 Introduction

 Terms related to ray optics

 Reflection and Refraction
 Laws of Reflection and Refraction
 Factors affecting refractive index
 Image formation by spherical mirror
1) Concave Mirror
2) Convex Mirror
 Mirror formulae and Magnification
 Refraction in a Lens
 Important terms in Lens
 Image formed by spherical Lens
1) Convex Lens
2) Concave Lens
 Lens Maker Formulae
 Thin lens Formulae
 Power of Lens
 Optical Instruments
1) Applications
2) Types of Optical Instruments
3) Uses
What is Ray Optics?
 The form of energy that enables us to see the objects
around us is called light. The branch of Physics that
deals with the nature, properties, sources and effects
of light is called optics. Optics is broadly divided into
two branches, namely physical optics, which is the
study of the wave-like nature of light and the
interactions between light and matter. Ray optics,
also known as geometrical optics, is the study of
simple properties of light and optical instruments by
assuming that light travels in a straight line.
 Ray optics deals with the geometry of the light. Light
always travels in a straight line, and the direction in
which the light rays propagate is called the ray of
light. In ray optics, we will study the image formed by
mirrors, lenses and prisms.

Terms Related to Mirror

1. Pole: The centre point of the mirror through which the
principal axis passes through the mirror is called the pole.

2. Principal axis: The straight line that passes through the

pole and the centre of curvature is called the principal axis.

3. Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which

the mirror or lens is a part is called the centre of curvature.

4. Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the

mirror or the lens is a part is called the radius of curvature.

5. Focal point or focus: It is a point at which all the rays

meet, and we get a sharp image.
 6. Focal length: The distance from the pole to the focal point
is called the focal length.

Reflection and Laws of Reflection

Reflection is the phenomenon in which the light travelling
in one medium that gets incident on the surface of the
second medium returns to the first medium, obeying the
laws of reflection. The light rays will get reflected from the
polished surface.

The laws of reflection are listed below:

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to

the surface at the point of incidence all lie on the same
plane.

2. The angle of incidence will be equal to the angle of

reflection.
Refraction and Laws of Refraction
Refraction is the phenomenon in which there is a change in the
speed of light as it travels from one medium to another, and the
consequent bending of a ray of light incident obliquely at the
surface of the separation of the two media is known as the
refraction of light. The following are the laws of refraction.
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

2. For a given pair of media and for the light of a given wavelength, the ratio
of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
always a constant.

(sin i/sin r) = constant

This is called Snell’s law. The constant in the equation is called the refractive
index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1.

Factors Affecting the Refractive Index

1. The Refractive index of the medium depends on the nature and
temperature of the medium. It also depends on the colour of the light ray.
2. Refractive index is an optical property. Therefore, any impurity added to
the medium will alter the refractive index of the medium.

3. The absolute refractive index of the medium is the ratio of the velocity of
light in air or vacuum to that in the given medium. The velocity of light is
maximum in vacuum. The velocity in any other medium is less than the
value in air. Thus, the absolute refractive index of the medium is always
greater than unity.

Reflection from Curved or Spherical Mirror

A spherical mirror is a piece cut from a reflecting sphere. There are two main
types of mirrors: convex mirrors and concave mirrors. The reflecting surface
of the spherical mirror will be curved inwards or outwards. When the
reflecting surface of the spherical mirror is curved inwards, it is called a
concave mirror, and when it is curved outwards, it is called a convex mirror.

Images Formed by a Concave Mirror

The below diagram shows the ray diagram formed when the object is placed
at different positions. In the ray diagrams, let AB be the height of the object
and A’B’ be the height of the image for different positions of the object.

1. When the object is beyond the centre of curvature

2. When the object is at the centre of curvature

3. When the object is at the focus

4. When the object is at infinity

5. When the object is between the centre of curvature and the principal focus

6. When the object is between the principal focus and the pole
Concave Mirror Object and Image Positions
Object Position Image Position Nature of Image

At Infinity At the principal Real, inverted and

focus extremely diminished

Beyond the Between the Real, inverted and

centre of centre of diminished
curvature curvature and
focus

At the centre of At the centre of Real, inverted object

curvature curvature and image of the
same size

Between focus Beyond the centre Real, inverted,

and centre of of curvature enlarged image
curvature

At the principal At Infinity Extremely magnified

focus

Between the pole Behind the mirror Virtual, erect and

and principal axis
 magnified

Image Formed by a Convex Mirror

The following diagram shows the position and the nature of the image
formed by the object placed at different positions.

1. When the object is at infinity

2. When the object is at a finite distance from the mirror

Convex Mirror Object and Image Positions
Object Image Position Nature of Image
Position

At Infinity At the principal Virtual, erect and

focus extremely diminished

Between infinity Appear between Virtual, erect and

and pole focus and pole diminished

Mirror Formula and Magnification

The ratio of the height of the object to the height of the image is
called linear magnification.

m = height of the object/height of the image

Linear magnification can also be defined as the ratio of the image

distance to the object distance.

If |m| ＜1, it shows that the size of the image is smaller than the
object. The negative value of linear magnification shows that the
image is real and inverted.
If |m| ＞1, the size of the image is greater than the object.

Refraction in a Lens
The lens is the most widely used optical device. The lens has two
refracting surfaces; if the distance between the two surfaces is
small, then it is called a thin lens. The lens is of two types: convex
lens and concave lens. The convex lens is also called the
converging lens, and the concave lens is called the diverging lens.
The convex lens is thicker at the centre and thinner at the edges.
The concave lens is thinner at the centre and thicker at the
edges.

Important Terms in a Lens

1. Optical centre (C): The optical centre is the centre of the lens. The
ray of light passing through the optical centre will not get
deviated.

2. Principal axis: The line that passes through the centre of

curvature and the optical centre is called the principal axis.

3. Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the lens is

a part is called the centre of curvature.

4. Focal point or focus: The point on the principal axis where all the
light rays will meet is known as the focal point.

5. Focal length: The distance between the focus and the pole is
called the focal length. The focal length is half of the radius of
curvature.

Image Formed by Convex Lens

The ray diagram for a convex lens is given below:

1. When the object is between F and 2F, the image is formed beyond 2F
2. When the object is at F, the image is formed at infinity

3. When the object is placed between the focus and the pole
4. When the object is at 2F, image is also formed at 2F

5. When an object is behind the 2F, the real image is formed between F and 2F
6. When the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the focus F

Object Position Image Nature of Image

Position

At Infinity At the focal Real, inverted and

point extremely diminished

Beyond 2F Between F Real, inverted and

 and 2F diminished

At 2F At 2F Real, inverted size of

the image and object is
the same

Between F and 2F Beyond 2F Real, inverted and

bigger than the object

At the principal At infinity Real, inverted and

focus extremely magnified

Between the optical Same side as Virtual, erect and

centre and principal the object magnified
focus

Image Formed by Concave Lens

The nature of the image formed as the object is moved along the principal axis is given
below.

1.
1. When the object is at infinity

1.
1. When the object is between infinity and the optical centre
Object Image Position Nature of Image
Position

At Infinity At the principal focus Virtual, erect and

on the same side as extremely
the object diminished

Between Appears between Virtual, erect and

infinity and focus and pole diminished
pole

Lens Maker Formula

The lens maker’s formula is the relation between the focal length,
the radius of curvature of the lens and the refractive index of the
material of the lens. The formula is used by manufacturers to
make the lens of a particular power from the glass of a given
refractive index.

The lens maker’s formula is given as,

(1/f) = (μ – 1) [(1/R1) – (1/R2)]

f = focal length of the lens

μ = refractive index

R1 and R2 = radius of curvature of the two surfaces

Thin Lens Formula

If the thickness of a lens is negligible in comparison to the radius of
curvature, it is a thin lens. The following typical equation is used to
determine a relation between the focal length of the lens, the distance of the
object, and the distance of the image.

(1/f) = (1/v) + (1/u)

f = focal length of the lens

v = distance of the image from the optical centre

u = distance of the object from the optical centre

Power of Lens
The power of the lens is given by the inverse of the focal length.

P = 1/f

The SI unit of the power of the lens is m-1 or diopter.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
An optical
instrument is a
device that
processes light
waves (or
photons), either to
enhance an image
for viewing or to
analyze and
determine their
characteristic
properties.
Common examples
include
periscopes,
microscopes,
telescopes, and
cameras.
The first optical
instruments were
telescopes used
for magnification
of
distant images,
and microscopes
used for
magnifying very
tiny images.
Since the days of
Galileo and Van
Leeuwenhoek,
these instruments
have been greatly
improved and
extended into
other portions of
the
electromagnetic
spectrum. The
binocular device is
a generally
compact
instrument for
both eyes
designed for
mobile use. A
camera could be
considered a type
of optical
instrument, with
the pinhole camera
and
camera obscura
being very simple
examples of such
devices
Optical instruments are the devices which process
light wave to enhance an image for more clear
view .Use of optical instruments, such as a
magnifying lens or any complicated device like
microscope or telescope usually makes things
bigger and helps us to see in a more detailed
manner. The use of converging lenses makes
things appear larger and on the other hand,
diverging lenses always gets you smaller images.
While using a converging lens, it’s important to
remember that, if an object is at a larger distance
then the image is diminished and will be very
nearer to the focal point. While the object keeps on
moving in the direction of the lens, the image
moves beyond the focal point and enlarges. When
object is placed at 2F, which is two times the focal
distance from the lens, the image and object
becomes of the same size. When the object moves
from 2F towards the focal point (F), it’s image
keeps moving out of the lens and enlarges till it
goes to infinity when the object reaches the focal
point, F. As the object moves closer to the lens, the
image moves in the direction of the lens from
negative infinity and gets smaller when the object
gets closer to lens.

Applications of Optical instruments

Multiple Lenses – There are many devices like telescopes and
microscopes which uses multiple lenses to create images.
Analyzing any system having multiple lenses shows that
it works in stages where each lens forms an image of the
object. The original object will work as the object for the
first lens and creates an image. This new image will be
the object for the second lens and so on..

Microscope
A microscope has two converging lens. This is because it is easier
to get higher magnification with two lenses rather than just one.
Use of one lens can magnify 5 times more and using a second will
magnify 7 times, and you will get an overall magnification of 35
which is not possible in one lens. It’s an easy procedure than to
get magnification by a factor of 35 with a single lens. A ray
diagram of microscope arrangement is given below. Here you can
see the image is the object for the second lens and the image
formed by the second lens is the image that you would see when
you looked through the microscope.

Types of Microscopes
Simple Microscope
A simple microscope is an optical instrument, we use for the
magnification of small objects to get a clear image or vision. It is a
convex lens having a short focal length. This microscope is at a
small distance from the object for the magnification and hence
this forms a virtual image. The simple microscope enables us to
view very small letters and figures
Compound Microscope
With a compound microscope, we get very large values of
magnification. We use this microscope to see microscopic objects
like microorganisms. It comprises of two convex lenses and
magnification occurs in both of these lenses. the components of a
compound microscope are eyepiece, objective lens, fine and
rough adjustment screw.
Telescopes
As we use telescope to view a object that is at very distant place,
therefore, a telescope needs at least two lenses. The first lens
forms a diminished image which is nearer to its focal point. This
device is designed in a way so that real and inverted image
formed by the first lens is just nearer to the second lens than its
focal length. With the help of a magnifying glass, we gets a
enlarged image which is virtual. The final image then inverted
with respect to the object. This doesn’t really matter with the
astronomical telescope. While observing an object which is on
earth, we usually prefer a straight image which is obtained using
a third lens.

Refracting Telescopes
All refracting telescopes use the same principles. The combination
of an objective lens 1 and some type of eyepiece 2 is used to
gather more light than the human eye is able to collect on its
own, focus it 5, and present the viewer with a brighter, clearer,
and magnified virtual image 6. The figure above is a diagram of a
refracting telescope. The objective lens (at point 1) and the
eyepiece (point 2) gather more light than a human eye can collect
by itself. The image is focused at point 5, and the observer is
shown a brighter, magnified virtual image at point 6. The
objective lens refracts, or bends, light. This causes the parallel
rays to converge at a focal point, and those that are not parallel
converge on a focal plane.

Reflecting Telescopes
Reflecting telescopes, such as the one shown in, use either one or
a combination of curved mirrors that reflect light to form an
image. They allow an observer to view objects that have very
large diameters and are the primary type of telescope used in
astronomy. The object being observed is reflected by a curved
primary mirror onto the focal plane. (The distance from the mirror
to the focal plane is called the focal length. ) A sensor could be
located here to record the image, or a secondary mirror could be
added to redirect the light to an eyepiece.

Catadioptric Telescopes
Catadioptric telescopes, such as the one shown in, combine
mirrors and lenses to form an image. This system has a greater
degree of error correction than other types of telescopes. The
combination of reflective and refractive elements allows for each
element to correct the errors made by the other.

X-Ray Diffraction
X-ray diffraction was discovered by Max von Laue, who won the
Nobel Prize in physics in 1914 for his mathematical evaluation of
observed x-ray diffraction patterns. Diffraction is the irregularities
caused when waves encounter an object. You have most likely
observed the effects of diffraction when looking at the bottom of a
CD or DVD. The rainbow pattern that appears is a result of the
light being interfered by the pits and lands on the disc that hold
the data. Shows this effect. Diffraction can happen to any type of
wave, not just visible light waves
.
X-ray Imaging
X-ray radio-graphs are produced by projecting a beam of X-rays
toward an object, in medical cases, a part of the human body.
Depending on the physical properties of the object (density and
composition), some of the X-rays can be partially absorbed.
The portion of the rays that are not absorbed then pass through
the object and are recorded by either film or a detector, like in a
camera. This provides the observer with a 2 dimensional
representation of all the components of that object superimposed
on each other.
.
Tomography
 Tomography refers to imaging by sections, or sectioning.
demonstrates this concept.
 The three-dimensional image is broken down into sections.
 (S1) shows a section from the left and (S2) shows a section
from the right.
CT Scans
 CT scans, or computed tomography scans use a combination of
X-ray radiography and tomography to produce slices of areas of
the human body.
 Doctors can analyze the area, and based on the ability of the
material to block the X-ray beam, understand more about the
material. shows a CT Scan of a human brain.
 Doctors can cross reference the images with known properties
of the same material and determine if there are any
inconsistencies or problems.
 Although generally these scans are shown as in, the information
recorded can be used to create a 3 dimensional image of the
area. shows a three dimensional image of a brain that was
made by compiling CT Scans.