Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport

Electronics and Communications Engineering Department

Electronics 2

Lecture 3
Dr. Hassan Eldib
 Voltage Divider

• We will start by considering very simple circuits

• Consider the voltage divider shown here

– from our earlier consideration of the

circuit
Z2
vo = vi 
Z1 + Z 2
– rearranging, the gain of the circuit is
vo Z2
=
vi Z1 + Z 2
– this is also called the
transfer function of the circuit

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 L & C Reactance

• The reactance of both inductors and capacitance

is frequency dependent and we know that

Z L = j L
1
ZC =
j C

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 Voltage Gain

• Clearly the transfer function is

vo ZR R 1
= = =
vi Z R + Z C R + 1 1− j
1
j C CR

• At high frequencies
–  is large, voltage gain  1
• At low frequencies
–  is small, voltage gain → 0

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 Bode Diagram
• Frequency response of the high-pass network

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 Magnitude of Voltage Gain
• Since the denominator has
real and imaginary parts, the
magnitude of the voltage gain is
1
Voltage gain =
2
 1 
1 +
2

 CR 

• When 1/CR = 1
1 1
Voltage gain = = = 0.707
1+ 1 2

• This is a halving of power, or a fall in gain of 3 dB

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 Cut-off Frequency
• The half power point is the cut-off frequency of
the circuit
– the angular frequency C at which this occurs is given
by 1
=1
cCR
1 1
c = = rad/s
CR 
– where  is the time constant of the CR network. Also
c 1
fc = = Hz
2 2CR

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 The Decibel (dB)
• The decibel is a common unit of measurement of voltage gain
and frequency response. It is a logarithmic measurement of the
ratio of one power to another power or one voltage to another
voltage.
• The formulas below are used for calculation of decibels for
power gain and voltage gain.
Ap(db) = 10 log Ap
Av(db) = 20 log Av
• If |Av| is > 1, dB gain is +ve. If |Av| is < 1, dB gain is –ve and
usually called attenuation.

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 Amplifier gain vs frequency

Midband range

Gain falls of due to the effects

of transistor stray (parasitic)
capacitance

Gain falls of due to the effects of

coupling and by-pass capacitors

f BW = f H − f L

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 Definitions
• Frequency response of an amplifier is the graph of its gain
versus the frequency.

• Cutoff frequencies : the frequencies at which the voltage gain

equals 0.707 of its maximum value. At this point the output
power drops by 3 dB. [in real number, 0.5 of it’s midrange
value.

• Bandwidth : the band between upper and lower cutoff

frequencies

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 Low Frequency

• At low frequency range, the gain falloff due to coupling

capacitors and bypass capacitors.

• As signal frequency decreases , the reactance of the coupling

capacitor XC increases, and no longer behave as short circuits.

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 Low frequency amplifier response (example)
• At the low frequency ac equivalent circuit of a capacitor coupled
amplifier, we can see there are three RC circuits that will limit low
frequency response. The input at the base, the output at the collector,
and the emitter.

Input RC Circuit
(coupling capacitor) Output RC Circuit
(coupling capacitor)
Bypass RC Circuit

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 Short-circuit time-constant method (SCTC)

• To determine the lower-cutoff frequency having n

coupling and bypass capacitors:

n
1
L  
i =1 RiS Ci

RiS = resistance at the terminals of the ith capacitor Ci with all

the other capacitors replaced by short circuits.

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 Example 1: Common-emitter Amplifier

VCC = 12V

Given :
 = 100 R1 RC C2
30 k
4.3 k vO
r = 1.45 k
RS C1 0.1 F
RL
1 k 2 F
100 k
vS R2
RE C3
10 k 10 F
1.3 k

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 Example 1: Low-frequency ac equivalent circuit

C2
vo
RS C1

RC RL
vs RB
RE C3

In the above circuit, there are 3 capacitors (coupling plus bypass

capacitors). Hence we need to find 3 resistances at the terminals of the
3 capacitors in order to find the lower cut-off frequency of the amplifier
circuit.

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 Example 1: Circuit for finding R1S

RinCE

RS R1S

Replacing C2
RC RL
and C3 by
short circuits
RB

R1S = RS + (RB RinCE ) = RS + (RB r ) = 1000 + (7500 1450) = 2220 

where RB = R1 R2 = 7500

1 1
= = 225 rad / s
R1S C1 (2.22 k )(2.00F )

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 Example 1: Circuit for finding R2S

RoutCE

Replacing C1
and C3 by R2S
short circuits RC
RL
RS RB

R2 S = RL + RC = 100 k + 4.3 k = 104 k

1 1
= = 96.1 rad / s
R2 S C2 (104 k)(0.100F )
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 Example 1: Circuit for finding R3S

RTH

Replacing C1
and C2 by
RC||RL
short circuits
RS RB
RoutCC is the equivalent RE R3S
resistance reflected into
the emitter circuit RoutCC

r + RTH 1450 + 882

R3 S = RE RoutCC = RE = 1300 = 22.7 
 +1 101
RTH = RS RB = 882
1 1
= = 4410 rad / s
R3S C3 (22.7)(10F )
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 Example 1: Estimation of L

3
1
L   = 225 + 96.1 + 4410 = 4730rad / s
i =1 RiS Ci

L
fL = = 753 Hz
2

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 Example 2: Common-base Amplifier

RS 4.7 F 1 F
vO
100  C1 C2
RE RC RL
vS 43 k 22 k 75 k

-VEE +VCC

Given :
r = 26 
 = 100

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 Example 2: Low-frequency ac equivalent circuit

vo
RS C2
C1
RC RL
RE
vs

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 Example 2: Circuit for finding R1S

RS R1S Replacing C2
by short
circuit
RE RC || RL

RinCB
RinCB is the equivalent
resistance reflected into
the emitter circuit  r 
R1S = RS + (RE RinCB )  RS +  RE  = 100 + (4300 0.26)  100 

 1 +  
1 1
= = 2.1310−3 rad / s
R1S C1 (100  )(4.7 F )

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 Example 2: Circuit for finding R2S

RoutCB R2S
Replacing C1
by short circuit
RS || RE RC RL

R2 S = RL + (RC RoutCB )  RL + RC = 75 k + 22 k = 97 k

1 1
= = 10.309 rad / s
R2 S C2 (97 k)(1F )

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 Example 2: Estimation of L

2
1
L   = 2.1310−3 + 10.309  10.309 rad / s
i =1 RiS Ci

L
fL = = 1.64 Hz
2

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 Example 3: Common-collector Amplifier

+VCC

RS C1

1 k 0.1 F C2
RB vO
vS
100 k 100 F
RL
RE
47 k
3 k

Given : -VEE

 = 100
r = 2.6 k

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 Example 3: Low-frequency ac equivalent circuit

RS C1

C2

vs vo
RB
RE RL

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 Example 3: Circuit for finding R1S

RinCC
RS R1S Replacing C2
by short circuit

RB
RE || RL RinCC is the equivalent
resistance reflected from
the emitter circuit
R1S = RS + (RB RinCC ) = RS + (RB r + ( + 1)(RE RL ))

= 74.43 k
1 1
= = 136.18 rad / s
R1S C1 (74.43 k )(0.1F )

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 Example 3: Circuit for finding R2S

Replacing C1
by short circuit RoutCC
R2S

RTH = RS || RB
RE RL

RoutCC is the equivalent

resistance reflected into
the emitter circuit
 RTH + r 
R2 S = RL + (RE RoutCC ) = RL +  RE
 

  +1 
= 47.038k
1 1
= = 0.213 rad / s
R2 S C2 (47.038 k )(100F )

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 Example 3: Estimation of L

2
1
L   = 136.18 + 0.213 = 136.393rad / s
i =1 RiS Ci

L
fL = = 21.7 Hz
2

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 Gain-bandwidth Product

• Gain-bandwidth product: constant value of the product of the

voltage gain and the bandwidth.

fT = Amid BW
• Unity-gain frequency : the frequency at which the amplifier’s
gain is 1

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