( 1)

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are certain materials having basic crystal
structure of an insulator but with a much smaller energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction band.
Gallium arsenide, germanium and silicon are some of the
most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used in
electronic circuit fabrication, and gallium arsenide is used in
solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
 ( 2)

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors can be classified as follows :
~Intrinsic Semiconductor
~ Extrinsic Semiconductor

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
A pure semiconductor (free from any impurity) is called an
'intrinsic' semiconductor. Its electrical conductivity which
arises by the thermal excitation of electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band is called the 'intrinsic
conductivity'.
Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the most common types
of intrinsic semiconductor elements. They have four valence
electrons (tetravalent).
They are bound to the atom by a covalent bond at absolute
zero temperature.
When the temperature rises due to collisions, few electrons
are unbounded and become free to move through the
lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position
(hole). These free electrons and holes contribute to the
conduction of electricity in the semiconductor: The negative
and positive charge carriers are equal in number:
The thermal energy is capable of ionising a few atoms in the
lattice, and hence, their conductivity is less.
 ( 3)

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
When a small quantity of pentavalent or trivalent impurity is
introduced into a pure semiconductor, the conductivity of
the semiconductor is significantly increased. Such impure
semiconductors are called 'extrinsic' or 'impurity' or 'doped'
semiconductors.
DOPING: The process of adding impurity to an intrinsic
semiconductor in a controlled manner is called 'doping'. The
impurity atoms added are called
'dopants'.
Doping can be achieved in many ways. One way is to add
the impurity to molten semiconductor (Ge or Si) so that it
crystallizes with the semiconductor. Another way is to heat
the semiconductor in an atmosphere containing dopant
atoms so that the latter diffuse into the semiconductor. A
third method is to bombard the semiconductor with ions of
dopant atoms
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: n-type and p-type.
 ( 4)

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

When a pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium) is doped

by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi), then four electrons
out of five valence electrons bond with the four electrons of
Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the
impurity atom donates a free electron for conduction in the
lattice and is called a 'donor'.
Since the number of free electrons increases with the
addition of an impurity, the negative charge carriers
increase. Hence, it is called an n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes
an immobile positive ion. As conduction is due to a large
number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type
semiconductor are the 'majority carriers', and holes are the
'minority carriers'.
 ( 5)

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent
impurity (B, Al, In, Ga), then the three valence electrons of
the impurity bond with three of the four valence electrons of
the semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity.
These impurity atoms which are, ready to accept bonded
electrons are called 'acceptors'.
With an increase in the number of impurities, holes (the
positive charge carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called a
p-type semiconductor.
Crystal, as a whole, is neutral, but the acceptors become an
immobile negative ion. As conduction is due to a large
number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are
'majority carriers', and electrons are 'minority carriers'.

APPLICATIONS OF
SEMICONDUCTORS
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:
 Lighting LEDs are used in many lighting applications, including street
lights, parking garages, walkways, refrigerated cases, and task
lighting. LEDs are also used in automotive lighting, such as headlights,
brake lights, and indicators.
 Displays LEDs are used in displays for smartphones, TVs, and digital
signage. LED displays are known for their high contrast ratios and
vibrant colors.

PHOTODIODE:
 Consumer electronics: Photodiodes are used in devices such as
compact disc players, smoke detectors, and infrared remote controls.
 ( 6)

 Medical devices: Photodiodes are used in pulse oximeters to

measure blood oxygen levels, and in instruments to analyze samples.
 Solar cell panels: Photodiodes convert light into electrical energy in
solar cell panels.
 Optical communications: PIN diodes are used in optical
communications because they are more sensitive and faster than p–n
junction diodes.
 Lighting regulation: PIN diodes are used in lighting regulation because
of their fast response time.

SOLAR CELLS:
 Electricity: Solar cells can be used as an alternative source of electricity
for homes, industries, and other applications. Solar panels can power
home appliances and lighting, and can also be used to charge electric
vehicles.
 Agriculture: Solar panels can be used to generate electricity for
agricultural operations, a practice called agrivoltaics.
 Transportation: Solar energy can be used in cars.
 Space: Solar cells are used in space applications.

DIGITAL CAMERA:
 Photography Digital cameras can take pictures and store them in their
memory. They can also display images on a screen immediately after
recording.
 Cinematography Digital movie cameras capture footage digitally
instead of on physical film.

TRANSISTOR:
 Switches: Transistors are used as switches because they can quickly
turn on and off.
 Amplifiers: Transistors amplify small electrical signals to make them
stronger.
 Digital logic circuits: Transistors are used in digital logic circuits, which
are the building blocks of digital electronics.
 ( 7)

ZENER DIODE
A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a
specially doped semiconductor device engineered to
function in the reverse direction.
When the voltage across a Zener diode's terminals is
reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known as the
knee voltage), the junction experiences a breakdown,
allowing current to flow in the opposite direction. This
phenomenon, known as the Zener Effect, is a key
characteristic of Zener diodes.

The device is named after American physicist Clarence

Zener who first described the Zener effect in 1934 in his
primarily theoretical studies of breakdown of electrical
insulator properties. Later, his
work led to the Bell Labs implementation of the effect in
form of an electronic device, the Zener diode.
 ( 8)

WORKING OF A ZENER DIODE

High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it
more conductive and thus the Zener diodes can easily
conduct electricity compared to other p-n junction diodes.
These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener
diode and make it very thin. Thus, this diode also works
even if the voltage applied is very small.
In no biassing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons
accumulate in the valence band of the p-type
semiconductor material and thus no current flow occurs
through the diode.
In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to
the supplied voltage, the diode conducts electricity in the
direction of reverse bias. When the Zener voltage equals the
supplied voltage the depletion layer vanishes completely.
 ( 9)

WORKING OF A ZENER
DIODE IN REVERSE
BIASED CONDITIONS
In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any
normal diode but in the reverse-bias condition, a small leak
current flows through the diode. As we keep increasing the
reverse voltage it reaches a point where the reverse voltage
equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is
represented as Vz and in this condition the current start
flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage the current
increase drastically unit it reaches a stable value.
In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for
Zener Diode which are,
~ Avalanche Breakdown
~Zener Breakdown
 (10)

AVALANCE BREAKDOWN
The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in
the ordinary diode and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage.
For a high value of reverse voltage, the free electron in the
PN junction diode gains energy and acquires high velocity
and these high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms
and knock electrons from that atoms. This collision
continues and new electrons are available for conducting
current thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.
This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is
called the Avalanche breakdown. This phenomenon
damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener diode is
a specific diode that is made to operate in this reverse
voltage area.
If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche
breakdown happens in the zener diode.
 (11)

ZENER BREAKDOWN
Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction
diodes. In these diodes, if the reverse bias voltages reach
closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and
is sufficient enough to pull electrons from the valance band.
These electrons then gain energy from the electric field and
break free from the atom.
Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a
slight increase in the voltage causes a sudden increase in
the current.
 (12)

FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS
OF ZENER DIODE
Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the
forward characteristics of any other normal P-N junction
diode. Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar
to the forward characteristics of any other normal P-N
junction diode.
VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between
the voltage and current through the circuit. Voltage is taken
along the x- axis while the current is taken along the y-axis.
The above graph is the V-1 characteristics curve of the P-N
junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can
understand that there are three regions in which the diode
works, and they are:
~Zero bias
~Forward bias
~Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the
p-type is connected to the positive terminal while the n-type
is connected to the negative terminal of the external
voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is
a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when
the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the
voltage is 0.3V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is
a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases
slowly, and the curve obtained is non-linear as the voltage
 (13)

applied to the diode

 (14)

overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode overcomes

the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the
curve rises sharply as the external voltage increases, and
the curve obtained is linear.

REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS
OF A ZENER DIODE
When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition,
the p- type is connected to the negative terminal while the
n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external
voltage. This results in an increase in the potential barrier.
Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority
carriers are present in the junction.
When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges
will have increased kinetic energy which affects the majority
charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This
may also destroy the diode.
In a Zener diode, particularly, in reverse voltage conditions a
small amount of current flows through the Zener diode. This
current is because of the electrons which are thermally
generated in the Zener diode. As we keep increasing the
reverse voltage at any particular value of reverse voltage the
reverse current increases suddenly at the breakdown point
this voltage is called Zener Voltage and is represented as V.
(15)
 (16)

HOW TO FIND
REVERSE BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE OF A
ZENER DIODE?
Apparatus:
•One 0-100 mA ammeter
•One 20 0 resistance
•High resistance rheostat
•One Zener diode
•Ten-volt battery
•One-way key
•Connecting wire
•Two 0-10 V voltmeter

Circuit Parameters
In the given circuit,
•Vi = Input reverse bias voltage
•Ri = Input resistance
•RL = Load resistance
•l1 = Input current
•Vo = Output voltage (RL/I.)
 (17)

•lz = Zener diode current

•IL = Load current

Equation:
Vo = Vi – Ri Ii
At breakdown, value of Vi rises I by a large value, in a way
that
Vo = Vi - Ri Ii turns into a constant. This constant quantity
Vo is the reverse breakdown voltage, which is also known as
the Zener voltage.
Procedure
[Link] the apparatus as displayed in the circuit diagram.
[Link] down the zero error and the least count of milli-
ammeters (micro-ammeters) and voltmeters.
[Link] the moving rheostat or potential divider close
to the negative terminal and slide the key (K). Milli-
ammeter and voltmeters will show zero reading.
[Link] the contact marginally towards the positive
terminal to give reverse bias voltage (Vi). The milli-
ammeter value will stay at zero.
Voltmeters will give equivalent readings. Vo = V1 ... li = 0
[Link] Vi increases, then I will start flowing. Now, Vo will
become lesser than Vi. Write down the measurements of
Vp hi and Vo.
[Link] V, in tiny increments of 0.5 V. Write down
the corresponding value of Vo and I, which will also be
increased.
 (18)

[Link] Vi is raised furthermore, Vo and hi will also be

increased correspondingly.

[Link] one point, when Vi is increased additionally, Vo

will not increase and li will increase by a large
amount.
[Link] Vi is increased furthermore, only hi will increase and
Vo will become a constant. Write down values of Vi and I.
Rise Vi to a reading of 10V, writing down the corresponding
values.
Precautions
All connections should be clean, tight, and neat. The key
should be used in the circuit and opened when the circuit is
not activated.
 (19)

ZENER DIODE SPECIFICATIONS

Zener Diode is one other most commonly used diode and
some of the specifications of Zener diode are,
Zener Voltage : The voltage at which Zener breakdown
occurs in the Zener diode is called as Zener Voltage. It is
denoted by Vz generally it ranges from 2.4 volts to 200
volts. Current Iz (max) : The maximum current that the
diode can achieve at the Zener Voltage is called max
current. It ranges from 200uA to
200 A.
Current Iz (min) : The minimum current required for the
diode to break down is called min current.
Power Rating : The maximum power the Zener diode can
dissipate is the power rating of that diode. Power is
calculated by taking the product of the breakdown voltage
and the value of current at that time.
Temperature Stability : Temperature stability of the
Zener diode is greatest at 5V.
Voltage Tolerance : Voltage Tolerance for any Zener
diode is normally +5%.
Zener Resistance (Rz) : The resistance exhibited by the
Zener diode is called Zener Resistance.
 (20)

APPLICATONS OF A ZENER
DIODE
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for
managing voltage across little loads. The breakdown voltage
of Zener diodes will be steady for a wide scope of current.
The Zener diode is associated with corresponding to the
heap to make it switch predisposition and when the Zener
diode surpasses knee voltage, the voltage across the heap
will become consistent.
 (21)

Zener Diode in Over-Voltage

Protection
At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener
breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops
bringing about a short- out. This can be kept away from by
utilizing the Zener diode.
 (22)

Zener diode as Noise Generator

Another application of the Zener diode is using its

avalanche breakdown noise, which for instance can be used
for dithering in an analogue-to-digital converter when at a
rms level equivalent to 1/3 to 1 lsb or to create a random
number [Link] application of the Zener diode is
using its avalanche breakdown noise, which for instance
can be used for dithering in an analogue- to-digital
converter when at a rms level equivalent to 1/3 to 1 lsb or
to create a random number generators
 (23)

Zener diode in surge protectors

Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes,
 (24)

Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits

Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting
circuits by restricting the pieces of it is possible that one or
both the half patterns of an
AC waveform. Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC
waveform cutting circuits by restricting the pieces of it is
possible that one or both the half patterns of an AC
waveform.
 (25)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]