition).
o Example 4: "They are talking to me." (Dependent meaning of "me" as the object
of the verb).
Examples of Referential and Relational Grammatical Meaning
1. Referential Grammatical Meaning (directly related to real-world objects or actions):
o Example 1: "The apple is on the table." (Referential meaning of "apple" as a
physical object).
o Example 2: "She will write a letter." (Referential meaning of "write" as the
action).
 o Example 3: "The sky is blue." (Referential meaning of "sky" as the object in the
real world).
o Example 4: "He laughed loudly." (Referential meaning of "laughed" as an action).
2. Relational Grammatical Meaning (shows relations between words in a sentence):
o Example 1: "John gave Mary a gift." (Relational meaning: "gave" expresses a
relationship between "John," "Mary," and "gift").
o Example 2: "The book on the table." (Relational meaning of "on" shows the
spatial relationship between the book and the table).
o Example 3: "She is taller than him." (Relational meaning of "than" shows the
comparison between two people).
o Example 4: "If it rains, we'll stay home." (Relational meaning of "if" shows the
conditional relationship between rain and staying home).

4. Relations Between Language Units. Syntagmatic :: paradigmatic

relations
Language :: Speech
 The distinction between language and speech was first introduced by
Ferdinand de Saussure in his book on general linguistics (1916)
 Though differences of opinion still persist in the exact delineation of the
boundaries between the two spheres, its general idea has been accepted by
most scholars.
Paradigmatic::Syntagmatic relations
PR comprise all the units that can also occur in the same environment.
PR are relations based on the principles of similarity.
PR exist between the units that can substitute one another
PR are identified with ‘language’
are referred to as relations ‘in absentia’ = in the absence.
SR are intermediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence.
SR may be observed in utterances
SR are identified with ‘speech’
are described by the Latin ‘in praesentia’ (= in the presence)

Paradigmatic relations can be of three types: semantic, formal and

functional.
Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning:
Goods to be delivered = goods for delivering.
 The days are getting longer and longer – The days are growing longer and
longer.
Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms (exist between the members
of a paradigm): mouse – mice; ask – asked – will ask – is asking.
Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. (established between
the elements occuring in the same position).
Det: a, the, this, his, Ann’s, some, each, etc.
We can classify different language types according to their morphological
characteristics. We call this morphological typology. Pairs of contrasting
properties are synthetic – analytic and inflectional – isolating, keeping in
mind that synthetic does not necessarily equal inflectional, and analytic does
not necessarily equal isolating. Rather, inflectional languages are a special
type of synthetic languages, and isolating languages can be seen as the most
radical type of analytic languages.

Asignment.

1) Noam Chomsky – Ideas of Chomsky BBC Interview (full 44 minutes)

Watch the interview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LqUA7W9wfg
and make notes on the distinctive features of Ludwig Wittgenstein’s and
Noam Chomsky’s vision of language acquisition.
2) What are the two international reputatations of Noam Chomsky in unrelated
(or apparently unrelated) fields?
3) Are languages taught or learned? Are there any biological factors
predetermining language acquisition? Be ready to speak what impressed
you most in this interview (5-10 sentences).

Behaviorism (Wittgenstein) Generativism (Chomsky)

Study the definitions of the following terms: analytic, synthetic, typological classification of
languages, opposition, parts of speech, function

Analytic (Languages and Forms):

 Definition: In linguistics, an analytic language primarily relies on word order,

prepositions, and auxiliary words to express grammatical relationships rather than
inflection or affixation. In analytic forms of words, auxiliary verbs and word order play
a crucial role in constructing tense, mood, or other grammatical features.
  Example: English is considered more analytic compared to Latin, as it uses auxiliary
verbs like "will" for future tense (e.g., "I will go") instead of inflecting the verb itself.

2. Synthetic (Languages and Forms):

 Definition: Synthetic languages use inflection (changes to the form of a word) to

express grammatical relationships. In synthetic forms, grammatical functions like tense,
case, mood, or number are indicated by altering the internal structure of a word, often by
adding suffixes or changing internal vowels.

 Example: Latin is highly synthetic, as verbs and nouns change forms extensively to show
different tenses, cases, or plural forms. In Latin, "amo" (I love) becomes "amabo" (I will
love) by inflection.

3. Typological Classification of Languages:

 Definition: Typological classification refers to the categorization of languages based on

their structural features, regardless of their genealogical origin. The main types are
analytic, synthetic, fusional, and agglutinative.

o Analytic languages use word order and helper words for grammar (e.g.,
Chinese).

o Synthetic languages use affixes or inflections (e.g., Russian).

o Fusional languages combine several grammatical categories into one morpheme

(e.g., Latin, Russian).

o Agglutinative languages attach affixes to a root word in a clear, additive way

(e.g., Turkish, Finnish).

4. Opposition:

 Definition: In linguistics, opposition refers to the contrast between two or more

linguistic units (such as phonemes, morphemes, or words) that are distinguished by a
single feature. These oppositions often serve to convey differences in meaning, such as
singular/plural, tense, or degree of comparison.

 Example: The opposition between "cat" and "cats" lies in the morpheme -s, indicating
a singular/plural contrast.

5. Parts of Speech:

 Definition: Parts of speech are categories of words grouped by their syntactic functions
in sentences. The traditional parts of speech in English include:

o Noun: A person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., "dog").

o Pronoun: Replaces a noun (e.g., "he," "it").

o Verb: Indicates action or state of being (e.g., "run," "is").

 o Adjective: Describes a noun (e.g., "blue," "fast").

o Adverb: Describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb (e.g., "quickly").

o Preposition: Shows a relationship between nouns/pronouns and other words (e.g.,

"in," "on").

o Conjunction: Connects words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., "and," "but").

o Interjection: Expresses emotion (e.g., "Wow!").

6. Function:

 Definition: In linguistics, function refers to the grammatical role a word or phrase plays
in a sentence. For example, a noun may function as the subject, object, or complement in
a sentence, while a verb functions as the main predicate.

o Grammatical function often includes subject, object, predicate, modifier, etc.

o Example: In the sentence "She gave him a book," "She" functions as the subject,
"gave" as the verb (predicate), "him" as the indirect object, and "a book" as the
direct object.

These terms are essential for understanding how languages are structured, classified, and how
words function within sentences to convey meaning.

To be done at the lesson.

1. Comment, please, on the type of grammatical meaning of the following groups of

words:
1) agony, darkness, death,
2) answered, felt, was, kept;
3) are advertising, is wiping, are coming;
4) aviator’s, Josephine’s, Martina’s;
5) Brazil, Heihe, China, India, Amur, Brenda, Amanda,
6) cannot believe, cannot suspect, can drive;
7) carnival, festival, game; they, these,
8) clouds, riptides, thorn bushes, cacti, yucca, waves, hats;
9) crimson, green, dark, articulate, strong, persuasive, argumentative, beautiful;
10) dancers, troupes, fans, glasses
11) dearest, closest, baddest
12) gaiety, love,
13) great, galumphing, unmannerly, supercilious.
14) had been, had driven, had almost forgotten, had known;
15) had exchanged, had done wrong, had spent, had catapulted;
16) irritation, distress, pleasure, opportunity, shame;
17) is starting up, are marching, am trying
18) juice, gold, sugar, smoke.
19) long, athletic, thunderous, young, underweight, black-and-white, sacrosanct;
20) looked, did, drained, followed, enveloped;
21) looks, speaks, understands, meets;
22) Mama’s, Clarence’s, George’s, family’s;
23) must have sensed, could have done, have written, has gone;
24) seems, sleep, are, talk;
25) smiled, relaxed, rose, thought
26) spurred, sashed
27) streets, bands, drums, horns, cymbals;
28) stronger, weaker, more fortified, better
29) teacher’s, boy’s, employer’s, Ann’s, Kya’s, Jason’s;
30) this, a, another,
31) to cry to see, to believe, to brood;
32) to greet her, to approach, to say, to pluck.
33) traumas, boxes, cans, oxen, cacti, trousers;
34) was filled, was needed, wasn’t built, were kept
35) was going on, were growing up, was pouring, were sleeping.
36) was, did, had
37) wear, herald, outbreak,
38) will be fine, will love, will be back, won’t be a burden;
39) will bring, will happen, will create; will submit;
40) would cook, would chug, would groan, would learn.
41) years, girls, workers, eyes;

To analyze the grammatical meaning of the following groups of words, we will classify them
based on their roles in a sentence and their grammatical characteristics (tense, number, case,
etc.). Here's a brief overview:

1) Agony, darkness, death:

 Grammatical Meaning: Nouns in the singular form, denoting abstract concepts.

 Type: General (nouns); Referential (real-world concepts).

2) Answered, felt, was, kept:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past tense verbs, indicating actions or states that have been
completed.

 Type: General (past tense); Referential (specific actions).

3) Are advertising, is wiping, are coming:

 Grammatical Meaning: Present continuous tense verbs, indicating ongoing actions.

 Type: General (continuous aspect); Relational (subject-verb agreement).

4) Aviator’s, Josephine’s, Martina’s:

 Grammatical Meaning: Possessive forms of nouns, indicating ownership.

 Type: Dependent (possession); Relational (relationship between possessor and
possessed).

5) Brazil, Heihe, China, India, Amur, Brenda, Amanda:

 Grammatical Meaning: Proper nouns, referring to specific places or people.

 Type: Referential (specific entities); General (nouns).

6) Cannot believe, cannot suspect, can drive:

 Grammatical Meaning: Modal verbs, expressing ability or possibility.

 Type: Relational (modality); General (verbs).

7) Carnival, festival, game; they, these:

 Grammatical Meaning: Nouns (first group) and pronouns (second group).

 Type: Referential (events, games); Relational (pronouns show agreement with nouns).

8) Clouds, riptides, thorn bushes, cacti, yucca, waves, hats:

 Grammatical Meaning: Plural nouns, referring to physical objects.

 Type: General (plurality); Referential (specific objects).

9) Crimson, green, dark, articulate, strong, persuasive, argumentative, beautiful:

 Grammatical Meaning: Adjectives, modifying nouns by describing qualities or

characteristics.

 Type: General (adjectives); Referential (qualities).

10) Dancers, troupes, fans, glasses:

 Grammatical Meaning: Plural nouns, referring to groups of people or objects.

 Type: General (plurality); Referential (specific groups or objects).

11) Dearest, closest, baddest:

 Grammatical Meaning: Superlative adjectives, expressing the highest degree of quality.

 Type: General (superlative); Referential (qualities).

12) Gaiety, love:

 Grammatical Meaning: Abstract nouns, referring to emotions or states.

 Type: Referential (abstract concepts); General (nouns).

13) Great, galumphing, unmannerly, supercilious:

 Grammatical Meaning: Adjectives, modifying nouns by describing qualities.

 Type: General (adjectives); Referential (specific qualities).

14) Had been, had driven, had almost forgotten, had known:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past perfect tense, indicating actions that were completed
before another action in the past.

 Type: General (tense); Relational (time relations between actions).

15) Had exchanged, had done wrong, had spent, had catapulted:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past perfect tense, indicating actions that had been completed
before another event.

 Type: General (perfect tense); Relational (time sequence).

16) Irritation, distress, pleasure, opportunity, shame:

 Grammatical Meaning: Abstract nouns, referring to emotions or states.

 Type: Referential (abstract emotions and situations); General (nouns).

17) Is starting up, are marching, am trying:

 Grammatical Meaning: Present continuous tense, indicating ongoing actions.

 Type: General (continuous aspect); Relational (subject-verb agreement).

18) Juice, gold, sugar, smoke:

 Grammatical Meaning: Mass nouns, referring to substances that are uncountable.

 Type: General (mass noun); Referential (physical substances).

19) Long, athletic, thunderous, young, underweight, black-and-white, sacrosanct:

 Grammatical Meaning: Adjectives, describing qualities or characteristics.

 Type: General (adjectives); Referential (qualities).

20) Looked, did, drained, followed, enveloped:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past tense verbs, indicating completed actions.

 Type: General (past tense); Referential (actions).

21) Looks, speaks, understands, meets:

 Grammatical Meaning: Present tense verbs, indicating habitual or regular actions.

 Type: General (present tense); Relational (subject-verb agreement).

22) Mama’s, Clarence’s, George’s, family’s:

 Grammatical Meaning: Possessive forms of nouns, indicating ownership.

 Type: Dependent (possession); Relational (ownership relationships).

23) Must have sensed, could have done, have written, has gone:

 Grammatical Meaning: Modal perfect verbs, expressing obligation, possibility, or

ability in the past.

 Type: Relational (modality and perfect aspect); General (verbs).

24) Seems, sleep, are, talk:

 Grammatical Meaning: Verbs indicating states or actions.

 Type: General (verbs); Referential (actions or states).

25) Smiled, relaxed, rose, thought:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past tense verbs, indicating completed actions.

 Type: General (past tense); Referential (actions).

26) Spurred, sashed:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past participles, often used in passive or perfect constructions.

 Type: Dependent (requires auxiliary verb for full meaning); Referential (actions).

27) Streets, bands, drums, horns, cymbals:

 Grammatical Meaning: Plural nouns, referring to physical objects.

 Type: General (plurality); Referential (specific objects).

28) Stronger, weaker, more fortified, better:

 Grammatical Meaning: Comparative adjectives, indicating relative qualities.

 Type: General (comparative); Referential (qualities).

29) Teacher’s, boy’s, employer’s, Ann’s, Kya’s, Jason’s:

 Grammatical Meaning: Possessive nouns, indicating ownership.

 Type: Dependent (possession); Relational (ownership relationships).

30) This, a, another:

 Grammatical Meaning: Determiners, indicating specific or general references to nouns.

 Type: Dependent (determiners); Relational (noun modification).

31) To cry, to see, to believe, to brood:

 Grammatical Meaning: Infinitive forms of verbs, indicating actions or states.

 Type: General (infinitive verbs); Referential (actions).

32) To greet her, to approach, to say, to pluck:

 Grammatical Meaning: Infinitive verbs with direct objects.

 Type: Relational (infinitive + object); Referential (actions).

33) Traumas, boxes, cans, oxen, cacti, trousers:

 Grammatical Meaning: Plural nouns, referring to physical objects or abstract concepts.

 Type: General (plurality); Referential (specific objects).

34) Was filled, was needed, wasn’t built, were kept:

 Grammatical Meaning: Passive constructions in the past tense.

 Type: General (past passive); Relational (agent-patient relations).

35) Was going on, were growing up, was pouring, were sleeping:

 Grammatical Meaning: Past continuous tense, indicating actions that were ongoing in
the past.

 Type: General (continuous aspect); Relational (subject-verb agreement).

36) Was, did, had:

 Grammatical Meaning: Auxiliary verbs used to form different tenses or moods.

 Type: Dependent (auxiliary); Relational (supporting other verbs).

37) Wear, herald, outbreak:

 Grammatical Meaning: Noun and verb forms, depending on context.

 Type: Referential (actions or events).

38) Will be fine, will love, will be back, won’t be a burden:

 Grammatical Meaning: Future

2. Comment on the relations as being syntagmatic or paradigmatic: 1) interesting,

absorbing, alluring, animating, appealing, captivating, enchanting, challenging,
entertaining, consuming, fetching, exciting, mesmeric. 2) boring, arid, banal, bromidic,
characterless, lifeless, colorless, commonplace, drudging, flat, humdrum, insipid,
interminable, monotonous, moth-eaten, trite. 3) It is also a source of conflict. 4)
determined, hard, powerful, tenacious, tough, forceful, robust, resolute, solid.5) be, was,
were, been, will be, would be. 5) Chan Chan was the largest mud-built city in the
world;6) weak, crumbly, fatigue, frail, retiring, thin, weary, feeble, flaccid, infirm,
languid, mild, sluggish 7) a / the / this / my/ his / Luke’s / boy’s
 To determine whether the relations in each example are syntagmatic or paradigmatic, it's essential to
understand the differences:

 Syntagmatic relations refer to the relationships between elements that co-occur in a

sequence (horizontal relations) in a specific context, such as words in a sentence.

 Paradigmatic relations refer to the relationships between elements that can substitute for
one another in a particular context (vertical relations), such as synonyms or different
verb forms.

Here are the comments on each of the examples:

1) interesting, absorbing, alluring, animating, appealing, captivating, enchanting,

challenging, entertaining, consuming, fetching, exciting, mesmeric

 Relation: Paradigmatic

 Explanation: These are synonyms or near-synonyms that can replace each other in
similar contexts. They share the same grammatical role (adjective) and can be used in
sentences like "The book was __," where any of these words could substitute for the
others.

2) boring, arid, banal, bromidic, characterless, lifeless, colorless, commonplace, drudging,

flat, humdrum, insipid, interminable, monotonous, moth-eaten, trite

 Relation: Paradigmatic

 Explanation: Like the first set, these words are synonyms or near-synonyms and can
substitute for one another in a similar syntactic position (adjective). For example, in
"The lecture was __," any of these words can replace the others.

3) It is also a source of conflict.

 Relation: Syntagmatic

 Explanation: This is a sentence where the words are in a linear, syntagmatic

relationship. The grammatical structure relies on the order of the words to make sense,
so they work together to form meaning in a specific sequence.

4) determined, hard, powerful, tenacious, tough, forceful, robust, resolute, solid

 Relation: Paradigmatic

 Explanation: These words are synonyms or near-synonyms, mostly adjectives describing

strength or determination. They can replace one another in similar contexts, as in "He is
a __ person," where any of these words can substitute for one another.

5) be, was, were, been, will be, would be

 Relation: Paradigmatic
  Explanation: These are different forms of the verb "to be," representing tense, aspect,
and mood variations. They can substitute for one another depending on the temporal or
modal context of the sentence. For example, "He __ happy" could have any of these
forms, depending on the intended meaning.

6) Chan Chan was the largest mud-built city in the world

 Relation: Syntagmatic

 Explanation: The words in this sentence have a syntagmatic relationship because they
follow a specific word order to construct a meaningful sentence. The structure of subject
("Chan Chan"), verb ("was"), and complement ("the largest mud-built city in the world")
is essential for its interpretation.

7) weak, crumbly, fatigue, frail, retiring, thin, weary, feeble, flaccid, infirm, languid, mild,
sluggish

 Relation: Paradigmatic

 Explanation: These are adjectives or nouns related to weakness or lack of strength and
can replace each other in the same syntactic slot, as in "He is __," where any of these
words can be used depending on the context.

8) a / the / this / my / his / Luke’s / boy’s

 Relation: Paradigmatic

 Explanation: These words function as determiners or possessive forms and can

substitute for one another to modify nouns. For instance, "The book" could be replaced
by "My book," "His book," or "Luke's book," all of which maintain the structure but offer
different meanings based on the determiner or possessor.

Summary:

 Syntagmatic relations are present in examples where the words form a meaningful
sequence (e.g., "It is also a source of conflict").

 Paradigmatic relations involve words or forms that can substitute for one another (e.g.,
synonyms, verb forms, or determiners).