Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering

Heat Transfer Signal Express

A Report Prepared For:

ME 353

Prof. Xianguo Li

University of Waterloo

Prepared By

Umar Aasim (20963010)

Arshneet Sandhu (20964607)

Vaibhav Bommalapalayam (20931006)

Kareem Elrufaie (20870772)

Submitted On:

December 2, 2024
1.0 Introduction & Background
The objective of the lab experiment is to measure heat transfer rates in a turbulent pipe flow and

compare them to engineering heat transfer correlations. The experiment focuses on

understanding the contributions of convection, conduction, and radiation to the overall heat

transfer process and measurement losses. The lab also investigates the impact of these

mechanisms on thermocouple temperature measurements. Velocity and temperature data,

measured at various radial and axial positions, are used to calculate convective heat transfer rates

and determine the accuracy of derived theoretical models.

Heat transfer in turbulent pipe flows involves complex interactions between convection,

conduction, and radiation. In this experiment, air is heated by an electrical heater before entering

a 4.88 m long, 50.8 mm diameter copper tube, where the pipe wall is maintained at a constant

temperature using water-cooled tubes soldered to its exterior. Convection transfers heat from the

hot air to the various elements of the pipe including the thermocouples and the pipe walls,

conduction affects heat transfer along the thermocouple wires, and radiation contributes to heat

loss from thermocouple junctions to the surroundings.

Velocity profiles are measured using a pitot tube, while radial temperature distributions are

obtained with thermocouples. Theoretical models, such as the log-mean temperature difference

method and energy balance equations, are used to analyze the data. Potential errors in

thermocouple measurements arise from calibration, conduction heat losses along the wires

(modeled as fins), and radiation heat transfer from the thermocouple junction. Corrections

involve using correlations for heat transfer coefficients of wires and spheres and accounting for

radiation effects. These analyses ensure accurate calculation of mean temperatures and heat

transfer rates.
The objective of the lab is to showcase how the heat transfer rates in turbulent pipe flows can be

measured experimentally and compared to theoretical results derived from practical engineering

correlations; and to investigate the causes of errors when thermocouples are used to measure

temperature. The thermocouples measure the hot air flow temperature, and the error refers to the

difference between the actual hot air flow temperature and the measured thermocouple

temperature.

Figure 1 and Figure 2 showcase the experimental setup in detail and the location of the

thermocouples used.

Figure 1: Experimental Setup for Lab [1]

 Figure 2: Detailed Experimental Setup and Thermocouple Locations. [1]

2.0 Procedure

Safety Equipment and precautions (Pre-lab):

1. Before starting the lab, always wear safety goggles to protect your eyes from potential

hazards and closed-toe shoes are mandatory.

2. Tie back long hair and secure loose clothing and remove any jewelry,

3. Be aware of all emergency equipment locations and how to use them.

4. Ensure that the area is free of obstructions and that all shut-off switches are accessible.

Do not leave any equipment unattended during the operation.

Procedure for conducting the Heat Transfer Lab:

1. Before starting the blower, position a person at each of the three stations where they will

oversee changing parameters every reading.

2. Turn on the main switch near the blower to start the heating process.

3. Power on the data acquisitions system on the computer by switching on the power bar

inside the computer cabinet. This may take a few minutes, wait patiently.

4. Log into the computer as “mecheng user” and open LabVIEW program by double-

clicking “ME353LAB” on the desktop.

5. Before proceeding with the experiment, ensure that the data acquisitions boards and

power supply are functioning properly.

6. Once the program has started, it will start collecting data immediately and will display

the 6 thermocouple readings within 10 seconds.

7. Use the switch located on the lower-middle part of the screen to navigate between

temperature and pressure data.

8. Before starting the experiment, have a USB stick ready to save experimental data.

9. For pitot tube measurements, position the pitot tube at the pipe wall (𝑟!" ∗ = 1.0").

10. Adjust the probes position incrementally by 0.01” using the dial.

11. Once the flow stabilizes at each position, click “Record” to save the data.

12. Repeat the steps above for a total of N = 11 radial measurement locations for pitot tube

measurements.

13. Export the recorded data and save it on a USB Drive

14. Once pitot tube measurements are done, start with thermocouple measurements.
 15. For thermocouple measurements, start at (𝑟!" ∗ = 1.0") and adjust the thermocouple at all

stations towards the wall by 0.01”.

16. After steady-state conditions are reached, click “Record” to log the temperature data into

the data sheet.

17. Repeat the steps 12-13 above for a total of N = 11 radial measurement for the data

acquisition’s locations.

18. Export the recorded temperature data and save it on a USB Drive

19. Once all the experiments have been conducted, save all data files in the USB, ensure all

equipment is turned off, and lock the computer cabinet if you are the last group that day.

3.0 Data

Table 1. Complied data from testing.

r* ΔP u T1a T1b T1c T2 T3 Tw ρ

(inch) (Pa) (m/s) (K) (K) (K) (K) (K) (K) (kg/m3)

0 234.88 22.08 461.08 455.36 442.58 398.40 366.25 320.85 1.10

0.20 227.95 21.76 455.26 449.19 435.34 397.89 366.65 321.03 1.10

0.38 211.60 20.92 450.44 443.91 426.85 394.88 364.95 321.00 1.10

0.53 197.71 20.15 448.57 440.08 417.87 391.05 362.45 321.00 1.10

0.65 181.76 19.25 448.34 436.40 408.69 387.23 359.86 320.98 1.10

0.75 167.43 18.41 446.82 430.89 398.26 383.48 357.11 320.96 1.10

0.84 150.11 17.35 443.26 424.14 388.68 379.46 354.10 320.91 1.10
 0.91 134.20 16.35 435.05 415.11 381.04 375.56 351.45 320.99 1.10

0.95 116.99 15.21 426.26 407.48 375.85 372.63 349.23 320.85 1.10

0.97 95.51 13.72 419.08 402.79 373.02 371.02 347.94 320.78 1.10

0.99 72.35 11.92 411.07 397.82 370.43 369.20 346.84 320.84 1.10

1.0 61.23 10.96 409.01 396.42 369.88 368.55 346.45 320.85 1.10

4.0 Convection Data Analysis

5.1 Velocity Data

Velocity data was obtained through the use of equation (4), which relies on the pressure

difference, as measured with the pitot tube, and the density of the fluid itself (air). All this data

can be found in Table 1.

2∆𝑃
𝑢=*
𝜌

The density values for air were obtained using the following equation

353
𝜌=
𝑇#

With Ti being the values at that radius at station 3 – using this method, velocities were

determined for each radius. These values are all contained within Table 1.
5.2 Temperature Data

Temperature data was determined using a simple average of the temperature data at each

individual station, for the entire duration of the test at each radius. All this averaged data is

contained in Table 1.

5.3 Velocity and Temperature Profiles

The velocity and temperature profiles are all drawn below. These all seem to be in line with the

roughly expected outcomes for turbulent flow. The velocity profile (Figure 3.), for example,

shows a fairly large increase in velocity as it moves further from the wall, which is typical of a

turbulent velocity profile. A similar phenomenon can be observed with each of the temperature

profiles, which is, again, expected with a turbulent flow.

Velocity Profile
1.2

1
Distance from wall (in)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 3. Velocity Profile for air in the tube.

 T1a Profile
1.2

1
Distance from wall (in)
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470
Temperature (K)

Figure 4. Temperature profile for temperature at 1a.

T2 Profile
1.2

1
Distance from wall (in)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
365 370 375 380 385 390 395 400
Temperature (K)

Figure 5. Temperature profile for temperature at 2.

 T3 Profile
1.2

1
Distance from wall (in)
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
345 350 355 360 365 370
Temperature (K)

Figure 6. Temperature profile for temperature at 3.

5.4 Mass Flow Rate and Mean Temperature

Mass flow rate was calculated using the data from Table 1., using formula (6):

!!
"
𝑚̇ = 4 𝜋(𝑟#$! − 𝑟#" )(𝜌# 𝑢# )%&
#'!

Using this equation, and the discretized totals for the radii, mass flow rate was calculated as

follows:

kg
𝑚̇ = 57.08
s
Mean temperature for each station was calculated using the mass flow rate and the data from

Table 1., using formula (7)

!!
1 "
𝑇( = 4 𝜋(𝑟#$! − 𝑟#" )(𝜌# 𝑢# )%& 𝑇#
𝑚̇
#'!

Using this equation, and the discretized totals for radii, mean temperatures were calculated as

follows:

Table 2. Mean temperatures at each station.

Tm1a Tm1b Tm1c Tm2 Tm3 Tmw

(K) (K) (K) (K) (K) (K)

444.69 431.96 405.49 385.85 358.64 320.96

The heat transfer from the hot air to the pipe wall itself was determined using Table 2., and

equation (1):

𝑞)*+, = 𝑚̇𝑐- (𝑇(! − 𝑇(" )

The value for the specific heat capacity of air was determined using a calculator for the property,

with the mean value of Tm1a and Tm2 taken as the temperature.

𝑇 = 415 K

𝑐- = 1.017 KJ/(kg ∗ K)

Using this, the experimental convection heat transfer was calculated:

𝑞)*+,,/0- = 3415.44 W
To determine the theoretical heat transfer, first the log-mean temperature difference was

calculated, as per equation (3):

𝑇(! − 𝑇("
∆𝑇12 =
𝑇 −𝑇
ln G𝑇(! − 𝑇3 H
(" 3

This gave the following result:

∆𝑇12 = 91.17 K

In order to use the Nusselt correlation, a Reynolds number needed to be calculated. Using the

assumption that the kinematic viscosity of air was as follows:

𝜈 = 3.10 × 1045 m" /s

And using the diameter of the pipe, along with the maximum air velocity, Reynolds number was

calculated via the following equation:

𝑢𝑑
𝑅𝑒6 =
𝜈

𝑅𝑒6 = 3.61 × 105

The Prandtl number for air was taken as follows:

𝑃𝑟 = 0.71

The Nusselt number was calculated using the Gnielinski correlation, since it provides the highest

accuracy of any correlation:

(𝑓/8) (𝑅𝑒6 − 1000)𝑃𝑟

𝑁𝑢𝐷 =
1 + 12.7(𝑓/8)!/" (𝑃𝑟 "/& − 1)

The pipe was assumed to be smooth, and so the friction factor was calculated as follows:
 𝑓 = (0.790 ln 𝑅𝑒6 − 1.64)4"

𝑓 = 2.26 × 104"

Using this, the Nusselt number was calculated:

𝑁𝑢6 = 73.61

Since the Nusselt number is equivalent to the following relation:

ℎ𝑑
𝑁𝑢6 =
𝑘

And that the thermal conductivity of air is as follows:

W
𝑘 = 0.035 ∙K
m

The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as:

ℎ = 50.72 W/m" ∙ K

Using equation (2), and taking area to be equal to the total inner surface area of the cylinder, the

theoretical heat transfer was calculated as follows:

𝑞)*+,,89/* = ℎX𝐴: ∆𝑇12

𝑞)*+,,89/* = 3601.13 W

The difference between the theoretical and experimental is therefore:

∆𝑞)*+, = 185.69 W
5.0 Thermocouple Error Analysis

5.1 Thermocouple Error Analysis (no fin effect)

While the thermocouple readings significantly aid in gauging the temperature of the system, the

measured values cannot be directly taken as accurate due to various factors causing errors in the

measurement. One such factor causing inaccuracy is the heat loss (conduction, convection,

radiation) from the thermocouple, which results in the measured value being less than the true air

temperature (𝑇; ) by an error ∆𝑇. In the case of the longer thermocouple, the conduction loss

does not need to be taken in to account, as the exposed length is sufficiently long so as to negate

the fin effect. With this in mind, the calculation to find true air temperature is shown below:
Figure 7 - Calculation for true air temperature (longer thermocouple, no fin effect)
Upon calculation, the true air temperature (𝑇; ) is found to be 464.54 K, with the corresponding

error in measurement (∆𝑇) being 3.46 K.

5.2 Thermocouple Error Analysis (with fin effect)

Unlike the case of the longer thermocouple, the shorter thermocouple is not sufficiently exposed

to the airstream, and as such fin effect from conduction through the thermocouple wires must be

taken into account. The nature of this fin can be approximated by using the thermocouple

readings 𝑇!< and 𝑇!) – the former is taken as the fin base temperature owing to its proximity to

the wall and orientation parallel to the flow stream, while the latter accounts for the fin tip

temperature on account of extending perpendicularly into the flow stream. Incorporating this fin

effect into the air temperature calculations, the true values are obtained below:
 Figure 8 - Calculation for true air temperature (shorter thermocouple, with fin effect)

Upon calculation, the true air temperature (𝑇; ) is found to be 458.63 K, with the corresponding

error in measurement (∆𝑇) being 3.27 K.

5.3 Thermocouple Error Analysis with Radiation Shield

The thermocouple error analysis is done at the pipe centerline, at r=0, at a T!= of 461.08

Figure 9 showcases the derived and solved expressions for the heat transfer coefficients for the

thermocouple junction and the radiation shield. To find the heat transfer coefficient of the

thermocouple junction, the junction is treated as a sphere and the relationship for flow over a

sphere is used. To find the heat transfer coefficient of the radiation shield, the radiation shield is

treated as a flat plate and the relationship for flow over a flat plate is used.

Figure 10 showcases the derived expressions used to solve for T> and T; . The expressions are

derived from the energy balance equation. There are 2 equations and 2 unknowns.

Figure 11 showcases the MATLAB code used to solve for the system of equations and ultimately

the 2 unknowns, T> and T; .

Table 3 showcases the results and the thermocouple error. The thermocouple error is 0.0347K. It

should be noted that all the constant variables and the given/known parameters are shown in

Figure 9, Figure 10, and Figure 11. Property values were taken from Figure 12
Figure 9: Deriving and Solving for Heat Transfer Coefficients for the Thermocouple Junction

and the Radiation Shield.

Figure 10: Deriving and Solving for the Temperature at the Radiation Shield, 𝑇: , and the Hot Air

Flow Temperature, 𝑇; .
 Figure 11: MATLAB Code Used to Solve for Temperature at the Radiation Shield, 𝑇: , and the

Hot Air Flow Temperature, 𝑇; .Table 3: Results from MATLAB Solution and Final Thermocouple

Error.

Final Results: Values:

T> (K) 460.1579

T; (K) 461.1147

T!= (Measured Value in the Lab) (K) 461.08

∆𝑇 = 𝑇; − 𝑇!= (K) (Thermocouple Error) 0.0347

Figure 12: Property Value Table for Air at Atmospheric Pressure. [2]
6.0 Discussion of Errors

The errors in this experiment can arise primarily from the thermocouple inaccuracies and the

assumptions in the flow conditions. Firstly, the thermocouple errors include conduction losses

from the wires which can be treated as fins and the calibration inaccuracies that may exist.

Conduction heat transfer along the thermocouple wires can distort the junction temperature,

especially when the wire length is significantly large. This issue can also affect shorter

thermocouple as in this experiment as the fins effect must be accounted for by considering the

heat from the fins, using appropriate tip conditions.

Secondly, the no-slip condition at the pipe wall happens due the viscous effects that exist which

cause the velocity to be equal to zero at the wall ( 𝑟!" ∗). Due to the no-slip condition, it doesn’t
(
matter if the velocity at 𝑟 ∗ = 0 :
as the velocity is zero at the wall anyhow. In theory, the

thermocouple junction which can be visualized with a sphere is said to go its entire diameter

length into the wall for accurate readings. The thermocouple junction will only touch the wall,

which causes there to be distance of ( 𝑟!" − 𝑟?@+)8#*+ ) to exist between the wall and the center of

the junction. This differential length is the reason that discrepancies can arise which can lead to

deviations in calculated flow parameters, which will be different from the ideal theoretical case.

Errors can be introduced due to the convection correlations that are often used for estimating

heat transfer coefficients. These correlations are based on assumptions and simplifications that

can introduce potential errors when applied to an experimental case. For flat plates, the
correlation typically assumes that a steady, laminar or turbulent uniform flow is present with

constant fluid properties. In reality, deviations can arise if these conditions are not met such as

when flow separation occurs or varying temperatures. All of these will have a net effect on the

ideal model, hence creating errors as the correlations were not made considering these

conditions. Correlations for spheres often assume uniform flow and neglect secondary effects

that may be present such as wake turbulence. Therefore, the convection correlations are derived

under ideal conditions, and it doesn’t account for real-world factors which why errors may exist

in experimental data.

7.0 Conclusion

This experiment successfully demonstrated and compared the experimental results to the

theoretical analysis derived from practical engineering correlations in turbulent pipe flows,

showcasing the affects of convection, conduction, and radiation. Temperature measurement

errors highlighted the significant impact of thermocouple design and shielding on accuracy. The

long thermocouple showed an error of 3.46 K due to radiation, while the shorter thermocouple

had an error of 3.27 K, influenced by conduction in the thermocouple wires, radiation and

calibration inaccuracies. By introducing a radiation shield to the long thermocouple, the error

was reduced to 0.0347 K, proving the effectiveness of shielding in minimizing radiation heat

transfer losses.

Errors in the experiment arose from thermocouple wire conduction, calibration inaccuracies, and

assumptions in flow conditions. Conduction along the thermocouple wires, modeled as fins,

affected temperature readings, particularly for shorter thermocouples where conduction through

the wires was significant. The no-slip condition at the pipe wall introduced velocity-related
discrepancies, especially near the thermocouple junction. Additionally, convection correlations,

while useful, introduced idealized assumptions that did not fully align with experimental

realities, such as flow separation, wake turbulence, and non-uniform properties.

Overall, the limitations of theoretical models when applied to experimental setups and the

necessity of accounting for real-world factors such as thermocouple design and flow

irregularities was apparent. Keeping the thermocouples calibrated is important for accuracy but

introducing factors that will reduce heat transfer losses like radiation shields is even more

important as shown by the results found.

8.0 Contributions

Each of the members of the team contributed to the completion of the report. Umar worked on

the procedures, and the discussion of errors in the lab. Arshneet worked on compiling data and

completing the convection data analysis. Vaibhav worked on questions one and two for the

thermocouple error analysis. Kareem completed the third question of the thermocouple error

analysis section, along with the introduction and conclusion of the report.
References

[1] A. Wu, "ME353 HEAT TRANSFER EXPERIMENT: Forced-Convective Heat Transfer in a

Water-Cooled Pipe," 18 August 2010. [Online]. Available:
[Link]

[2] T. L. Bergman and a. S. Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Haboken:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 2017.
Appendix
ME353 [Link]

ME353 [Link]