Visual Inspection (Level I & II)

Course content:

1 - Introduction to visual inspection

2 - Welded joint (geometry & Terminology)
3 - The common features of good welded joint
4 - Tools for visual inspection
5 - Welding defects
6 - Visual inspection of welded joints:
Before welding
During welding
After welding
7 - Documents governing welding inspection & qualification
8 - Code requirements API 1104
9 - Practical applications
10 - Preliminary Exam
 Welding Technology
Weld joint geometry and welding terminology
Definition:
A joint is the junction of members or edges of members ,which are to be joined or have been joined .
There are five basic types of joints: butt, corner ,T- , lap and edge .
These five joint types get their names from their configurations.
The butt joint describe the configuration when two members to be joined lie in the same plane and are connected at
their edges.
With a corner joint, the two members to be joined lie in perpendicular planes and their edges are connected.
The T- joint is similar in that the two members lie in perpendicular plane , except the edge of one member is joined
to the planar surface of the other.
In a lap joint, the two members lie in parallel planes, but not the same plane.
The joints occurs where the two members overlap each other to form a double thickness region.
The edge joint, also has the two members lying in parallel planes, but the two members lie with their planar surface
in contact so that the actual welding occurs around the perimeter, or outside, of the joint.

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4.2 Butt or Groove Joint

NO. Name Description

1 Root gap separation between the edges to be welded at the root of the joint .
2 Root face surface of the joint preparation perpendicular to the surface of the
plate
3 Bevel surface oblique surface of the joint preparation
4 Bevel angle angle between the bevelled surface and a plane perpendicular to the
plate.

5 Included angle total angle between the two bevel surface

6 Seam width effective width of the joint (distance between the bevels plus depth of
penetration).

7 T Thickness of the plate

Applicable welds:
Square-groove V-groove
bevel-groove U-groove
J-groove Flare-v-groove
Flare-bevel-groove Edge-flange
braze

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4.3 Lap or Fillet Joint

NO. Name Describtion

1 Throat thickness distance between seam root and surface measured on the bisector of the angle

2 Leg lenght distance between seam root and edge

3 Joint root point in which the bottom of the seam intersects the surface of the base metal

4 Joint edge junction point between seam surface and base metal surface
5 Joint surface external surface of the seam
6 Fusion depth depth reached by the fusion bath from the surface of the base metal
7 Seam width distance between the joint edges

Applicable welds

Bevel-groove flare-bevel-groove
Flare-v-groove J-groove
Square-groove U-groove
V-groove Edge

4.4 Tee joint

• Tack weld one piece of metal on another piece of metal at a right angle, remove the slag

• Heat is not distributed uniformly between both plates

• Most of the heat should be directed toward the base plate

• Can be strong if it is welded on both sides

• Flat or slightly concave appearanc

Applicable welds
Fillet plug
Slot square-groove
Bevel-groove j-groove

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Flare-bevel-groove spot
Projection seam

4.5 Corner joint

• Place the plates at a 90 degree angle

• Make small tack welds

• Weld bead should completely fill the V groove formed by the plates

• Slightly convex surface build up

• Back side can be used to practice fillet welds

Applicable welds
Fillet square-groove
V-groove Bevel-groove
U-groove J-groove
Flare-bevel-groove Edge-flange
Corner-flange spot
Projection Seam

4.6 Edge joint

• An edge weld joint is made by placing the edge of the plate evenly

• Plates should be clamped tightly together

• Make tack welds to hold the plates together

• Size of weld should equal the thickness of the plate being joined

• Weld bead should have a slight build up

Applicable welds
Plug slot
Square-groove bevel-groove
V-groove U-groove
J-groove edge-flange
Corner-flange spot
Projection seam

4.6.1 Edge weld symbol

Corner joint Edge joint Tee joint

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4.7 The weld joint & reference line

Butt joint
Corner joint

T-joint Lap joint

Edge joint

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4.8 Selection of the joint type
The most appropriate joint type for an application will depend on:
 The required part geometry.
 The ability of the joint to transfer the load
 The welding position
 Accessibility of the joint for welding and inspection
 Joint preparation and welding costs
 Governing code and qualification requirements ( fabrication ).

Welding positions

5.1 Parts of a Weld

There are two types of welds:
1) Groove weld
2) Fillet weld
We will first talking about groove weld terminology

Then the fillet weld terminology

Fillet Weld. In this position, welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and
against an approximately vertical surface
Groove Weld. In this position, the axis of the weld lies in an approximately horizontal plane and the face of the
weld lies in an approximately vertical plane
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 groove and fillet welds can be made on many types of joints

5.2 Joint Configurations and Welding Positions

All welders are required to test with a 1" vertical groove weld (3G), 1" overhead groove weld (4G), or both. See
Figure 3 for welding position diagrams. Welders who only perform fillet welds (i.e. stay-in-place forms or girder
flange to bearing sole plate welds) may take the fillet weld test as outlined in the SCM Section811.2c. Those who
qualify using the fillet weld test will be issued a yellow certification card which only qualifies the welder to perform
fillet welds.

5.5 Welding positions_groove welds_plate

5.5.1 Flat position
Plates and axis of the weld is horizontal
This position take code 1G
in application side we can do groove welds on carbon steel in this positions. Using EWTH-2
tungsten electrode, ER70S-6 filler metal, argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

5.5.2 Horizontal position

Plates vertical and axis of weld horizontal
This position take code 2G
in application side we can do groove welds on carbon steel in this positions. Using EWTH-2
tungsten electrode, ER70S-6 filler metal, argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

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5.5.3 Vertical position
Plates vertical and axis of weld vertical
This position take code 3G
in application side we can do groove welds on carbon steel in
this positions. Using EWTH-2 tungsten electrode, ER70S-6 filler
metal, argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

5.5.4 Overhead position

Plate and axis of weld horizontal
This position take code 4G
in application side we can do groove welds on carbon steel in this positions. Using EWTH-2
tungsten electrode, ER70S-6 filler metal, argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

The gap, in all cases, shall be filled until the weld metal forms a convex surface slightly above the base metal.
Cleaning between weld passes shall be limited to hand chipping, hand wire brushing, or powered wire brushes.
Power chippers or grinders shall not be used during the weld test.

5.6 Welding positions_fillet welds_plate

5.6.1 Flat position

Axis of the weld vertical
The code of this position 1F
We will here prepare and accomplish fillet welds on 8luminium in this position , EWTH-2 tungsten
electrode, ER 4043 filler material, and argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

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5.6.2 Horizontal position
Axis of the weld horizontal
And the code of this position 2F
We will here prepare and accomplish fillet welds on 9luminium in this position , EWTH-2
tungsten electrode, ER 4043 filler material, and argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

5.6.3 Vertical position

Axis of weld vertical
And the code 3F
We will here prepare and accomplish fillet welds on
9luminium in this position , EWTH-2 tungsten electrode, ER 4043 filler
material, and argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

5.6.4 Overhead position

Axis of weld horizontal
The code is 4F
We will here prepare and accomplish fillet welds on 9luminium in this position , EWTH-2 tungsten
electrode, ER 4043 filler material, and argon-shielding gas will be used for all welds

5.7 Pipe position

5.7.1 Welding positions_groove welds_pipe

There are several positions and codes in the pipe welding such as:
(1G – 2G – 5G – 6G)
5.7.1.1 1G Position
Here the pipe is rotated and the electrode is fixed at the top of the pipe

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Split bead or weave technique may be used because gravity will not act to pull the puddle to one side in this position

5.7.1.2 2G Position
There are different between 1G and 2G as in the last the pipe is fixed and the welder is rotate around the pipe to
weld it

Working from the bottom up gives you a shelf to work from which decreases the likelihood of entrapments
Recommend using a weave technique to avoid a narrow tight area at the upper side of a pass, especially the hot pass.
Explain that this tight area must be avoided. You will not often “burn it out”. You will almost always create a
massive slag inclusion. Cleaning before welding will not solve it either, because new slag will go into it from flux
on the electrode as you weld

5.7.1.3 5G Position
In the 5G position the pipe is horizontal and fixed so the welder is rotated around the axe of the pipe
The weave technique is best used in vertical, F and OH doesn’t matter much. Therefore, 5G-up will best be
accomplished using the weave. There is a limit on how wide you will be allowed to weave. It will depend on the
code requirements, electrode side, and electrode type.

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5.7.1.4 6G Position

In 6G position the Pipe axis is fixed in position at a 45 degree incline. The position includes flat, horizontal, vertical,
and overhead welds.

I tend to use a split bead technique on 6G. However, if the groove is narrow, I will sometimes use a weave bead to
avoid that narrow tight area at the top toe of the weld.

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 Welding Processes

Welding Process

to Weld Parts of to Weld Parts of

Different Metals Same Metal

Non Ferrous Alloys

Pressure Welding Melting Welding
Welding

Solid S tate Oxyfuel Gas

Arc Welding
Welding Welding

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 Welding Process

Arc Welding
Arc Welding dates back to the late 1800’s.First developed following the invention of AC electricity
Pioneered when a man was welding with a bare metal rod on iron, the sparks from the welding
caught a stack of newspapers on fire near him and while welding, he noticed that his welds started
looking a lot better. The reason for this was the smoke took the oxygen out of his welding
environment and decreased porosity.
Arc Welding is the fusing of two or more pieces of metal together by using the heat produced from
an electric arc welding machine
The arc is struck between the electrode and the metal. It then heats the metal to a melting point. The
electrode is then removed, breaking the arc between the electrode and the metal. This allows the
molten metal to “freeze” or solidify
The arc is like a flame of intense heat that is generated as the electrical current passes through a
highly resistant air gap.
Arc Welding PPE

Arc Welding Processes

SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding)
SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)

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 Introduction
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding or informally as stick welding,
is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current,
in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc
between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates,
giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area
from atmospheric contamination.

1.1 Operation Principles

1.5 Application and Materials

SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron. While
less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on
aluminum. The thickness of the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the
welder, but rarely does it drop below 0.05 in (1.5 mm). No upper bound exists: with proper joint preparation and use
of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined. Furthermore, depending on the
electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any position.

1.6 Equipment

Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current welding power supply and an
electrode, with an electrode holder, a ground clamp, and welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting
the two.

1.6.1 Power supply

The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat) remains
relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most applications of
SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult
if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding
more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely constant, skilled welders performing
complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.

A high output welding power supply for SMAW and GTAW

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In some units the alternator is essentially the same as that used in portable generating sets used to supply mains
power, modified to produce a higher current at a lower voltage but still at the 50 or 60Hz grid frequency. In higher-
quality units an alternator with more poles is used and supplies current at a higher frequency, such as 400Hz. The
smaller amount of time the high-frequency waveform spends near zero makes it much easier to strike and maintain a
stable arc than with the cheaper grid-frequency sets or grid-frequency mains-powered units.

Types of Welding Machine

AC Welding Machine DC Welding Machine AC/DC Welders

 Most common type • Often generator type • Can weld in AC or DC

found in homes, farms, machines polarity
etc. • Diesel or gasoline engine • Less expensive than DC
 Good for farm repairs, driven machine
light jobs. • Portable • Quieter than DC machine
 Low cost • Expensive

1.6.2 Electrode

Various welding electrodes and an electrode holder

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1.8 Causes and Effects of a Good or bad Weld

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Advantages

 Easily implemented
 Inexpensive
 Flexible
 Not as sensitive to part fit-up variances
 Equipment relatively easy to use, inexpensive, portable
 Filler metal and means for protecting the weld puddle are provided by the covered electrode
 Less sensitive to drafts, dirty parts, poor fit-up
 Can be used on carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, copper, nickel, aluminum

Limitations

 Low Deposition Rates

 Low Productivity
 Operator Dependent
 Heat of welding too high for lead, tin, zinc, and their alloys
 Inadequate weld pool shielding for reactive metals such as titanium, zirconium, tantalum, columbium

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding.
 The electrode is not consumed in the weld as in the shielded metal-arc process.
 The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an inert gas such as
argon), and a filler metal known as autogenous welds.

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GTAW weld area 2 FigureGTAW
showsweld
GTAW area
weld
1 area
  GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys because of welding non-ferrous materials like aluminum and
magnesium was difficult, because these metals reacted rapidly with the air, resulting in porous and dross-
filled welds. Processes using flux-covered electrodes did not satisfactorily protect the weld area from
contamination.

 Specific advantages of gas tungsten-arc welding

o Welding can be done in all positions.

o The weld is usually equal to the base metal in composition.
o Flux is not used; therefore, finished welds do not require cleaning of corrosive residue.
o Smoke or fumes are not present to obscure vision; therefore, you can easily see the welding process.
o Distortion of the base metal is minimal because the heat is concentrated in a small area.
o No splatter is produced because metal is not transferred across the arc.

 Specific disadvantages of gas tungsten-arc welding

o It is required high skill
o Lower filler metal deposition rates
o Slower speeds than other processes

2.2 GTAW Equipments and Supplies

The equipment and supplies required for gas tungsten arc

welding consist of an electric power unit, shielding gas, a
pressure-reducing regulator and flow-meter, an electrode
holder (commonly called a torch), non-consumable
tungsten electrodes, filler rods, a supply of cooling water
(when required), and personal protective gear.
2.2.1 Electric Power Unit
Most welding power sources can provide the current
needed for GTA welding

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A negative direct current from the electrode causes a stream of electrons to
collide with the surface, generating large amounts of heat at the weld region. This
creates a deep, narrow weld.
A positive direct current where the electrode is connected to the positive power
supply terminal, positively charged ions flow from the part being welded to the tip
of the electrode instead, so the heating action of the electrons is mostly on the
electrode. This mode also helps to remove oxide layers from the surface of the
region to be welded, which is good for metals such as aluminum or magnesium.
Alternating current Alternating current gives a combination of negative and
positive modes, giving a cleaning effect and imparts a lot of heat as well.

2.2.2 Welding Torch

 GTA welding torches are designed to conduct both welding current and
inert gas to the weld zone.

 Th
e torches
can be
either air or
water
cooled,
depending
on the
welding
current.
 Air
-cooled torches are used for welding light-gauge materials at relatively low-current settings.
 Water-cooled torches are recommended for currents above 200 amperes.

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2.2.3 Electrode
 The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten
or a tungsten alloy, because tungsten has the highest
melting temperature among pure metals.
 the electrode is not consumed during welding.
 Selecting the right size electrode for each job is
important to prevent electrode damage and poor
welds caused by too high or too low a current.
 DCRP requires larger electrodes than DCSP.
Recommended electrode sizes for various ranges of
welding.

2.2.4 Shielding Gas

 shielding gases are necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as
nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion defects, porosity.
 The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it helps start and maintain a stable
arc.
 The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors, including the type of material being welded,
joint design, and desired final weld appearance.
 Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW, since it helps prevent defects due to a varying
arc length. When used with alternating current, the use of argon results in high weld quality and good
appearance.
 Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used to increase the weld penetration in a joint, to
increase the welding speed, and to weld metals with high heat conductivity, such as copper and aluminum.
 Argon-helium mixtures increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of aluminum, and also make it
easier to strike an arc.

Submerged arc welding

An arc welding process which produces coalescense of metals by heating them with an arc or arcs between a bare
metal electrode or electrodes and the work. The arc and the molten metal are shielded by a blanket of granular,
fusible material on the work. Pressure is not used, and filler metal is obtained from the electrodes and sometimes
from a supplemental source welding rod, flux or metal granules).
 Submerged arc welding (SAW), or sub arc as it’s generally referred to, is a unique welding process because
there is no visible evidence that a weld is being made.
 The welding zone is completely shielded by a blanket of granular flux.
 Exposed arc eye protection is not normally used since the arc should be completely covered

 The first patent on the submerged-arc welding (SAW) process was taken out in 1935 and covered an electric arc
beneath a bed of granulated flux. Developed by the E O Paton Electric Welding Institute, Russia, during the
Second World War, SAW's most famous application was on the T34 tank.

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 The process has been used successfully for years to produce high quality weld in compliance with such code
agencies as: ASME, AWS, API and the American bureau of shipping. Submerged arc welding has found usage
in nearly all industries

3.1 Process Features

SAW involves formation of an arc between a continuously-fed bare wire electrode and the work-
piece. The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and slag, and to add alloying elements to
the weld pool. A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux powder is placed
on the work-piece surface. The arc moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is recycled
via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be easily removed after welding. As the arc is
completely covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely low. This produces a thermal efficiency
as high as 60% (compared with 25% for manual metal arc). There is no visible arc light, welding is
spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.

3.2 SAW Advantages

 Extremely high deposition rates possible.

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  High quality welds.
 Easily automated.
 Low operator skill required.
 Deep penetration in some cases may eliminate joint preparation
 Excellent mechanical properties for high quality code and X-ray requirements.

3.3 SAW Disadvantages

 Smokes prejudicial to health.

 Electrode type choice is crucial.
 Hydroscopic electrodes.
 Need to remove slag immediately due inclusions problems.
 Quality depends welder skill

Visual Testing (VT)

VT was the first nondestructive test (NDT) method used in the nondestructive testing
industry, but was last method to be formally acknowledged. It includes either the direct or
indirect observation of the exposed surfaces of the weld and base metal.

Direct visual testing is defined as using “visual aids such as mirrors, telescopes, cameras,
or other suitable instruments.” Direct visual examination is conducted when access allows
the eye to be within 25 inches (610 mm) of the surface to be examined, and at an angle not
less than 30° to the surface to be examined. This is illustrated in Figure

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1.2 PRINCIPLES
1.2.1 Object Factors

1. Light
2. Cleanliness
3. Brightness
4. Surface Condition
5. Shape
6. Size
7. Temperature

1.2.2 Human Factors

1. Environmental
2. Physiological
3. Psychological

1.3 EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

1.3.1 Direct Visual
1.3.1 Direct Visual
Eyes
1.3.2 Direct Visual Aids
Magnifier
Light Sources
Measuring Devices

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 1.3.3 Remote visual
1.3.3.1 Borescopes:

Figure 3 Video borescope Figure 2 Small rigid borescope Figure 1 Typical fiberscopic borescope

1.3.3.2 Fiber Cameras

1.3.3.3 Miniature Cameras
1.3.3.4 Miniature Camera with Pan, Tilt, and Zoom Lens
1.3.3.5 Video Cassette Recorders and Video Tape Recorders
1.3.3.6 Monitors
1.3.3.7 Digital Cameras

1.4 APPLICATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

1.4.1 General Applications Figure 5 Minature Camera
The technology associated with visual testing (VT) and
remote visual testing (RVT) includes a spectrum of
applications, including various products and industries
such as:

 Tanks and vessel

 Buildings
These applications include location of clogged piping;
examination of heating and cooling (HVAC) heat
exchangers; and looking for cracking, pitting, blockage, Figure 4 Minature camera with pan, tilt and
and mechanical damage of the components. zoom lens

 Fossil-fuel power plants

 Turbines, generators and nuclear power palnts.

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Figure 6 Corroded piping system Figure 7 Corroded tank

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 1.4.2 Visual Detection of Discontinuities

Figure 8 Visual Detection of Discontinuities

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1.5 Visual examination procedures
1.5.1 Before welding
1) Joint preparation, dimensions and cleanliness.
2) Clearance dimensions of backing strips, ringsor consumable inserts.
3) Alignment and fit-up of the pieces being welded.
4) Welding process and consumables.
5) Welding procedures and machine setting.
6) Specified preheat temperature.
7) Tack weld quality.

1.5.2 During welding

1) Treatment of tack welds.
2) Quality of the root pass and the succeeding weld layers.
3) Proper preheat and interpass temperature.
4) Sequence of weld passes.
5) Interpass cleaning.
6) Root preparation prior to welding a second side.
7) Conformance with the applicable procedure.

1.5.3 After welding

a) Final weld appearance.
b) Final weld size.
c) Extent of welding.
d) Dimensional accuracy.
e) Amount of distortion.
f) Post weld heat treatment.

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 2. Welding Defects
Welding defects might be classified generally to:
 Surface defects.
 Internal defects.

Surface defects are discontinuities found at the surface of the welding joint and can be seen by
the naked eye or with an aiding method. Internal defects are discontinuities found inside the
welding joint and cannot be seen by the naked eye and without an aid.

2.1 Cracks
Cracks are fracture type discontinuities characterized by sharp tip and high ratio of length and
width to opening displacement. They can be on the surface or inside the weld bead. They can be
classified into main types:
 Hot “solidification cracks”.
 Cold “Hydrogen cracks”.

2.1.1 Hot “solidi ication” cracks

Description:
Hot cracks develop at elevated temperatures, propagate between the grains of a material, and
commonly form during solidification of weld metal.
Causes:
a) Large depth/width ratio of weld bead.
b) High arc energy and/or preheat.
c) Sulphur, phosphorus or niobium pick-up from parent metal.
Remedies:
a) Controlling composition of the metal to be welded.
b) Using filler metal with proper composition.
c) Controlling Mn and S content in carbon and low alloy steels.
d) Controlling solidification structure: grain refining, arc oscillation.
2.1.2 Cold “Hydrogen” cracks:
Description:
Cold cracks develop after solidification of the weld, as a result of stresses, and propagate both
between grains and through grains. Cold cracks in steel sometimes are called delayed cracks and
often are associated with hydrogen embrittlement.

Causes:
a) Hydrogen generated by the welding process.
b) A hard brittle structure which is susceptible to cracking.
c) Residual tensile stresses acting on the welded joint.
Remedies:
a) Controlling welding parameters: proper preheat and interpass temperature.
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b) Post weld treatment: stress relief.
c) Use proper welding processes and Materials, low strength filler metals.

Both of these two categories can be further categorized by their shapes and physical location
within the weldment in to:

a) Longitudinal Cracks
description:
A crack running in the direction of the weld axis. It is found in the weld or base metal.
Causes:
a) Preheat or fast cooling problem.
b) Shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.
Remedies:
a) Controlling Weld toward areas of less constraint.
b) Preheat to even out the cooling rates.
Figure 9 Longitudinal crack
b) Transverse Cracks
Description: A
crack running into or inside a weld, transverse to the
weld axis direction.
Causes: Weld metal hardness problem.
Figure 10 Transverse Crack

c) Crater Cracks
Description:
A crack occurs in the concave are at the termination of the weld
bead, where the arc is broken. Crater crack may be star shaped,
longitudinal or traverse.
Causes:
The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the outside of
Figure 11 Crater Crack
the weld pool, pulling the center apart during cooling.

2.2 Gas Pores and Porosity

Description:
A gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the weld metal. This gas cavity can be
present in various forms:
a) Isolated.
b) Uniformly distributed porosity. c)
Clustered porosity. d)
Linear porosity. e)
Elongated porosity. f)
Surface pore.

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 Figure 12 Gas Pores and Porosity

Causes and Remedies:

Causes Remedies

a) Damp fluxes/corroded electrode (MMA) Use dry electrodes in good condition

b) Grease/hydrocarbon/water Clean prepared surface

contamination of prepared surface

c) Air entrapment in gas shield or leaks in Check hose connections

the gas line (MIG/MAG TIG)

d) Incorrect/insufficient deoxidant in Use electrode with sufficient

electrode, filler or parent metal deoxidation activity

e) Loss of shielding gas due to too high an Reduce voltage and arc length
arc voltage or arc length

f) Damaged electrode flux Check electrode flux

g) Too high a shielding gas flow rate which Optimise gas flow rate
results in turbulence (MIG/MAG ,TIG)

h) draughts and excessive turbulence in the Avoid draughts

weld pool

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2.3 Shrinkage Cavities
It is an internal discontinuity but in some cases may be formed at the surface.
Description:
These are internal voids or cavities that are generally formed during the solidification of large
single welds of high depth to width ratio (d: w). They may be defined as hot plastic tears caused
by large opposing contractional forces in the weld and HAZ until the ductility of the hot metal is
overcome resulting in a tear.
Shrinkage cavities can produce high concentrations of stress at their sharp edges, which may
propagate cracks to the weld surface appearing around the weld centerline.
Causes:
Shrinkage cavities are caused by shrinkage
during solidification and that happens as a result
of:
a) Too fast a cooling rate.
b) Lack of welder skill due to using processes
with too high current.
c) Stopping the wire before switching off the
welding current (TIG)
d) Switching off the welding current at the end
of electrode.
e) Switching off the welding current at the end
of welding line.

 Figure 5 shows the principle of formation Figure 13 formation of shrinkage cavities due to different
cooling rates
of a shrinkage cavity in a casting as a result
of different cooling rates at the outer layers and the inner ones specially if the cooling rate is
high. The same principle happens at welding.

Remedies:
a) Reduce cooling rate
b) Retrain welder
c) Add filler (TIG) to compensate for the weld pool shrinkage
d) Grind out the stop before continuing with the next electrode
e) Use run-off tag in butt joints

2.4 Solid Inclusions

Description:
Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal .

31
 Solid
inclusio
Slag Flux Oxide Tungsten
inclusio inclusio inclusio inclusion
Linear Isolate Cluster
d ed
Figure 14 Classification of solid inclusions

2.4.1
Surface
slag
Inclusion
Figure 15 various types of inclusions
Causes:
a)
Incomplete
slag removal from underlying surface of multipass weld.
b) Slag flooding ahead of arc.
c) Entrapment of slag in work surface.
Remedies:
a) Improve inter-run slag removal.
b) Position work to gain control of slag. Welder needs to correct electrode angle.
c) Dress work surface smooth.
d) Prevention of slag inclusions by grinding between run.

2.4.2 Flux Inclusions

Description:
Flux is trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an irregular shape and thus differs in
appearance from a gas pore. Appear only in case of flux associated welding processes (ie MMA,
SAW and FCAW).

32
Causes:
a) Unfused flux due to damaged coating.
b) Flux fails to melt and becomes trapped in the weld (SAW or FCAW).
Remedies:
a) Use electrodes in good condition.
b) Change the flux/wire. Adjust welding Parameters ( i.e. current, voltage etc) to produce
satisfactory welding condition.

2.4.3 Oxide Inclusions

Causes: Heavy mill scale/rust on work surface.
Remedies: Grind surface prior to welding.

2.4.4 Tungsten Inclusions

Description:
Are metallic inclusions, which may be introduced during TIG welding by a poor welding
technique.
Causes:
a) Contact of electrode tip with weld pool.
b) Contact of filler metal with hot tip of electrode.
c) Contamination of the electrode tip by spatter from the weld pool.
d) Exceeding the current limit for a given electrode size or type.
e) Inadequate tightening of the collet inadequate shielding gas flow rate or excessive wind
draughts resulting in oxidation of the electrode tip.
f) Splits or cracks in the electrode.
Remedies:
a) Keep tungsten out of weld pool; use HF start.
b) Avoid contact between electrode and filler metal.
c) Reduce welding current; adjust shielding gas flow rate.
d) Tighten the collet.

2.5 Lack of Fusion and Penetration

2.5.1 Lack of Fusion
Description:
Lack of funion between the weld metal and the
parent metal or between the successive layers of
weld metal.
 Lack of fusion may consist of:
a) Lack of sidewall fusion
b) Lack of inter-run fusion
c) Lack of rot fusion

Figure 16 Lack of fusion

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a) Lack of Side Wall Fusion
Description:
Incomplete Fusion between Weld Metal and Base Metal.

Causes:
a) Low heat input to weld. b) Molten metal flooding ahead of arc.
c) Oxide or scale on weld preparation. d) Poor welder skill.

Remedies:
a) Increase arc voltage and/or welding current; decrease travel speed.
b) Improve electrode angle and work position; increase travel speed.
c) Improve edge preparation procedure.
d) Retrain welder.

b) Lack of Inter-Run Fusion

Description:
Lack of inter-run fusion produces crevices between
the weld beads and causes local entrapment of slag.

Causes:
a) Low arc current resulting in low fluidity of weld Figure 17 Lack of inter-run fusion
pool.
b) Too high a travel speed. c) Inaccurate bead placement.

Remedies:
a) Increase current b) Reduce travel speed. c) Retrain welder.

c) Lack of root fusion

Description:
Lack of fusion may also be formed in the root area of the weld where it may be found on
one or both plate edges.
Causes:
a) Low heat input.
b) MMA electrode too large (low current density).
c) Use of vertical down welding.
d) Large root face.
e) Small root gap.
f) Incorrect angle or incorrect electrode
manipulation.
Figure 18 Lack of root fusion
g) Excessive misalignment at root.

34
Remedies:
a) Increase current. b) Reduce electrode size.
c) Switch to vertical up procedure. d) Reduce root face.
e) Ensure correct root opening. f) Ensure correct alignment.
g) Use correct electrode angle. Ensure welder is fully qualified and competent.

2.5.2 Incomplete Penetration

Description: The difference between the actual and nominal penetration.
Causes:
a) Excessively thick root face, insufficient root gap or failure
to cut back to sound metal in a ‘back gouging’ operation.
b) MMA electrode too large (low current density).
c) Use of vertical down welding.
d) Low heat input.
Remedies: Figure 19 Lack of root penetration
a) Improve back gouging technique and ensure the edge
preparation is as per approved WPS.
b) Reduce electrode size.
c) Switch to vertical up procedure.
d) Increase welding current and/or arc voltage; decrease travel speed.

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2.6 Profile Imperfections & Lack of Filling

2.6.1 Excess Weld Metal

Description:
(Also called cap height, overfill or
reinforcement). This is weld metal lying
outside the plane joining the weld toes.
Causes:
a) Poor welder technique for manual
processes. Figure 20 Excess weld metal
b) Poor parameter selection.
1) Incorrect electrode size.
2) Excess arc energy.
3) Wrong polarity used (electrode polarity).
4) Incorrect electrode angle.
c) Too slow a travel speed.
Remedies:
a) Reduction of heat input b) Reduce electrode size
c) Choose correct travel speed is used d) Choose correct electrode angle is used
e) Ensure correct polarity i.e. DC +VE f) Retrain welder.

2.6.2 Excess Penetration

Description:
Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only.
Causes:
a) Weld heat input too high.
b) Incorrect weld preparation.
c) Use of electrode unsuited to welding
position.
d) Lack of welder skill.
Remedies:
a) Reduce arc voltage.
b) Reduce welding current.
c) Increase welding speed.
d) Improve work piece preparation. Figure 21 Excess penetration
e) Use correct electrode for position.

2.6.3 Incompletely Filled Groove

Description:
It is a continuous, or intermittent, channel in the
surface of a weld, running along its length, due to
insufficient weld metal.
Causes:
a) Insufficient weld metal.
b) Irregular weld bead surface. Figure 22 incompletely filled groove

36
Remedies:
a) Increase the number of weld runs.
b) Retrain welder.

2.6.4 Irregular Width

Description: Excessive variation in width of the weld.
Causes:
a) Severe arc blow. b) Irregular weld bead surface.
Remedies:
a) Switch from DC to AC . b) Retrain welder Figure 23 Irregular width

2.6.5 Root Concavity

Description:
Some-times called suck-back. A shallow groove in the root of a butt weld.
Causes:
a) Insufficient arc power to produce positive bead.
b) Incorrect prep/fit-up.
c) Excessive backing gas pressure (TIG).
d) Lack of welder skill.
Remedies:
a) Raise arc energy.
b) Retrain welder.
c) Reduce gas pressure.
Figure 24 root concavity

2.6.6 Burn Through

Description:
A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in
the weld.
Causes:
a) Insufficient travel speed.
b) Excessive welding current.
c) Excessive grinding of root face.
d) Excessive root gap.
e) Lack of welder skill.
Remedies: Figure 25 burn through
a) Increase the travel speed.
b) Reduce welding current.
c) More care taken, retrain welder.
d) Ensure correct fit up.

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2.6.7 Undercut
Description:
This is an irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal.
There are three types of undercut:
a) Hot pass undercut.
b) Surface undercut.
c) Top toe undercut.
Reasons:
Figure 26 Undercut
a) Excessive welding current.
b) Welding speed too high.
c) Incorrect electrode angle.
d) Excessive weave.
e) Electrode too large.
Remedies:
a) Reduce power input.
b) Reduce weaving width or switch to multi runs.
c) Direct arc towards thicker member.
d) Choose suitable electrode.

2.6.8 Overlap
Description:

It is formed When the face of the weld extends beyond the weld toe.
Causes:
a) Improper welding technique. Figure 27 Overlap
b) Incorrect electrode angle.
c) Incorrect travel speed.
Remedies:
a) Choose the correct technique.
b) Choose suitable electrode.
c) Choose correct travel speed is used.

2.7 Misalignment
There are two main forms of misalignment in plate material, which are termed:
a) Linear Misalignment (Hi-Lo).
b) Angular Misalignment/Distortion.

2.7.1 Linear Misalignment (Hi-Lo)

Description:
Misalignment between two welded pieces such
that whilst their surface planes are parallel they
are not at the required level.

38
Excess weld metal height and the root penetration bead are always measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point of the weld metal. Linear misalignment is measured in mm.
Causes:
a) Improper preparation of adjacent joints. Figure 28 Linear Misalignment
b) Distortion occurring due to high temperature.
Remedies:
a) Controlling the welding setup techniques.
b) Tacking, bridging, and clamping.

2.7.2 Angular Misalignment

Description:
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface planes are not parallel (or at the
intended angle). Angular misalignment/distortion measured in degrees.

Figure 29 Angular misalignment

Causes:
It occurs due to distortion resulting in the joints due to high temperature used during welding
process.
Remedies:
a) Correction use/control of the distortion control techniques.
b) Balanced welding, offsetting, or the use of fixtures, jigs, and clamps.

2.8 Miscellaneous Imperfections

2.8.1 Arc Strike

Description:
Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the
weld, resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld
groove.
Causes:
a) Accidental striking of the arc onto the parent material.
b) Missing insulation on electrode holder or torch.
c) Poor cable insulation.
Remedies:
a) Retrain welder
b) Institute a regular inspection scheme for electrode holders Figure 30 Arc strike
and torches.
c) Ensure insulation of cable.

39
2.8.1 Spatter

Causes:
a) High arc current. b) Long Arc Length.
c) Damp electrodes. d) Incorrect settings for
welding process.
Remedies:
a) Reduce arc current. b)Reduce arc Length.
c) Use dry electrodes. d) Modify electrical settings.

2.9.1 Mechanical and Surface Damage

Description:
Any material surface damage caused during the manufacturing Figure 31 Spatter
or handling process.
Causes:
a) Grinding
b) Chipping.
c) Hammering.
d) Removal of welded attachments by hammering.
e) Chiselling.
f) Using needle guns to compress weld capping runs.

Figure 32 Grinding marks Figure 33 Chisel marks

Remedies:
Take caution during the manufacturing and handling process.

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22.0 PRACTICAL VISUAL INSPECTION
The practical visual inspection part of the CSWIP examination consists of the
following categories:

CSWIP 3.0 VISUAL WELDING INSPECTOR

Exam: Time allowed
 Practical butt-welded plate (code provided) 1 hour 45 minutes.
 Practical fillet welded T joint (code provided) 1 hour 15 minutes.

CSWIP 3.1 WELDING INSPECTOR

Exam: Time allowed
 Practical butt-welded plate (code provided) 1 hour 15 minutes
Practical butt weld multiple choice questions.
 Practical butt-welded pipe (code provided) 1 hour 45 minutes
Practical butt weld multiple choice questions
 2 Macro multiple choice questions (code provided) 45 minutes.
Macro examination will be covered in another section

To successfully attempt the practical inspection elements of these examinations the

inspector will require a number of important tools:

1) Good eyesight.
2) Specialist Gauges.
3) Hand tools i.e. Magnifying glass, torch, mirror, graduated scale etc.
4) Pencil/pen, report forms, acceptance criteria, and a watch.

GOOD EYESIGHT

To effectively carry out your scope of work as a CSWIP qualified Welding

Inspector it is important that you have a current eyesight certificate for close vision
and a colour blindness test is also required. This must be provided before your
CSWIP Welding Inspection examination. As per the CSWIP –WI-6-92 document.

All candidates for CSWIP examinations must be tested by a qualified optician.

Alternatively tests may be conducted; by qualified personnel available at most TWI
examination centres.

Holders of CSWIP Welding Inspection certificates should thus make every

effort to have their vision professionally tested twice yearly.

Welding Inspection 22.1 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
 It is important to maintain this level of eyesight, NOTE! Your close vision ability
may decay over time.

SPECIALIST GAUGES
A number of specialist gauges are available to measure the various elements
that need to be measured in a welded fabrication including:

a) Hi – Lo gauges, for measuring mismatch and root gap.

b) Fillet weld profile gauges, for measuring fillet weld face profile and sizes.
c) Angle gauges, for measuring weld preparation angles.
d) Multi functional weld gauges, for measuring many different weld
measurements.

1
2
3
4

5
6

Hi-Lo gauge used to measure linear misalignment

Hi-Lo gauge can also be used to measure the root gap

Welding Inspection 22.2 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
 Adjustable fillet gauge

Measures fillet welds from 3-25 mm (1/8-

1") with ± 0.8 mm (1/32") accuracy. It uses
an offset arm, which slides, at a 45° angle
to make fillet weld length measurements.
This gauge also measures weld throat
thickness to 1.5 mm (1/16").

Fillet weld gauge

Measures weld sizes from 3mm (1/8") up

to 25mm (1")

Multipurpose welding gauge

This rugged gauge, fabricated in stainless

steel, will measure the important
dimensions of weld preparations and of
completed butt and fillet welds. It is
intended for general fabrication work and
rapidly measures angle of preparation,
excess weld metal, fillet weld leg length
and throat size, and misalignment in both
metric and imperial ranges.

Digital Multipurpose welding gauge

This Digital gauge will measure the

important dimensions of weld preparations
and of completed butt and fillet welds. It is
intended for general fabrication work and
rapidly measures angle of preparation,
excess weld metal, fillet weld leg length
and throat size in both metric and imperial
ranges.

Welding Inspection 22.3 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
TWI CAMBRIDGE MULTI-PURPOSE WELDING GAUGE

Angle of Preparation

This scale reads 00 to 600 in 50 steps.

The angle is read against the
chamfered edge of the plate, or pipe.

Linear Misalignment

The gauge may be used to measure

misalignment of members by placing
the edge of the gauge on the lower
member and rotating the segment
until the pointed finger contacts the
higher member.

Excess Weld Metal/Root penetration

The scale is used to measure excess

weld metal height or root penetration
bead height of single sided butt welds,
by placing the edge of the gauge on
the plate and rotating the segment until
the pointed finger contacts the excess
weld metal or root bead at its highest
point.

Pitting/mechanical damage etc

The gauge may be used to measure

defects by placing the edge of the
gauge on the plate and rotating the
segment until the pointed finger
contacts the lowest depth.
The reading is taken on the scale to
the left of the zero mark in mm or
inches.

Welding Inspection 22.4 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
 Fillet Weld Actual Throat Thickness

The small sliding pointer reads up to

20mm or ¾ inch. When measuring the
throat it is supposed that the fillet weld
has a ‘nominal’ design throat
thickness, as an ‘effective’ design
throat thickness cannot be measured
in this manner.

Fillet Weld Leg Length

The gauge may be used to measure

fillet weld leg lengths of up to 25mm,
as shown on left.

Excess weld metal can be easily calculated by measuring the Leg Length, and
multiplying it by 0.7 This value is then subtracted from the measured Throat
Thickness = Excess Weld Metal.

Example: For a measured Leg Length of 10mm and Throat Thickness of 8 mm

10 x 0.7 = 7 (Throat thickness 8) – 7 = 1 mm of Excess Weld Metal.

Welding Inspection 22.5 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
Welding Inspection 22.6 WORLD CENTRE FOR
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Practical Visual Inspection
Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
Welding Inspection 22.7 WORLD CENTRE FOR
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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
Example of Plate/Pipe Practicle Multiple Choice Question

Welding Inspection 22.8 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd
 CSWIP 3.1 Example Training Questions for Pipe/Plate Samples
Answer all 20 questions on the separate Candidate Answer Sheet provided. Your answers
to be marked with an X in the appropriate box. Your acceptance criteria is to be based on the
requirements of TWI code 02

The Weld Face.

1. What is the maximum cap height to be found on your sample and would you accept or
reject your findings
a) 5.0 mm
b) >2.5 mm
c) < 2.5 mm
d) Flush
e) Accept
f) Reject

2. With regards to the surface profile, which of the following comments best matches your
assessment and would you accept or reject your findings
a) Toe blend generally good
b) Toe bend and surface profile generally good
c) Poor toe blend with good surface profile
d) Poor toe blend and poor surface profile
e) Accept
f) Reject

3. With reference to incomplete filled groove which of the following best matches your
findings. Would you accept or reject your findings
a) No incomplete filled groove visually detected.
b) Full weld length
c) Accumulative > 100mm
d) Accumulative length < 60mm
e) Accept
f) Reject

4. With reference to slag inclusions, which of the following best matches your
assessment of the total accumulative length and would you accept or reject your
findings.
a) < 3mm in length
b) 15 to 20mm in length
c) 10 to 15mm in length
d) No slag inclusions visually detected
e) Accept
f) Reject

Welding Inspection 22.9 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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TECHNOLOGY
Practical Visual Inspection
Copyright  2010, TWI Ltd