EXPERIMENT NO 1

Objectives

The objectives of Experiment 1 are

● to learn to read resistors by color bands
● to learn to use a multimeter
● to learn to use Oscilloscope
● to learn to build circuits using a breadboard
● to measure and calculate equivalent circuit resistance
● to verify Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
● to build a low pass filter and analyze the output

A. BACKGROUND
Resistors

A component that is specifically designed to have a certain amount of resistance is called a resistor. The principal
applications of resistors are to limit current in a circuit, to divide voltage, and, in certain cases, to generate heat.
Although resistors come in many shapes and sizes, they can all be placed in one of two main categories: fixed or
variable.

Fixed Resistors

Fixed resistors are available with a large selection of resistance values that are set during manufacturing and cannot
be changed easily. They are constructed using various methods and materials. Figure 1 shows several common
types.

Figure 1. Typical Fixed Resistors

Resistor Color Codes

Fixed resistors with value tolerances of 5% or 10% are color coded with four bands to indicate the resistance value
and the tolerance. This color-code band system is shown in Figure 2, and the color code is listed in Table 1. The
bands are always closer to one end.
 Figure 2. Color-code bands on a 4-band resistor.

The color code is read as follows:

1. Start with the band closest to one end of the resistor. The first band is the first digit of the resistance value. If it is
not clear which is the banded end, start from the end that does not begin with a gold or silver band.
2. The second band is the second digit of the resistance value.
3. The third band is the number of zeros following the second digit, or the multiplier.
4. The fourth band indicates the percent tolerance and is usually gold or silver. If there is no band, it means 20%
tolerance.
For example, a 5% tolerance means that the actual resistance value is within ±5% of the color-coded value. Thus, a
resistor with a tolerance of ±5% can have an acceptable range of values from a minimum of 95 𝛺 to a maximum of
105 𝛺.

Example: 470 k𝛺 🡪 Yellow, Violet, Yellow

Table 1 Resistor 4-band color code

Breadboard

A breadboard holds circuit components in place and connects them electrically. A breadboard is shown in Figure 3.
The breadboard has many strips of metal that run underneath the plastic top. The metal strips are arranged as shown
in the Figure 3. These strips connect to the holes on top of the board. This makes it easy to connect components
together when building a circuit.

Figure 3. Breadboard and breadboard connection pattern

In Figure 4, a schematic of a circuit is given, and it is shown how to build it on the breadboard.

Figure 4.
Multimeter:

Figure 5. A simple multimeter

Voltmeter:

A voltmeter measures electrical potential between its terminals. Voltmeters are always placed in parallel with the
circuit or circuit element where the voltage measurement is desired. Since the voltage across two or more parallel
elements is the same, the voltage measured by the meter will be the same as the element to which the meter is
connected. When using a non-auto-ranging meter, select the highest possible range and reduce the range as
necessary until the desired level of accuracy is reached. Always start with a range higher than the expected value to
prevent damage to the meter.

Ammeter:

An ammeter measures the current that flows between its terminals. An ammeter is always placed in series with the
circuit or circuit element where the current flow is of interest. Since the current in each element of a series circuit is
the same, the current flow through the meter will be the same as the current flow to the element of interest. Never
connect an ammeter in parallel unless you intend to measure the short circuit current of a circuit or circuit element
and you have made sure that destructive current levels won’t be reached. When using a non-auto-ranging meter,
select the highest possible range and reduce the range as necessary until the desired level of accuracy is reached.
Always start with a range higher than the expected value to prevent damage to the meter.

Ohmmeter:

An ohmmeter measures the electrical resistance between its terminals. An ohmmeter is connected to the circuit or
circuit element of interest after the element of interest has been isolated from the rest of the circuit. The element of
interest has to be isolated from the rest of the circuit so that its resistance value isn’t obscured by the resistance
values of the other circuit components connected to the element of interest. Never connect an ohmmeter to an
energized circuit or the meter could be destroyed.

Measurement Errors:

● Absolute Error
In general, the result of any measurement of physical quantity must include both the value itself and its error. The
result is usually quoted in the form
±∆X = X0 –Xmeasured
where X0 is the best estimate of what we believe is a true value of the physical quantity and ∆X is the estimate of
absolute error (uncertainty). ∆X indicates the reliability of the measurement, but the quality of the measurement also
depends on the value of X0.
● Fractional Error
∆𝑋
Fractional error is defined as 𝑋0
∆𝑋
Fractional error can be also represented in percentile form: 𝑋0
×100
Ohm’s law states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. Ohm’s law
is given in the following formula:

𝑉
𝐼= 𝑅

where I is current in amperes (A), V is voltage in volts (V), and R is resistance in ohms

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is a fundamental circuit law that states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages around a
single closed path is zero or, in other words, the sum of the voltage drops equals the total source voltage.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law applied to a series circuit is illustrated in Figure 6. For this case, Kirchhoff’s voltage law can
be expressed by following equation:
VS = V1 + V2 + V3 + …. + Vn
where the subscript n represents the number of voltage drops.

Figure 6. Sum of n voltage drops equals the source voltage.

If all the voltage drops around a closed path are added and then this total is subtracted from the source voltage, the
result is zero. This result occurs because the sum of the voltage drops always equals the source voltage.

Therefore, another way of expressing Kirchhoff’s voltage law in equation form is

VS - V1 - V2 - V3 - … - Vn = 0

Oscilloscope

Oscilloscope is a measuring instrument used to extract the characteristics of circuit elements and to examine
voltages and currents that change over time. It is also used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase difference in
the simultaneous examination of one or more rapidly changing signals.
B. PRELIMINARY WORK:

1. Find out how to read the value of a resistor using color bands.
2. Find out working principles of voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter.
3. Find out how to use the multimeter which you purchased. Read its user manual.
4. Find out how to connect circuit components in series or parallel on a breadboard.
5. The values of resistors are given in Table 2. Write the corresponding color bands into related fields in Table
2.

Table 2

The resistance 1st color 2nd color 3rd color 4th color
820 𝛺 ± 10%
2.7 k𝛺 ± 5%
56 k𝛺 ± 20%
47 k𝛺 ± 5%
1.8 k𝛺 ± 20%

6. The color bands are given in Table 3. Write the corresponding resistors into related fields in Table 3.

Table 3

1st color 2nd color 3rd color 4th color The resistance
Brown Green Orange No band
Green Blue Black Silver
Yellow Violet Red Gold
Blue Gray Black Gold
Orange White Orange No band

7. Calculate all node voltages and mesh currents in Fig. 10 using nodal and mesh analysis and write your
results into related fields in Table 4.
8. Determine voltages across each component in Fig. 10 using calculated node voltages in the previous
question and write them into related fields in Table 4.
9. Show that Kirchhoff’s Voltage confirms your calculations for Fig. 10.
10. Write the transfer function of the low-pass filter circuit shown in Figure 11. Using this function, calculate
the amplitude of the output signal for the input signals given in Table 6.

Instructions for preliminary work report:

1. All calculations must be given in your report.

2. All the tables must be given in your report. You will write your calculations into related fields and other
fields will be completed in the experiment.
3. Using ORCAD, build each circuit schematic and add them to your report with simulation results for all
circuits in the order of experimental part. Give all the requested results in the experimental part as graphics
and/or tables. Simulation results must be clear. Background must be white and data trace width must be in
proper thickness.
4. Using TinkerCAD, build each circuit schematic and add them to your report with the results for all circuits
in the order of experimental part.

This preliminary work report is of prime importance to check your results in experiment.
C. EXPERIMENTAL PART:

1. Build the circuit given in Fig. 10, measure voltages and currents given in Table 5 using a multimeter and
write them in related places in Table 5. Write expressions for the generated and dissipated powers and
calculate them.

Figure 10.

Table 4

V(n1) V(n2) V(n3) V(n4) V(R1) V(R2) V(R3) V(R4) V(R5) V(R6) I(R1) I(R3) I(R5)
(V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (A) (A) (A)
Calculated
Measured

Table 5

Generated power:

Dissipated power:

2. Build the circuit given in Figure 11. Apply a sinusoidal signal (Vpp=10V) from the signal generator.
Measure the output voltage on the 1μF capacitor according to changing frequency values given in Table 6
by using an oscilloscope and write the results in related places in Table 7.

Figure 11
Table 6