Developmental Tasks of Normal Adolescence

Some years ago, Professor Robert Havighurst of the University of Chicago, USA, proposed that stages
in human development can best be thought of in terms of the developmental ‘tasks’ that are part of the
normal transition. He identified ten developmental tasks associated with the adolescent transition. Each of
the Havighurst tasks can also be seen as elements of the overall sense of self that adolescents carry with
them as they move towards and into young adulthood. Adolescents do not progress through these multiple
developmental tasks separately; at any given time they may be dealing with several.
The adolescent must adjust to a new physical sense of self. At no other time since birth does an
individual undergo such profound physical changes as during early adolescence. Puberty is marked by
sudden rapid growth in height and weight. Also, the young person experiences the emergence and
accentuation of those physical traits that make the person a boy or a girl. The young person looks less like a
child and more like a physically mature adult. The effect of this rapid change is that mid-adolescents are
body-conscious, and their concerns are directed towards their opposite-sexed peers.
The adolescent must adjust to new intellectual abilities. In addition to a sudden spurt in physical
growth, adolescents experience a sudden increase in their ability to think about their world. As a normal part
of maturity, they are able to think more things. However, they are also able to conceive of their world with
awareness. Before adolescence, children's thinking is dominated by a concrete example for any problem that
they solve; their thinking is constrained to what is real and physical. During adolescence, young people
begin to recognise and understand abstractions. The growth in ability to deal with abstractions accelerates
during the middle stages of adolescence.
The adolescent must adjust to increased cognitive demands at school. Adults see high school in part as
a place where adolescents prepare for adult roles and responsibilities and in part as preparatory for further
education. School curricula are frequently dominated by the inclusion of more abstract, demanding material,
regardless of whether the adolescents have achieved formal thought. Since not all adolescents make the
intellectual transition at the same rate, demands for abstract thinking prior to the achievement of that ability
may be frustrating.
The adolescent must adopt a personal value system. During adolescence, as teens develop increasingly
complex knowledge systems, they also adopt an integrated set of values and morals. During the early stages
of moral development, parents provide their child with a structured set of rules of what is right and wrong,
what is acceptable and unacceptable. Eventually the adolescent must assess the parent's values as they come
into conflict with values expressed by peers and other segments of society. To reconcile differences, the
adolescent restructures those beliefs into a personal ideology.
The adolescent must develop expanded verbal skills to accommodate more complex concepts and
tasks. Their limited language of childhood is no longer adequate. As their conceptual development may
outstrip their verbal development, adolescents may appear less competent than they really are.
The adolescent must establish adult vocational goals. As part of the process of establishing a personal
identity, the adolescent must also begin the process of focusing on the question, 'What do you plan to be
when you grow up?1 Mid-adolescents must identify, at least at a preliminary level, what their adult
vocational goals are and how they intend to achieve them.
The adolescent must develop a personal sense of identity. Prior to adolescence, one's identity is an
extension of one's parents' identity. During the early adolescent years a young person begins to recognise
their uniqueness and to establish themselves as separate individuals, independent of their parents. As such,
one must reconsider the answer to the question, ‘what does it mean to be me?' or "who am l?"
 The adolescent must establish emotional and psychological independence from his or her parents,
childhood is marked by strong dependence on one's parents. Adolescents may yearn to keep that safe,
secure, supportive, dependent relationship. Yet, to be an adult implies a sense of independence, of
autonomy, of being one's own person. In an attempt to assert their need for independence and individuality,
adolescents may respond with what appears to be hostility and lack of cooperation.
The adolescent must develop stable and productive peer relationships. Although peer interaction is
not unique to adolescence, it seems to hit a peak of importance during early adolescence. Certainly by late
adolescence or early adulthood the need for peer approval has diminished. This degree to which an
adolescent is able to make friends and have an accepting peer group, though, is a major indicator of how
well the adolescent will adjust in other areas of social and psychological development. Early adolescence is
also a period of intense conformity to peers.” Fitting in' not being different, and being accepted seem
somehow pressing to this age group. The worst possibility, from the view of the young teen, is to be seen by
peers as different.
The adolescent must develop increased impulse control and behavioural maturity. In their shift to
adulthood, most young people engage in one or more behaviours that place them at physical, social, or
educational risk. Risky behaviours are sufficiently pervasive among adolescents to suggest that risk-taking
may be a normal developmental process of middle adolescence. Gradually adolescents develop a set of
behavioural self-controls through which they assess which behaviours are acceptable and adult-like.
 Questions 1-6
Classify the following developments as characterising
A early adolescence
B middle adolescence
C late adolescence
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet
1 becoming interested in people of the other gender
2 beginning to choose a future career
3 needing to feel the same as one's friends
4 beginning to form a self-image separate from the family context
5 having less need for the good opinion of friends
6 exposing oneself to dangers
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Questions 7-10
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-E, below.
Write the correct letter, A-E in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
7 Havighurst proposed a set of tasks which
8 A course of study at high school
9 The speed of development of thinking ability during adolescence
10 Adolescence is a time when the young person
A reflects an adolescent's emerging self-perception.
B cannot solve a problem without an example.
C is designed to become more challenging.
D formulates a personal set of moral beliefs and values.
E varies according to the individual.

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Questions 11-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
11 Most pre-adolescent children are capable of abstract thought.
12 Adolescents ‘limited skills with words may give a false impression of their ability.
13 Whether or not an adolescent is accepted by their age-group is an important clue to other aspects of
their social adjustment.
 The Ecological Importance of Bees

Questions 1-5
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A, B, D, E and F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Parallels between bee and human activities
ii An evolutionary turning point
iii A lack of total co-operation
iv The preservation of individual plant species
v The commercial value of bees
vi The structure of flowering plants
vii The pursuit of self-interest
viii The need for further research

1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
Example
Paragraph C vii
3 Paragraph D
4 Paragraph E
5 Paragraph F

A Sometime in the early Cretaceous period of the Earth's history, hunting wasps of a certain type became
bees by adopting a vegetarian diet: they began to rely more and more on the pollen of plants as a source of
protein for themselves and their offspring, as an alternative to insects. In so doing, they accidentally
transported pollen on their bodies to other plants of the same species, bringing about pollination. The stage
was thus set for a succession of ever-closer mutual adaptations of bees and flowering plants. In particular,
flowers began to reward bees for their unwitting role in their reproduction by providing richer sources of
pollen and another source of nutrition, nectar.
B Today about 15 per cent of our diet consists of crops which are pollinated by bees. The meat and other
animal products we consume are ultimately derived from bee- pollinated forage crops, and account for
another 15 per cent. It follows that around one third of our food is directly or indirectly dependent on the
pollinating services of bees. On a global basis, the annual value of agricultural crops dependent on the
pollination services of bees is estimated at £1,000 million (US$1,590 million). Much of this pollination is
due to honey bees, and in monetary terms it exceeds the value of the annual honey crop by a factor of fifty.
C But the apparently harmonious relationship between bees and plants conceals a conflict of interests.
Although flowers need bees and vice versa, it pays each partner to minimise its costs and maximise its
profits. This may sound like an extreme case of attributing human qualities to non-human species, but using
the marketplace and the principles of double-entry book keeping as metaphors may give US some insights
into what is really going on between bees and flowering plants. In the real world, both flower and bee
operate in a competitive marketplace. A community of retailers, the flowers, seek to attract more or less
discriminating consumers, the bees. Each flower has to juggle the costs and benefits of investing in
advertising, by colour and scent, and providing rewards, nectar and pollen, clearly a species which depends
on cross-pollination is on a knife-edge: it must provide sufficient nectar to attract the interest of a bee, but
not enough to satisfy all of its needs in one visit. A satiated bee would return to its nest rather than visit
another flower. The bee, on the other hand, is out to get the maximum amount of pollen and nectar. It must
assess the quality and quantity of rewards which are on offer and juggle its energy costs so that it makes a
calorific profit on each foraging trip. The apparent harmony between plants and bees is therefore not all that
it seems. Instead, it is an equilibrium based on compromises between the competing interests of the
protagonists.
D This sounds remarkably like the ideas of the 18th-century economist Adam Smith. In his book, The
Wealth of Nations, Smith postulated that in human society the competitive interactions of different
‘economic units' eventually resulted in a balanced, or ‘harmonious’ society. One might predict, therefore,
that economists would find the relationships between bees and plants of some interest. This is the case in
Israel, where economists are collaborating with botanists and entomologists in a long-term study of the
pollination biology of the native flora, in an attempt to understand the dynamics of the relationship between
communities of bees and plants.
E This sort of study is of more than passing academic interest. It is important that authorities understand
the dynamic relationships between plants and their pollinators. This is especially true when, say, devising
conservation policies. A good example comes from the forests of tropical South America. Here, as in all
rainforests, there is a high diversity of tree species. There may be more than 120 per acre, but in a given acre
there may only be one or two individuals of any one species: These trees are pollinated by large, fast-flying
bees. There is evidence that certain types of bees learn the distribution of these scattered trees and forage
regularly along the same routes. This is called ‘trap-lining’ and the bees forage for up to 23 km from their
nests. The bees are therefore acting as long distance pollinators.
F An issue of current concern in tropical forest conservation is that of trying to estimate the minimum
sustainable size of islands' of forest reserve in areas where large-scale felling is taking place. There is much
discussion on seed dispersal distances. But this is only one half of the equation, so far as the reproduction of
trees is concerned. There is another question that must be addressed in order to calculate whether proposed
forest reserves are close enough to the nearest large tract of forest: ‘what is the flight range of these long-
distance foragers?' We need to know much more about bees and their relationships with plants before this
question can be answered.
G Bees, then, are vital to our survival. Furthermore, much of the visual impact of human environments
derives from vegetation, and most vegetation is dependent on bees for pollination. Thus, as pollinators of
crops and natural vegetation, bees occupy key positions in the web of relationships which sustain the living
architecture of our planet.

Questions 1-5
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs, A-G
 Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A, B, D, E and F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i Parallels between bee and human activities
ii An evolutionary turning point
iii A lack of total co-operation
iv The preservation of individual plant species
v The commercial value of bees
vi The structure of flowering plants
vii The pursuit of self-interest
viii The need for further research

1
Paragraph A
2
Paragraph B
Example
Paragraph C vii
3
Paragraph D

4
Paragraph E

5
Paragraph F

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Questions 6-12
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 6-12 on your answer sheet.
6. Hunting wasps used to feed on other 6________________ , rather than on vegetation.
7. Flowering plants started to reward bees with rich pollen and an additional food in the form
of 7______________
8. Approximately 8_________________ of human food production relies on the activity of bees.
9. If the process of 9___________________ is to take place effectively, bees need to travel from one
flower to another before going back to the nest.
10. Bees need to balance the 10______________ of each trip against the calorific rewards they obtain.
11. There can be over 120 different 11_______________ in. an acre of rainforest.
12. The bees that pollinate large forests regularly practise an activity known as 12____________
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Question 13
Choose the correct letter , A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in box 13 on your answer sheet. Which is
the best title for Reading Passage ?
A The Ecological Importance of Bees
B The Evolutionary History of Bees
C The Social Behaviour of Bees
D The Geographical Distribution of Bees
 A new stage in the study and teaching of history

For hundreds of years, historians have relied on written or printed documents to provide the bulk of
their source materials, and they have largely communicated with students and the wider public by writing
books and journal articles. Today, however, the printed word is being superseded by a diversity of forms of
communication, above all moving images on video or film
A The development of this new form of communication is leading to a growing gap between the practice
of professional historians based in academia, and the practice of those aiming to popularise the study of
history among the general public, and to encourage people to create their own records for the future. On the
one hand, there are mainstream academics who continue to use only the written word as they examine more
and more fields with an ever- increasing number of sophisticated methodologies. On the other hand, film
and video, especially as broadcast on television, are probably the major influence on the public's
consciousness of history, as they see film of events of fifty or a hundred years ago, events they had
previously only read about.
B In a related development, a great many people now document local and family events in the form of
videos; many schools, too, produce video yearbooks. All these visual records may well prove to be
invaluable sources of information for future historians. The glaring contradiction is that the two approaches-
the academic and what we might term the popular - have intersected very little: with a few notable
exceptions, professional historians have tended to avoid involvement in television programmes about
history, and have even less impact on what is being captured and preserved on video. And the potential of
moving images has wielded negligible influence on the academic study of history.
C This gulf can be seen as resulting from the willingness or otherwise of individual historians to accept the
validity of new forms of communication in the study of history. This is not the first time that the question
has arisen. The study of history, as conceived of today, began with the transition from oral to literate culture,
leading to the earliest written records and the earliest historical studies. The next great shift came with the
advent of printing, which transformed everything. Today, as the printed word loses its dominance, historians
are faced with a variety of forms of communication, ranging from simple audiotape to the promising
complexities of videodiscs linked with computers. As yet, however, the use of moving images to record
current events for the benefit of future historians does not even have a commonly agreed name.
D This does not mean that mainstream historians have totally rejected the use of moving images as
sources: the majority seem intrigued by the idea, and valuable research has been carried out into the history
and analysis of films with a broad circulation, using them as a source of information on the social and
intellectual history of the twentieth century. Journals such as American History Review have played a
significant role in this field.
E Yet the number of historians using moving images in their research or teaching is very small. The
barrier seems to be that the profession is structured around the medium of the written word, and is somewhat
insulated in its academic setting. The use of moving images presents a substantial challenge to this setting
and its assumptions. As a result, historians have rejected the training, the institutions, the motivations and
the professional structures that would be needed in order to use moving images effectively. Above all, they
have rejected the necessity to learn complicated new skills.
F So why should historians make this change? clearly, films or videos of events and people can be used as
solid evidence of the past, linked to the words of the narrator (whether a television presenter/historian or a
university teacher giving a lecture) but carrying information in their own right. Film has reintroduced the
oral form as a mode of research and communication for documenting historical events. Now, with moving
images, people are reminded that oral communication is not limited to words: it also includes body
language, expression and tone, and is embedded in a context. Little of this is evident in a written transcript.
A further effect of video and film is that the narrator gives up some control and has less need to give
explanations, while the viewer becomes involved in the process of interpreting and understanding history.
G Film or videotape can also aid historians by simplifying the work of the interviewer. Instead of trying to
carry on an interview while simultaneously making notes about setting and other unspoken data, this new
kind of historian can concentrate on the interview itself, and study the film later. The many benefits of using
moving images as historical evidence easily outweigh worries about cost, technical skills, or the effect of a
camera on a person telling his or her story. Moving images enhance the quality of historical research, and
suggest new directions for historians to explore

Questions 1-9
Reading Passage has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 1-9 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

1 an overview of the range of methods that have been used over time to document history
2 the main reason why many historians are unwilling to use films in their work
3 a reference to some differences between oral and written communication
4 how most citizens today gain an understanding of history
5 how current student events are sometimes captured for future audiences
6 mention of the fact that the advantages of film are greater than the disadvantages
7 the claim that there is no official title for film-based historical work
8 reference to the active role the audience plays when watching films
9 a list of requirements that historians see as obstacles to their use of film to record history
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Questions 10-14
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage?
In boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet, write
YES – if the statement reflects the claims of the writer
NO – if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN – if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

10 The needs of students in school have led to improvements in the teaching of history.
11 Academic and popular historians have different attitudes towards the value of innovations in
communication.
12 It is common for historians to play a major role in creating historical documentaries for television.
13 Articles in American History Review have explored aspects of modern history through popular
films.
14 Developments in technology are influencing a range of academic subjects.