Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017

Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

Chapter -1 Introduction of Railway Engineering

RTU Syllabus: Types and selection of gauges, Selection of Alignment, Ideal

permanent ways and cross-sections in different conditions, Drainage, Salient features
and types of components viz. Rails, Sleepers, Ballast, Rail Fastenings.

Gauge: - The ‘Gauge’ of a railway track is defined as the clear distance between
inner or running faces of two track rails as shown in figure.

 Types of Gauges: A gauge of 1.435 is the standard gauge in most of the

countries even today, but in India, the following gauges are used.

S. No. Type of gauge Gauge width in meter

1 Standard gauge 1.67
2 Metre gauge 1.0
3 Narrow gauge 0.762
4 Light gauge 0.610

Selection of Gauge: - The factors which govern the choice among the different
gauges are followings:
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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

(i) Cost of Construction: - There is little increase in the initial cost if we select a
wider gauge (say B.G.). The cost of bridges, tunnels, station buildings, signals, level
crossings etc is same for all the gauges. There is little proportional increase in the
cost of earth work, ballast, sleepers and in the acquisition of land.
Therefore, we can conclude that there is not an appreciable increase in cost
due to increase in width of gauge.

(ii) Volume & nature of traffic: - For heavier loads and high volume, the wider
gauges are required, which are economical in long run.

(iii) Development of the areas : - Narrow gauges are used to develop the thinly
populated areas by joining with urbanized area.

(iv) Physical Features of the country: Use of narrow gauge is warranted in hilly
regions where broad gauges are not possible due to steep gradients & sharp curves.

(v) Speed of Movement: The speed of train is almost proportional to the width of
gauge. Speed is the function of diameter of wheel, which is generally 0.75 times that
of the gauge. For high speeds, Broad gauge is required.

 Factors in Selection of Good Alignment: - The direction and position of the

center line of the railway track on the ground is called the track alignment.

The following factors should be given due consideration for selection of good
alignment.

(1) Obligatory or controlling points

(a) Points through which a track must pass

(b) Point through which a track should not pass

(2) Position, amount and type of traffic

(3) Gauge selection

(4) Geometric standards

(5) Topography of the country

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

(6) Economic considerations

(7) Other considerations

(1) Obligatory or controlling points: - These points can be mainly divided into
two categories.
(a) Points through which a track must pass: - It is desirable that a track must
pass from a place of social, commercial, political and defence importance. This
would further depend upon importance of the town, volume of traffic to justify
revenues and amount of deviation from the shortest raite. To avoid unnecessary
requirements of deep cuttings or tunnels, tunnels, the existing passes should be
connected.

(b) The points through which a track should not pass: -

 Acquisition of costly land which will result in heavy conoensation should be

avoided.
 Religious places like temple, church and mosque should be avoided.
 Areas liable to flooding, marshy area etc should be avoided.

(2) Position, amount and type of traffic: - The nature of traffic (passenger or
goods traffic) and potential volume of traffic are important points which should given
due consideration while aligning a railway track.
(3) Gauge Selection: - As the increase in width of gauge increases initial cost but
it also increases load carrying capacity and speed of the trains.

(4) Geometric Standards: - An engineer should design the location of a new line
considering the following Geometric elements, which would give economical
combination of construction and operation cast.

Gradients, speeds, Ruling gradients and minimum permissible radius of the curve,
vertical curver etc.

(5) Topography of the Country: - If topography of country is such that the use of
heavy gradients is unavoidable then in such cases the alignment of the track is made
by the special ways to reduce the rate and cost of high gradients.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

(6) Economical Considerations: - Keeping in view the above discussed factors,

the alignment should be economical also. The best alignment would be one, which
gives the maximum annual return (r) given by the formula: -

R = Gross Revenue (R) – Annual running expences (E) / Investment (I)

(7) Other Considerations: -

 While aligning the track, Geological formation should be studied.

 The effect of flood and climate on the alignment should be given due
consideration.
 The station sites on the track should be outside the town or city.
 The track should be pass in the proximity of quarries or villages, because
stone ballast and labor are easily available for construction and
maintenance of track.

 Ideal Permanent way: The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting
on ballast and subgrade is called the railway track or permanent way.
Sometimes temporary tracks are laid for construction works. The name
“Permanent Way” is given to distinguish the final layout of track from these
temporary tracks.

The given Figure 3.1 shows a typical cross-section of a permanent way on

embankment.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

Description: In a permanent way, the rails are joined in series by fish plates and bolts
and then they are fixed to sleepers by different types of fastenings. The sleepers,
properly spaced, resting on ballast, are suitably packed with ballast. The layer of
ballast rests on prepared subgrade called the formation.
The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load to the sleepers. The sleepers hold
the rails in proper position with respect to the proper tilt, gauge and level, and
transmit the load from rails to ballast. The ballast distributes the load over the
formation and holds the sleepers in position.

 Railway Track Cross-sections

The typical cross-sections of a single line and double line, in cutting and
embankment, on straight and curved tracks, for steam traction and electric traction,
have been shown in Figure 3.2 to 3.6.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

 Requirements of an Ideal Permanent way:

(i) The gauge should be correct and uniform.

(ii) The rails should be in proper level.

(iii) The alignment should be correct.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

(iv) The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible.

(v) The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb shocks and
vibrations of running track.

(vi) The track should have enough lateral strength to maintain the alignment.

(vii) The super elevation and radius on horizoned curves should be properly
designed
And maintained.

(viii) Drainage system must be perfect.

(ix) Joints including points & crossings should be properly designed and
maintained.

(x) If there is trouble from creep, the preventive measures should be taken to
Prevent it.

(xi) There should be adequate provision for easy renewals and replacements.

(xii) The track should be strong and economical.

 Drainage:
The efficiency of a modern track carrying heavy and dynamic loads depends entirely
on preservation and retention of its stability and elasticity by proper drainage. The
design engineer should provide a properly designed drainage system for the track.
Track drainage involves the interception and removal of water from, upon or under
the track. Proper design should be done for surface drainage and sub-surface
drainage so that the track can function properly during rainy season as well.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

Advantages due to uniformity of gauges: -

(i) The delay, cost and hardship in transshipping passengers and goods from the
vehicles of one gauge to another is avoided.

(ii) As the transshipping is not required, there is no breakage of goods.

(iii) Difficulties in loading & unloading are avoided and labour expenses are saved.

(iv) Possibilities of theft and misplacement, while changing from one vehicle to
another, is eliminated.

(v) Large sheds to store goods are not required.

(vi) Surplus wagons of one gauge can’t be used on another gauge.

(vii) Locomotives of one gauge can’t be used on another gauge.

(viii) Duplication of equipment such as platforms, sanitary arrangements etc is

avoided.
(ix) During military movement, no time is wasted in changing the personnel and
equipment.

(x) Due to late arrival of trains at junction, where change of gauge is involved,
missing links result in number of difficulties.

Rails: - The Rails on the track can be considered as steel girders for the purpose of
carrying axle loads. They are made of high carbon steel to withstand wear and tear.

Types of Rail Sections: -

(1) Double Headed Rails ([Link])

(2) Bull Headed Rails ([Link])

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

(3) Flat Footed Rails ([Link])

Note: -

 In the beginning, the rails used were double headed (D. H.) of a dumb – bell
section. In this case rails can be used from both the ends.
 In case of bull headed rails (B.H.), head was made a little thicker and
stronger than the lower part, so that even after wear, it can with stand
stresses.
 In case of F.F. rails (i.e. also called vignole’s rails)

Note: -

(1) In India, F.F. (Flat footed rails) rail are most commonly used.

(2) The standard rail sections prescribed on Indian Railways are as given below:

Table 1.1:

Rail Section Type of Section Rail Length for B.G.

60 Kg/m 60 MR 13 metre (42 – feet)

52 Kg/m 52 MR *****

90 lbs/yd 90 R 13 metre (42- feed)

or or
44.61 kg/m 45 MR *****

MR - Metric Rail ( Kglm) as per Indian Railway Standards. (IRS)

R - British rail (lbs / yd) as per Rovised British Standards (RBS)

# Standard rail sections ( [Link]) prescribed on Indian Railways are shown in

the Fig 1.6 and details are given in Table 1.2.

# Table 1.2 : Specifications of various Rail Sections.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

[Link] Specification 90R or 45 MR 52 MR 60 MR

1. Traffic density up10 GMT 20 to 25 GMT upto 35 GMT
( Annual) (Gross Metric Tonne) *

2. Speed up to 100 kmph up to 130 kmph up to 160 kmph

3. Axle Load. M L Standards [Link] [Link]

4. Service Life. 20 to 25 yes 20 to 25 yes 20 – 25 yes.

Selection Criterion of Rails : - (i.e. weight / unit length)

(i) Speed of the train

(ii) The gauge of the track

(iii) The Axle load and nature of traffic

(iv) Type of rails ( i.e. whether D.H or B.H or F.F)

(v) Spacing of sleepers (i.e. whether D.H or B.H or F.F)

(vi) Maximum permissible wear on top of rails.

# Formula: Weight of rail in Kg ( per unit length) / Locomotive Axle load in kg =

1/510.

Table 1.3: Comparision of different type of rails

[Link]. Point of Bull Headed (B.H.) Rails & Flat Footed Rails
Comparision Double- headed rails (D.H.) (F.F.)

1. Strength& Less strength & stiffness Stronger for the same

Stiffness for the same cross-section cross – section.

2. Laying & Difficult Simple

Relaying *

3. Arrangement at Complicated Simple & easy.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

Points & Drossings *

4. Stability of track Stable alignment& Smooth Less Stable alignment

Track *
5. Initial cost higher less initial cost

6. Rigidity Less rigid More rigid

7. Inspection Daily inspection is necessary Not necessary

8. Replacement Easy Difficult

Of rails *

9. Maintenance More Less

Cost *
10. When lateral loads are more More suitable for both Suitability
Important rather than vertical lateral and vertical load.
Load. *

Sleepers : - Sleepers are the members laid transversely under the rails to support
them and transfer the load from rails to ballast and sub grade below.

Classification of Sleepers: - Sleepers can be classified according to the materials

used in their construction.
(i) Wooden Sleepers

(ii) Metal Sleepers

(a) Cast Iron Sleepers.

(b) Steel Sleepers.

(iii) Concrete Sleepers:

(a) Reinforced Concrete Sleepers.

(b) Prestressed Concrete Sleepers

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

(1) Wooden Sleepers: - Wooden sleepers should be made of thoroughly

sound and seasoned wood and should and seasoned wood and should be free from
knots, shakes, cracks and other defects.

(2) (i) Cast – Iron Sleepers : - C.I. Sleepers have been extensively used in India.

They are of the following type:

(a) Pot or Bowl Sleepers

(b) Plate Sleepers

(c) Box Sleepers (out dated)

(d) C.S.T -9 Sleeper (combination of plate & boxtup)

(e) Rail free Duplex Sleeper

Short note on C.S.T. – 9 Sleeper : - It has been extensively used on Indian Railways
for the last thirty years. It has a triangular inverted pot on either side of the rail seat
a plate with the projecting rib and a box on the top of the plate as shown in the Fig
1.7.

The various pieces are connected across the track by means of a rod. A rail seat or a
chair is provided to hold the F.F. rail or B.H. rail respectively with 1 in 20 cant. It has
weighs 103 kg for B.G. It can be easily assemble or dismantled.

Though C : S. T. – 9 Sleepers are most popular so far on Indian

Railways but they can not be used on modern tracks with speeds higher than 120
kmph.
So various improved versions viz C.S.T – 10, C.S.T. – 11, C.S.T – 12, C.S.T – 13 and so
on are being developed for use on moder tracks.

2(ii): Steel Sleepers : - Steel sleepers is an inverted channel with folded ends. The
folded edges which form a bulb resist the damage caused by the packing of ballast.
Concrete Sleepers : - Concrete sleepers are made of a strong homogeneous
material impervious to effects of moisture, and is unaffected by the chemical attack
of atmospheric gases or sub- soil saits. I can be also moulded easily to size and shope
required. They have maximum life upto 40 – 60 years.
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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

Pre – stressed conctete sleepers : - All the disadvantages of R.C.C. sleepers have
been eliminated be prestressing techniques for sleepers.

Table – 9.3

Sleeper Density : - “Sleeper density may be defined as the number of sleepers per
rail length.”

Note : - (1) Sleeper density is expressed as ( M+ X) or (N+X)

Where M = Length of rail in metres.

N = Length of rail in yards.

X = It is a number

(2) The factors governing the sleeper density are :

(i) Axle load & speed

(ii) Type and section of the rails.

(iii) Type of ballast and ballast cushion.

(iv) Type and strength of sleepers

(v) Nature of foundation.

Q: 1 Using a sleeper density of (m + 5), find out the humber of sleepers requived for
construction a railway track 640 m. long (B.G. Tracks),

Sol: Length of each rail on a B.G. Track = 12.8 m.

Total no. of vails read = 640/12.8 = 50 reils.

As sleeper density is (M+ 5)

No. of sleepers under each rail = 12.8 + 5 = 17.8

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

Total no. of sleepers = 50* 18 = 900 sleepers. Ans.

Ballast : - Ballast is the granular material which is packed below and around the
sleepers to transmit load from sleepers to formation and provide elasticity to the
track.

Requirements of the Good Ballast : -

(i) It should be able to with stand hard- packing without disintegration.

(ii) It should allow for easy drainage.

(iii) It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering.

(iv) The aggregates should be angular and cubieal .

(v) The ballast material should not have any chemical reaction with rail and
sleepers.

(vi) The size of stone ballast should be 5 cm for wooden sleepers. 4cm for metal
sleepers & 2.5 cm for turnouts and crossovers.

(vii) It should be easily workable.

(viii) It should be available in nearby quarries.

 Rail Fastenings
Track fittings and rail fastenings are used to keep the rails in proper position and to
set the points and crossings properly. The important fittings commonly used in
permanent way are the followings:

1. Fish Plates: Fish plates are used in rail joints to maintain the continuity of the
rails and to allow for expansion and contraction of rail caused by
temperature variation. They maintain correct alignment of the line both
horizontally and vertically.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

2. Spikes: Spikes are used for holding the rails to the wooden sleepers.

3. Chairs: For holding rails, chairs are used. B.H. rails are supported on C.I.
chairs fixed to the sleepers by round spikes. In case of CI sleepers, chairs are
casted with sleepers. In case of steel sleepers, the chairs are welded to the
steel sleepers.

4. Bolts: Different type of bolts are used for fixing various track components in
position. Eg. Dog or hook bolt, fish bolts, rag bolts etc.
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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma

5. Keys: They are used to fix rails to chairs on metal sleepers.

6. Blocks: When two rails run very close as in the case of check rails, small
blocks are inserted in between two rails and bolted to maintain the required
spacing.

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 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Ch.: 5(Railway Engineering) Name of faculty: Dr D.K. Sharma
7. Bearing Plates: These are rectangular plates of Mild Steel (MS) or Cast Iron (CI) which
are used below rails to distribute the load on larger area of timber sleeper of soften variety.

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