Chap 16: Sound and Hearing

- sinusoidal wave = think sine wave

16.6 Interference of Waves

- Interference = waves overlap in the same region of space
- Constructive interference = waves arrive in phase
o Increase amplitude
o Distances traveled by the 2 waves differ by a whole # of s
- Destructive interference = waves arrive out of phase
o Decrease amplitude
o Distances differ by any ½ # of s
- Dealing w/ travelling waves (different from standing waves)
- Different regions of the situation w/ 2 speakers experience different interference

16.7 Beats
- 2 waves of equal amplitude but different frequency
- In phase sometimes, but not all the time
o Amplitude varies from zero to max
- Beats = variations of loudness caused by amplitude variation
- Beat frequency = frequency w/which the loudness varies
- Hear a waver/pulsation in the tone

Fbeat = fa - fb (beat frequency)

- At frequency difs > 6 or 7 Hz, cannot hear individual beats => consonance or dissonance
- Difference tone = pitch equal to the beat frequency of the 2 tones
o 2 sounds are produced, you also hear a 3rd sound w/ Hz = fbeat

Chap 35: Interference

- Physical optics = optical effects that depend on the *wave* nature of light

35.1 Interference and Coherent Sources

- Principle of superposition = when waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any
instant is found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at the point by the
individual waves if each were present alone
- Displacement
o For surface waves of liquid = actual displacement from normal level
o in terms of sound waves = excess or deficiency of pressure
o for electromagnetic waves = component of electric or magnetic field
- standing wave = case of interference in which 2 identical waves propagating in opposite directions
combine
- light waves travel in 2 or 3-d mediums
- common sources of light do no emit monochromatic light (single color)
o closest to monochromatic = laser

Constructive and Destructive Interference

- the 2 sources must have the same wavelength and must always be in phase
- coherent = 2 monochromatic sources of same frequency and with any definite constant phase relation
(not necessarily in phase)

1
 - if the coherent waves are transverse, we assume they have the same polarization (same line)
- when waves from multiple sources arrive at a point in phase, the amplitude of resultant wave = sum
of amplitudes = constructive interference
o along line equidistant from the coherent waves
o path difference (r2 - r1) for the two sources must be an integral multiple of the 
r2 - r1 = m (m = 0, + 1, +2, …)
- path difference (r2 - r1) = half-integral # 
o ½ cycle out of phase: crest arrives at same time as a trough
o Resultant amplitude is the difference b/w the 2
o (partial) cancellation of the waves = destructive interference
r2 - r1 = (m + ½ ) (m = 0, + 1, +2, …)
- Antinodal curves: denote all points on which constructive interference occurs
o Amplitude is maximum
- Nodal curves = denote pts on which destructive interference occurs
o Lies b/w each 2 adjacent antinodal curves
- Light waves do not easily achieve coherent relationship
o b/c of the way light is emitted: the many excited atoms of a source radiate in an
unsynchronized and random phase relationship
- light from 1 source can be split so that parts emerge from multiple regions, forming secondary
sources
o any random phase change in the source affects these 2ndary sources equally and does not
change their relative phase
- laser: emission of light from many atoms is synchronized in frequency + phase

35.2 Two-Source Interference of Light

- interference b/w light waves is’nt directly visible b/c light traveling in uniform medium can’t be seen
- Thomas Young’s experiment
o Light source emits monochromatic light
o Light directed at a screen w/ a slit (to remedy the fact that emissions from a source are
not synchronized)
o Cylindrical wave fronts spread out from S0 and reach slits S1 + S2 on the next screen in
phase (equidistant from S0)
o Emerging waves from slits S1 + S2 are always in phase = S1 + S2 are coherent sources
o Interference of waves from S1 + S2 produces a pattern in space
o Screen used to visualize the interference pattern
 Screen most illuminated at points of constructive interference, darkest at pts of
destructive interference
 Bright + dark bands = interference fringes
r2 – r1 = dsin
d = distance b/w slits (difference in path length)
= angle b/w line from slits to screen and normal to the plane of the slits

dsin = m (m = 0, + 1, +2, …)
constructive interference, 2 slits

dsin = (m + ½) (m = 0, + 1, +2, …)

2
 destructive interference, 2 slits

ym = Rtanm
R = distance from slits to screen
ym = distance from center of the pattern ( = 0) to the center of the mth bright band

- For small angles only

o tan m ~ sinm
ym = Rsinm

ym = R(m/d) (constructive interference in Young’s experiment)

35.4 Interference in Thin Films

- light waves are reflected form the front + back of thin films (like a bubble)
o interference b/w the reflected waves occurs in dif places for dif wavelengths
o some colors are canceled out -> bands of colors

Er = (na - nb) Ei
na + n b
- light wave w/ electric-field amplitude Ei is traveling in an optical material w/ index of refraction na.
strikes, at normal incidence, an interface w/ another material w/ index n b. amplitude Er of reflected
wave is proportional to Ei of incident wave
- na > nb : light travels slower in 1st medium. Er and Ei have same sign, and the phase shift of reflected
wave t incident is 0
- na = nb: amplitude Er is 0. Incident light wave can’t see the interface = no reflected wave
- na < nb: light travels slower in 2nd medium. Er and Ei have opposite signs + phase shift relative to
incident is  rad

- film has thickness t, light is at normal incidence, has wavelength , if neither or both of the reflected
waves from the 2 surfaces have a ½ cycle reflection phase shift -> condition for constructive
interference:
2t = m (m = 0, 1, 2….)
o when 1 of the 2 waves has a half-cycle reflection phase shift, this eqn is for destructive
interference
- if neither wave or both have a ½ cycle phase shift, condition for destructive interference:
2t = (m + ½) (m = 0, 1, 2…)
o If 1 waves has a ½ phase shift -> constructive

Newton’s Rings
- Convex surface of a lens lies on glass
o Thin film of air formed b/w
o View w/ monochromatic light -> circular interference fringes = newton’s rings
o Thickness of film (t) increases as we move out from center -> series of alternating
dark/light rings
- Use interference fringes to compare surfaces of 2 optical parts
- Grinding of telescope lens
o “contour lines” – fringes– indicates an additional distance of 1  b/w specimen + master
lens
o More lines = more s = bad

3
Nonreflective and Reflective Coatings
- Nonreflective coatings for lens surfaces make use of thin-film interference
o Thin layer or film w/ index of refraction smaller than glass is deposited on lens surface
o Light is reflected form both surfaces of the layer
o In both reflections, the light is reflected from medium of higher index = same phase
change in both reflections
o If Film thickness = ¼  in the film -> total path difference is ½  -> ½ cycle out of phase
= destructive interference
- Thickness of the nonreflective coating can be a ¼  only 1 particular 
o Usually chosen in the yellow-green spectrum, where eye is most sensitive
o Eliminate stray light in photographic lenses that have many pieces of glass + many air-
glass surfaces
o Increases net amt of light transmitted thru lens (b/c that light is not reflected)
- Reflective coating
o If a ¼  thickness of a material w/ index of refraction > glass is deposited on glass, then
the reflectivity is increased
o ½ cycle phase shift at the air-film interface, but none at the film-glass interface
o Reflections from the 2 sides of the film interfere constructively
o Multiple layer coating -> nearly 100% transmission or reflection for particular s
o Color tv cameras, solar cells, shiny fish