Lecture 8

BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

VIHARAS : Bahas and Bahis
During the time of Buddha, monks had no permanent residence, leading nomadic lives, staying
under trees and caves. During the monsoon, because of the incessant rain and the dilemma about
trampling and killing newly sprouted plants, they were required to stay within a prescribed area.
Resting places called aramas were built all over to serve the monks and the period of the rainy
season became for them a time of retreat and introspection. In course of time, these resting places
came to be called viharas or residences (Rajesh & Kelly, 1998). The modern Indian state of Bihar
was so named because of its vast number of viharas. With the spread of Buddhism among the
laity and with their support, viharas became permanent institutions. With plenty of time at their
disposal, the monks and nuns engaged in creative activities such as philosophy, literature,
medicinal texts, grammatology etc.

Vihara thus became a Buddhist monastery where presumably celibate monks (bhikshus) and nuns
(bhikshunis) lived. The community of the monks or nuns was known as the sangha. Initially, in
India, viharas were purely residential units and chaitya-grihas were the prayer halls. With the
advent of Mahayana, the viharas were transformed into both a place of residence as well as a
place of worship. This is evident in the rock architecture of Ajanta and Ellora. This transformation
of the viharas led to the extinction of the chaitya-grihas (Flon, 1994).

In India, with the passage of time, viharas became mahaviharas. The prefix “maha” is used to
imply grandeur. Apart from being larger, consisting of a cluster of viharas or a large vihara which
had many branches, a qualitative change had occurred. The mahaviharas became primarily
focussed on education and advanced learning and came to be recognized more as monastic
universities or doctrinal colleges (Rajesh & Kelly, 1998). Great mahaviharas were established in
as far north as Taxila and Orgyan to as far east as Magadha and Bengal. Great monastic
universities of Nalanda, Vikramashila and Odantapuri were filled with scholars and students from
many Asian countries.

In Nepal the term is loosely used for all types of viharas, even small ones. The basic design of the
Nepali viharas is quite similar and can be broadly categorized into three types: i) bahas ii) bahis
and iii) baha-bahis. Gellner, however, believes that the baha-bahi is not a separate type of vihara
but a branch baha with a verandah, which forms part of the living quarters. Father Locke (Locke,
1985) defines a baha or bahi as a Newar Buddhist institution with a consecrated Buddha (kwapa-
dya) shrine and agama to which a sangha of initiated Bare are attached. The Nepali word bahal is
a corruption of the Sanskrit term vihara, changing from vihara to vahara to bahara to bahala to
bahal and finally to the Newari term baha. Similarly bahil is derived from the Sanskrit term
bahiri which means outside. From bahiri the word changed to bahira-bahil- and the Newari term
of bahi.

Viharas evidently existed during the Lichchavi period, as there are references to some 15
monasteries of that period. There is little information between the Lichchavi period till the 12th
century when the Malla period began. After the Malla period there is an abundance of information
but a significant change had taken place. The viharas were still inhabited by the Buddhist sangha
but those who referred to themselves as bhikshus were, in fact, married. Even before the Malla
period, by N.S.213, there are references about some inhabitants of viharas who were Vajracharyas
(vajra masters) and who were presumably married. By the end of the Malla period it seems clear
that there were no more celibate monks. Some of the inhabitants of bahis in Patan called
themselves brahmacharya bhikshus but there are numerous examples about their wives and
children.
Today the viharas are looked after by a sangha of Sakyabhikshus and Vajracharyas, called Bare,
and their families. After the time of Jayasthitimalla, the Bare became a caste and the sangha
became a patrilineal descent group, i.e. the son joined the sangha of his father. The monasteries
were no longer open communities, which accepted anyone who wanted to lead a life of a bhikshu.
Also the bahas and bahis are no longer Buddhist learning centers and serve mainly as a Buddhist
shrine and residential quarters. The irony is that foreign Buddhist organizations have set up
Buddhist schools to impart Buddhist religious studies to pupils of Nepal, whereas, the bahas and
bahis remain defunct as religious schools.

Viharas are most numerous in Patan and Kathmandu but relatively few in Bhaktapur. They are
also found scattered in other towns and villages of the valley. In 1985 John K. Locke had
estimated that in Patan there were 141 bahas (18 main and 123 branches) and 25 bahis, in
Kathmandu there were 90 bahas and 16 bahis while in Bhaktapur there were 20 bahas and 3
bahis (Locke, 1985).

The basic plan of the viharas have remained unchanged for over 2000 years as the layouts are
very similar to the cave monasteries of earlier times which in turn were probably based on the
single storey house of the Indus Valley civilization built around an atrium (Korn, 1976). In India
viharas gradually disappeared after the Muslim conquest while in Nepal their function as
monasteries also declined and the term came to be associated with Buddhist buildings, not
monasticism.

BAHAS

Bahas were founded as establishments for communities of married Bares but not all bahas were
former viharas. It is not clear whether at a certain time in history all monks married and became
householder monks or the custom of marriage was introduced and gradually became more
acceptable until celibacy in monks died out altogether. It is difficult to say with confidence
whether bahis existed earlier than bahas, although bahis practiced an older form of Buddhism.
There are no confirmed dates for existing bahis earlier than 1200 A.D. Many bahis were founded
in the time of Jayasthitimalla and Yaksha Malla such as Uba Bahi and Iba Bahi in Patan, Nhaykan
Bahi and Syangu Bahi in Kathmandu. Also Buddhist manuscripts were not copied in bahis except
in a few locations. Manuscripts were usually copied by Vajracharyas in bahas. It is the contention
of Father Locke that bahas and bahis co-existed since the earliest times. Because of the
ascendancy of the Vajracharyas and Tantric Buddhism, the celibate monks succumbed to the
dominant institution and gradually became married monks. This led to a slow decline in the
tradition of the bahis.

Each baha has its own sangha which is a closed and self-sufficient unit looking after the affairs of
the bahas. In contrast the bahis belong to one large overall organization (sarva-sangha) and the
elder of each bahi must be present at all bahi initiations. Many bahas have branches. Kwa-baha
(Bhaskaradeva Samskrita Hiranyavarna Mahavihara), also known as the golden temple, was
probably built during the reign of Bhaskaradeva N.S.165-67. It has 7 official branches and the
largest sangha comprising of 1400 Sakyas and 350 Vajracharyas (Locke, 1985). Similarly, Uku-
baha (Sivadevavarma Samskrita Rudravarna Mahavihara) has the largest number of branches, 29,
and the second largest sangha.

The bahas were set on a low plinth and consisted of a quadrangle with wings built around a
central sunken courtyard. The courtyard was paved with tiles and had a passage all around it. The
buildings were normally 2 storeys high, constructed of brick structural walls, wood and tile. They
were closed in and generally unobtrusive from the outside, presenting a bleak and shuttered
exterior to the secular world outside. The ground floor walls were windowless or fitted with a few
blind windows or tikijhyas flanking the entrance. As the viharas were translocated from isolated
locations to the city due to insecure environment, this was an attempt to safeguard the bahi’s quiet
and spiritual ambience from the hustle and bustle of the enclosing city. Entry was through a single
door in the main façade, guarded by lions. The doorway was surmounted by a torana and flanked
by the guardian images of Ganesh and Mahankal, one a Hindu and the other a Buddhist tantric
deity (Slusser, 1982).

The phalcha was situated at the entrance with platforms or low benches, designed as an assembly
for singing devotional songs. The vihara shrine was placed on the opposite side of the entrance
facing the entry. The Buddhist image on the ground floor was a non-tantric deity known as
kwapa-dya (guardian deity). The agama deity on the upper floor comprised of a pair of tantric
deities where access was restricted. The kwapa-dya was mainly the image of Sakya Muni Buddha
and sometimes of Akshobya. The kwapa-dya was open to the public but only the initiated
members of the sangha were permitted to enter the shrine. The shrine was designed to be taller
than the rest of the structure, either through the addition of a roof or placement of gajurs.

The wings were divided by masonry walls to provide rooms for storage and quarters for married
monks. Staircases were provided at each end of the wings which led to three roomed apartments
which were not interconnected. These apartments were occupied by the families of the Bare.
Colonnaded bays were provided on the ground floors at the center of the side wings, where
teaching probably took place. Light and ventilation to the upper rooms was provided by a
uniquely designed five paneled tikijhyas. The space above the phalcha usually had a sajhya and
served as a common room. The space below the roof was generally unused.

The design of the external façade was symmetrical and sections of the walls were projected and
recessed in relation to the width of the wings. The exterior bricks were of better quality and the
entrance and the shrine doors were decorated. Interior walls were plastered and white washed.

Today many of the bahas have not maintained the earlier traditional architecture and have
undergone many changes at different times. As bahas became the dominant Buddhist institution,
they received donations and support from an increasing number of wealthy patrons. This wealth
was used to expand and embellish the bahas. The shrines have become much more elaborate and
modified into multi-roofed temples built into the complex of buildings around the courtyard.
Because viharas were houses of gods, the decorations sometimes surpassed even that of the
palace, with carved wooden members, decorative moldings, carved brackets etc. Exquisite
toranas were placed above the entrance of the bahas and baha-bahis. Gild metal was extensively
used particularly in the roof and façade, including doors. Kwa-baha is a good example of such a
shrine.

The sunken courtyard was considered a sacred area and was filled with lotus, agnishala, chaityas,
shrines, images of gods and donors, pillars, bells, inscriptions, mandalas etc., often aligned along
the central axis. Mandalas usually faced the entrance door and were raised on a pedestal with the
symbolic thunderbolt, the bajra.

BAHIS

Korn (Korn, 1976) has suggested that bahis were generally built outside the settlements and were
founded by a single patron such as a king or a celebrated monk. It was designed as a place for
training, teaching, preaching epics and to give shelter and food to visiting monks. With the
growing popularity of Vajrayana in which marriage was allowed, the monks desirous of marriage
had to leave the bahi and had to found or join a baha where family accommodations were
possible and monks lived as grihastha bhikshus. Because of the social obligations of the families,
the bahas were located within the cities. There seems to be an underlying presumption that bahis
preceded the bahas and were inhabited by celibate monks and nuns. Records have shown that
members of bahis who referred to themselves as brahmacharya bhikshus were actually married
and that many bahis were established during Malla period (Locke, 1985). Thus as Father Locke
has suggested, the two probably co-existed since early times and celibacy in bahis gradually
disappeared as tantric Buddhism gained popularity. Initially the bahis tried to preserve their
tradition, which was quite different from that of the bahas. Their efforts were doomed, however,
as they were trying to maintain the tradition of celibate monks whereas they were not celibate
themselves. Vajracharya priests had to be arranged to perform many of their family rituals since
their studies were designed to cover only the duties of a celibate monk.

It has also been suggested that bahis housed celibate monks and served as schools of dharma
where Buddhists from bahas came to learn the basics of dharma. After learning the basics the
students went back to the baha for further study and training to become a Vajracharya. Members
of bahis were considered to be of slightly lower status than those of the bahas, thereby suggesting
that bahis were a lower form of Buddhist institution than the bahas. Although there were tantric
agama gods, there were no consecrated tantric priests who usually had to be called in from the
bahas for family or occasional rituals. Families of the bahis were usually poorer because the bahis
were experiencing a gradual decrease in the number of followers. As a consequence bahis were
usually in a state of disrepair and more closely retained their traditional architectural features. As
bahas were more prosperous they have made continuous improvements and markedly changed
the original physical appearance. On the other hand once the bahi building collapsed, it was not
rebuilt and disappeared altogether.

The bahis were situated on a knoll (Pulchowk) or were raised on a high stepped plinth so that
entry was gained through stairway. Another distinguishing feature was that there was often an
imposing balcony over the entrance so there was no space for setting up the toranas. The guardian
lions were not installed at the entrance. This, however, was not always the case as some bahis did
have stone lions and toranas, e.g. Iba-bahi and I-bahi. Another feature was the small square
shrine with a narrow circumambulatory, set in the wing facing the entrance. The shrine normally
contained the image of Sakyamuni Buddha. It had a dark room on the first floor for the agama
deity above the shrine and had a temple structure protruding beyond the roof.

In the bahis, except for the outer wall and the shrine which were constructed of brick, the rest of
the building was generally of timber construction. The external wall in the ground floor had no
opening except for the entry door with its flanking blind windows. Much of both the ground and
the first floor were open colonnade. This type of open construction did not lend itself easily as
family quarters, which probably was the intention during the time of occupancy by celibate
monks. In the upper storey the floor joists were extended over the courtyard, passing even in front
of the agama and were screened with lattice. Unlike the bahas which had staircases at each corner
leading to family quarters, the bahis had a single flight of broad masonry stairs.

The façade was symmetrical and left plain and without any decorative brickwork or projecting
sections. The upper floor normally had 3 or 5 lattice windows except for the rear façade which
had 2 or 4 as the section behind the shrine was left blank. The windows were too small to provide
adequate light and ventilation. This was obtained from the courtyard side which was banked with
lattice screen.

The third type of vihara, the baha-bahi, was a combination of the baha and the bahi. Two floors
were built in the form of a baha while the third floor consisted of open colonnade like that of the
bahi with sajhyas in each wing, outward leaning windows or even a continuous latticed balcony.
Gellner, however, considers the baha-bahi to be a branch baha, not a separate category of
monastery.

Apart from the above three categories there were family bahas, great bahas and temple bahas.
The family bahas or modern bahas, all built within the past 150 years, consisted of family
quarters built around a courtyard with a small shrine inserted into one wing. Sometimes the shrine
was free-standing and placed at the centre of the courtyard or set against one wall of the courtyard
building. This was often a reflection of the deteriorating economic condition of the baha
community.
The great bahas were large squares surrounded by residential quarters with at least one shrine
built into one side. The squares could contain other shrines and chaityas. Tebaha, Yatka Bahal and
Itum Bahal of Kathmandu and Bu-baha of Patan are typical examples. In the case of Bu-baha it
has been speculated that a typical baha originally existed in the center of the court with residential
quarters surrounding the baha in a strictly orthogonal arrangement. A large chaitya, still existent
in the centre of the court, was built in the centre of the baha court. Later the baha was dismantled
and the shrine was shifted to align with the buildings in the south side of the court and the dalan
and the phalcha also shifted to different locations around the court (Pant and Funo, 2007). In the
temple baha, an important temple was placed in the centre of a square surrounded by residential
or rest houses such as in Machchindra Bahal.

MATHAS

Mathas were the Hindu equivalent of the viharas but are now mostly defunct. They had no well
defined plans/elevations and served mainly as quarters for a group of male Hindu ascetics
gathered around a religious leader (mahanta ). They served as centres for teaching and learning
Hindu philosophy and study of appropriate manuscripts. There are 17 major mathas in the three
cities of the Valley.

Because they had no distinct design or orientation, they normally resembled the standard dwelling
units. They were only distinguishable because of their superior wood carving and extravagant
decoration. Because Bhaktapur was the most Hindu city during the Malla period, it contains the
largest number of mathas with the biggest concentration around Dattatreya temple at Tachapal
Tol in eastern Bhaktapur.

The ground floor was generally used as stables, stores, servants’ quarters. The upper floors were
used as grain stores, guestrooms, meeting halls and bedrooms. The kitchen was located in the top
floor or the attic. There were one or more courtyards around which ghars were built whose size
and arrangement varied considerably. The façade was symmetrical with the main door and the
upper floor windows set about a central axis.
Lecture 9

THE TIERED TEMPLES

The term multi-storied for Nepali temples is a misnomer because apart from a few cases where a
shrine occurs on the upper floor, the temples have multi-tiered roofs without the intervening
floors. The space above the cella is wastage space and even the windows on the upper floors are
blind windows for visual purposes only. The space above the roofs has been deliberately left open
so as to keep open the vertical axis for the easy movement of the gods to heaven.

There is no clear indication of when the style began but it seems to have been existent during the
time of the Lichchavis as indicated by their inscriptions. That the style was a novelty to the
Chinese can be ascertained from their description of the Nepali tiered system. The temple designs
seem to have evolved over the different periods; the existing temples have been renovated or
reconstructed at various times and so do not mirror the actual original designs.

The origin of many of the oldest temples are surrounded in legends and because of the continuous
renovations, it is difficult to confirm their original dates. According to legends, one of the oldest
temples the Pasupati is believed to have been built by the first Lichchavi king Supuspadeva while
another Lichchavi king Haridattavarman is said to have built the four Narayan temples. The kings
cannot be historically confirmed but the temples exist, albeit the structures of today are a result of
several renovations and re-constructions. The respect for the tradition and practice of
reconstructing temples according to the original guidelines probably prevented innovations in
construction and style and despite many renovations and reconstruction, it is believed the temples
have faithfully retained as much of the original character as possible.

Many Indian and Western experts tend to presume that the design of Nepali temples was greatly
influenced by contemporary Indian temple design. Tiwari, however, refutes this theory and
believes that Kathmandu remained by and large isolated from the architectural movement of the
Indo-gangetic plains including that of the Mauryans, Kushanas and the Guptas (Tiwari, 2009).
Unlike the Indian temples, the Nepali tiered temples do not have any porticos. The Indian temple
form with its portico was influenced by the large portico design of the Greek temple which
subsequently influenced the Bactrian, Kushan and Gupta art and architecture (Tiwari, 2009).

In 879 CE the new era of Nepal Sambat was introduced. A major renovation of the temple of
Pashupatinath appears to have taken place based on Saiva tantrism. The format was that of a brick
and timber two-tiered temple over a low plinth which served as the standard for temple design and
the demise of the stone shikhara style in Nepal (Tiwari, 2009). The two roofs symbolized the
stacking of three heavenly chariots on top of each other indicating the presence of god at three
levels. The upper roof represented the heavens, the middle roof the sky and the sanctum area
below the lower cornice level the earth. This prototype became the standard temple design
especially of Shiva. Later due to the rise and popularity of the Shakti cult, the number of tiered
roofs and the height of the plinth was increased to accommodate the new symbolic demands of
the cult. This began with the construction of the Taleju temple in 1564 CE by Mahendra Malla,
built on a high plinth over a pith shrine. Subsequently, the new typology came to be associated
with temples of pith deities.

Despite its mass and weight the Nepali temple is not an aesthetically heavy building. The
decreasing size of the tiered roofs point upwards; the curved tiles or birds ready to take flight at
the roof edges carry one’s view skywards instead of following the downward roof line. The
swaying bells and leaves lend lightness while the flags, birds, perforated borders and cloth
banners lend delicacy to the structure. The temple is, however, tied to the earth by the red brick
and timber which belong to the earth and whose harmonious combination is responsible for the
pleasing aesthetics.
A paved area around the temple demarcates the sacred ground and shoes are often taken out when
entering this area. It is paved with small square tiles or stone. The temple is usually set upon one
or more plinths of diminishing pattern which helps to raise the temple and give it prominence and
symbolic value. The plinth also has practical value to protect the building against damp and raise
it above the muddy street level and away from the activities of children and animals.

The composition of the plinths is not known as undertaking any kind of excavations would be
considered sacrilegious. Renovations are also almost always carried out above the plinth level so
little is known about the foundation. According to Indian manuals, plinths were made of unbaked
bricks or stone rubble with shallow foundations. Nepali temples probably followed the same
method. However, it is not known for certain whether the temple walls rest on the plinths or have
separate walls with the intervening space filled with various materials. It is believed that the
foundation begins from a masonry mat set below the plinth. It tends to be shallow but could also
go deeper into the ground. Remains of the the foundations of Kirata period temples excavated
near Satya Narayan temple of Hadigaon and dated to 167 BCE suggests temples had foundations
of burnt bricks and this well may have been the general practice for temples with low plinths.
However, temples with high plinths could start from a thin brick soling just below the ground and
built upwards as a solid masonry block. The visible portion of the plinth is covered with brick and
the edge of each step is topped with stone paving. Ornamental molded bricks are set below the
stone slabs. Secondary shrines are sometimes built at the corners of the raised plinths. The
stairways are guarded by stone lions, guardian beasts, minor deities etc. and each successive
guardian is supposed to have multifold powers.

The number of steps of the platform often corresponds to the number of roofs, however, the steps
sometimes are completely different as in the case of Maju-deval. Nyatapola is 27”6” square in
plan and has a platform height of 23 ft. The Taleju temple of Kathmandu is raised on a platform
of 20 ft. Temples, primarily of Taleju, were sometimes positioned on top of a storied building as
was normal in the valley palaces.

Bricks laid in mud mortar were extensively used in the main supporting structures. Although the
large overhang of the roofs protected the walls against the rain, further protective measures were
used. On the exterior face dachi-apa or wedge shaped bricks caused minimum exposure of the
mortar joints to weathering. The joints were also covered with silay, a special clay, which expands
when it comes in contact with water, thereby sealing the joint more [Link] brick does not lend
itself easily to decoration, wood was used as a complementary material and was heavily carved.
Bands of timber at various levels such as at cornice level, roof support level and cross ties
provided additional structural strength to the walls. The brick walls do not have any kind of damp
protection. However, all timber elements like posts and doorways have a stone base plate to give
it protection against the rising damp.

The most common plan is the square, the perfect absolute figure full of cosmic symbolism.
Rectangles are also common, however, a few octagonal or circular plans exist, more as exotic
structures. Kathmandu temples were based on an odd number of squares: 1,9,25,49,81,121,..981.
The most commonly used was the square of 81 ,i.e. 9x9 (Tiwari, 1989).

The form of the temple is associated with the god within:

Square – Siva, Vishnu, Ganesh, Mother Goddess alone
Rectangle – Bhairav, Bhimsen, Mother Goddess, ensemble of mother goddesses
Octagon – Krishna, although Krishna can have other plans

Another variation in the plan is the type of sanctum:

- Sanctums are exposed for Mother Goddesses and Ganesha although complex
superstructures may exist. The open sanctum is closely related to the hypaethral (open
roofless) shrines that preceded them.
 - Sanctums can be a simple room entered by a single door with the image facing the
door and set at the rear wall.
- The square temple can be a mandala where the sovereign of the mandala occupies the
centre of the sanctum. The image is then placed in the centre and the sanctum is
pierced by four doors at the centre of each façade. This form of temple is appropriate
for worship of Sivalinga, chaturvyuha Vishnu or four-faced Brahma which are meant
to be viewed from all sides. Other manifestations of these gods would be placed in a
different type of sanctum.
- Some gods prefer having an upper floor, particularly Bhimasena, agama gods of
viharas, some Bhairavs and some Mother Goddesses. In free standing temples, the
sanctum is a small partitioned space on the upper floor and the surrounding hall like
space is used by the guthiars for religious functions.
- Some temples have second outer wall so the space between the inner walls serves as a
circumambulatory space. However, this space is rarely accessible to the public and is
used primarily by the priests.
- In many temples the outer wall is replaced by columns so that the space becomes
public and is used for circumambulation.
- Some temples were built on top of other buildings. Common among these are the
temples built on some of the courtyard wings of the palaces such as Taleju temples or
Degutale. Rich families also often built agamchen temples on their houses.
-
The rectangular temples are never placed on high bases or on top of buildings. Unlike the square
temples, the rectangular temples attempt to have an orientation with the entrance façade
heightened. The rectangular dyochchen temples have evolved from the Kirata devakula temples
and are older but less plentiful than the square devalaya tiered temples. The dyochchen resembles
a residential building, has multiple floors but not multiple roofs except for the small protruding
fucha roof. It is not based on the reducing core wall system and has shrines on more than one
level with the tantric agama shrine on the upper floor. These temples house mother goddesses and
their families and have multiple gajurs on the roofs. The mother goddesses have pith shrines
known as pigan on the outskirts of the town but have dyochchen shrines within the city. This
arrangement exists for the mother goddesses of Bhaktapur, the ajimas of Kathmandu and the
mother goddesses of other towns.

The dyochchen temples have the concept that the house of god has the same format as that of man
and the life style of the gods resembles that of man. This differs radically from the classical Hindu
concept of god as being less human, thus his residence in a degah is temporary. The dyochchen
does not require circumambulation so the building is sited on one side of the court or street just as
in a normal residential building. Decorative carvings are limited to the main doors, windows and
the torana. The struts, unlike that of degah temples, have minimal carvings and those that display
profuse carvings tend to be later additions.

A variant of the dyochchen temples is the rectangular temple with receding tiered roofs and the
main sanctum on the first floor designed for communal worship, contrary to the Bhakti mode of
worship in degah temples.

The Bhairavnatha temple of Bhaktapur was built as a small structure of only one storey by king
Jagat Jyoti Malla (1614-1637) and was later restored and enlarged by Bhupatindra Malla in 1718
with the addition of two more tiered roofs. It has an unusual feature of three small gajuras and
metal flags protruding from the centre of the lowest roof. This probably indicates the original
pinnacle of the one storey temple. The temple was destroyed in the 1934 earthquake but was
rebuilt in its original form. The temple has a striking entrance facing the square which is false.
The actual entry to the temple is from the back through a small back door and the god is in an
upper floor cella.
Distinct feature of the temple is its tiered hipped roof which number from 1-5. Most roofs are
square or rectangular corresponding to the plan but there are few examples of round or octagonal
roofs over square plans.

The first stage of a multi roof is supported by the cella wall (in case of a single enclosure) or outer
enclosing wall (in case of double enclosure) or colonnade (in case of colonnade surrounding the
main enclosure). For the next stage, in case of single enclosure structure, wooden beams support
the inner recessed walls which together with the struts support the upper roof. In case of double
enclosure or outer colonnade, the inner wall and struts support the upper roof. If there are more
roofs, timber beams support the recessed walls which support the roofs.

A thick layer of clay was laid over the roof to delay percolation and prevent leakage. However,
the disadvantage was that the moisture was often absorbed by the clay which came in contact with
the wooden members, causing their decay. This has caused temples to require extensive repairs
from time to time. The heavy roofs were supported on slanted carved brackets which rested on
wooden or brick cornices. The end brackets were longer and larger and supported the larger
projection of the roof. The roof rafters were closely spaced and laid in a fan shape pattern at the
corners and on the topmost roof. Erotic scenes were often carved on the brackets on the belief that
it would avert the evil or shy eyes of the thunderbolt, which was conceived of as a maiden and
would be abashed by the carvings. It has also been suggested that these carvings were inserted to
encourage the people to procreate as a large proportion of the population began to convert to
Buddhism and lead ascetic lives. The lowermost roof was sometimes covered with wooden
latticework aligned to the sloping supporting roof struts which were exquisitely carved.

Some temples were gifted with a gilded roof. The sheets were laid over wooden boards and
overlaps were placed over wooden beads (runners). The ends were covered by carved metal
images. The eaves were carved with intricate motifs and had hanging leaves. Birds on the verge of
taking flight were placed on the four corners of the roofs.

A special feature of the tiered temples was a band of stringed cornices supporting the struts of
each roof tier. The lowermost layer of the cornice band was composed of lotus petals followed by
a band of nagapasa, a symbolic representation of snakes tying the temple together, then by a string
with lion faces called simhamvah and other decorative courses. The layers of wooden cornices in
fact acted as horizontal ties providing structural strength to the temples. Wooden ties were also
provided at various levels for structural support. Just above the simhamvah level, at the four
corners, the cornices were projected out as two layers of flat rectangular pieces with curved ends,
supported on cantilevered wooden projections.

Exquisitely carved doors, often covered in gilded repouse metal or silver, were special features of
the temples. The doors had toranas, extended heads and bases, carved flanges and in the case of
larger temples, additional panels.

The number of roof tiers are determined by the god within (Tiwari, 1989).
- 1 or (7) Guru, Ganesh, Siddhi, Buddhi, Chaitanya
- 2 or (6) Brahma, Agni, Savitri, Susumni
- 3 or (5) Bishnu, Jeeb, Avidhya, Laxmi
-4 Rudra, Uma
Thus a Siva temple could be 3,4 or 5 tiered. The two existing 4 tiered temples are Bhagawati at
Nala and Harisiddhi Bhawani, both dedicated to Uma. The Uma-Maheshwora temple at Kirtipur
was once believed to have been 4 tiered but was damaged in 1934 and later rebuilt with 3 tiers. Of
the two 5 tiered temples, the Kumbeshwara is dedicated to Siva and the Nyatapola to a tantric
goddess, probably Bhairavi.

Temples were of varying sizes and opulence. The largest plan is that of Changu Narayan with 32
ft. sides. The Indreswara Mahadev at Panuati (1294-earliest known Newar style temple) has a
plan dimension of 30 ft. Cornices around temples were decorative as well as functional and
symbolic (circle of protection such as Nagpasa) and support roof brackets. The end brackets at the
corners are larger and exquisitely carved with the figure of Vyala, a winged horse-like aquatic
creature, symbolizing water.

Of the two known five tiered temples, the Kumbeshwara dates from 1392 (1390?) while the
Nyatapola was built in 1708. A rich man called Jaya Bhima (Tiwari suggests Jayasthitimalla built
the temple in 1390) built Kumbeshwara with two tiers in 1392 (Slusser, 1982) while Srinivas
Malla added three more tiers in 1670. The Nyatapola was built in 1708 by Bhupatindra Malla.
The shrine is never opened, except to tantric priests, and it is believed to be dedicated to a secret
tantric goddess, possibly Siddhi Laxmi or Bhairavi which was established to control the nearby
Bhairav. Two four tiered temples exist: Harisiddhi Bhawani at Harisiddhi and Nala Bhagawati at
Nala village.

Quadrangle incorporated temples of viharas were later concepts as earlier viharas had no image to
worship.

SHIKHARA AND DOME TEMPLES

The shikhara temple style was developed by the Guptas in the 6th century. Thereafter, it was
introduced by the Lichchavi and continued into the later period. This style was used for both
Hindu and Buddhist temples.

The shikhara temples were normally of dressed stones but were often of brick construction as
well. They consist of a square cell with tapering tower, symbolizing the cave and the mountain
(Mt. Meru). Temples were usually set on stepped plinth, followed by molded courses. This was
done to protect the temple from damp and to give it respectability. The cella and the tower ends in
a flattened ribbed disc known as the amalaka. The amalaka is often surmounted by a gajur.
Entrance to the cella is through one or four porticos. The Nepali shikhara temples have been
found to have a wooden frame of posts and beams enclosed within the walls to give it added
structural strength and resilience.

Nepali shikhara temples lack the additional ardhamandappa and mandappas of the Indian temple
designs as worship in Nepal tends to be more personal, rather then congregational. (Korn, 1976)
They also lack the rich embellishment of the Indian temples. The octagonal shikhara temple in
Patan dedicated to Krishna, the Krishna Mandir and Mahaboudhha in Patan are exceptions and are
examples of elaborately ornamented shikhara temples. The Mahabouddha, whose design was
based on the Bodhgaya temple design, was started by Abhaya Raj in 1565 but was completed by
his grandsons and great-grandsons only in 1601. It is covered with tiles bearing the image of
Buddha and was included in the World Heritage list. It was withdrawn from the list after the
government failed to restrict development in the surroundings, despite repeated warnings.

Towards the end of the Malla period, the shikhara shrines adopted a different outline; that of the
shape of an inverted flower bud. These became popular due to ease of construction.

Domed temples were influenced by Mughal architecture and are believed to be Rana imports.
Actually, they were introduced during the Malla period. Domed temples were favored by the Shah
and Rana rulers and were built around Kathmandu. Bhimsen Thapa built the domed temples of
Bhimeswara and Ranamukteshwara. The Jagannath temple near the jail built by Rana Bahadur
Shah and the Kalomochana (Vishnu temple) and Vishwaroop at Pashupati constructed by Jung
Bahadur Rana in 1874 are other examples of domed temples in Nepal. The temples are plastered
and whitewashed, an imitation of the white marble used in the Indian structures. Recessed niches
with cusp arches flank the doors on the four sides and bands of floral motifs are used at the base
of the dome and upper part of the structure supporting the dome, typical of Muslim architecture.
Small pavilions are also built at the four corners in imitation of the Indian buildings. The
encircling sattals are, however, done in traditional style.
Lecture 10

DHARAMSALAS
The principal function of the dharamsala was to provide a shelter, place to rest, work and
socialize for wayfarers. It was customary to pair this with a water source. Dharamshalas were
common in India since ancient times and Nepali version was probably derived from them.

Lichchavi inscriptions make mention of public rest houses, however, there are no surviving
examples of the period. Nevertheless, it is believed that the typical pati and the mandapa have
not changed much since the early times.

The most basic structure was the pati. The pati is raised on a platform with wooden floor and is
normally a free-standing structure or attached to an existing building as a lean-to. It is a post and
lintel construction structure with a rear brick wall. It can be found everywhere, not only in towns
and villages, but also along roads, water sources and temples.

The mandapa is probably the oldest form of public shelter. The mandapa was usually a free
standing pavilion of square or rectangular plan, with roof supported by 16 columns. It was
designed for gathering people within or around it and was always found within settlements. The
mandapa served many functions besides shelter such as town hall, market etc. Of the two
mandapas situated at the north end of Patan durbar, the southern mandapa was used as a
municipal weighing house and the place to fix market prices while the more recent northern
structure was used for coronation by Patan kings and by priests and astrologers to determine
favorable dates for the festival of Machendranath.

Sattals were multi-storied patis or mandapas. Sattals were designed for longer stays by gurus and
sadhus besides transient travelers so it had additional floor and shrine over a pati type structure.
The upper floor was screened for privacy. Thus they were half shelter half shrine. The most
famous is the 11-12th century Kasthamandap which is roughly 18.7 m. square in plan and 16.3 m.
in height. It was already in existence in 1090 AD. The first mention of it as Kasthamandape is
made in a colophon of a worn-out palm leaf copy of a manuscript called Namasangita found in a
Tibetan monastery (Nepali Times 10 July 2015). Luciona Petech believes the manuscript was
copied in Kathmandu in 1143 AD and transported to Tibet.

Despite it being referred to as a sattal for Siva ascetics, Kasthamandap also served as a meeting
place or town hall. Legend has it that it was constructed from a single tree. It possibly could not
have been constructed from a single tree so an original small structure could have possibly been
expanded later to the large building. It consists of 3 large halls on top of each other without any
divisions. In contrast to normal temples, it has wide stairs leading to the first floor. Loads are
carried by brick walls and large wooden pillars. The brickwork is plastered and whitewashed and
the roof is tiled.

The chapa is a community hall found only in Jyapu communities (Pant and Funo, 2007). It is
typically a long rectangular two storey building set within a large community open space. The
rear part of the ground floor is divided by masonry walls into storerooms for guthiars’ affairs
including feasts and funerary affairs while the front serves as a pati. The open colonnaded space
is used for resting, community meetings and even household chores. The colonnaded upper hall
serves as a hall for guthiar’s feasts and communal activities such as dramas and training in
musical instruments.
STUPAS
Stupas were probably derivatives of the practice of raising a circular tumulus over skeletal
remains and demarcated with a circle of stones. This practice of raising a tumulus over tombs is
evident even in the western world since pre-historic times. Slusser believes the Patan stupas to be
of similar origin. According to tradition there were 6 previous Buddhas while other traditions
speak of 23 previous Buddhas. Thus the tradition of corporeal stupas probably existed long before
Buddha’s time.

Stupas are supposed to contain relics of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or saints. Ashoka is believed to
have broken up the original eight stupas over the remains of Buddha and distributed the remains
to construct over 84000 stupas in India. Nepali stupas are distinguished as: i) dhatu stupa (mortal
remains of Buddha) ii) paribhog stupa (things belonging to Buddha such as garments, bowl etc.)
iii) dharma stupa (text of his teachings) and iv) udeshya stupa (amulets, mantras, jewel etc)

The elements of the Nepali stupa are:

- The original mound is represented by the egg (anda), womb (garbha) and pot
(kumbha). The stupa consists of a drum pedestal (medhi), the drum and the finial. The
drum or medhi is indistinguishable consisting simply of a drum of varying height
slightly larger in diameter than the mound it supports. The drum is set in a modest
circular platform or sometimes on a square platform composed of a number of
superimposed terraces (Pimbahal, Chilancho of Kirtipur and Bouddhanath).
- The anda or dome is of varying shape, hemispherical in the early times to vertical or
flattened dome during the transitional and early Malla period.
- According to Oldfield the construction of stupa commenced with the construction of
square masonry chamber of 9 equal parts in the centre of the medhi (Slusser, 1982)..
Precious wood, grains, images and scenes from Buddha’s life and human relics if so
designed were placed in the outer 8 chambers. The central 9th chamber served as a
mortise for the yasti, a great central timber mast piercing the stupa and to which the
finial is attached. The chambers were filled after the ceremony, over it a mound of
brick, earth and clay was constructed. The outer rounded surface was faced with
bricks, plastered and whitewashed. Four chapels facing the four cardinal points were
then joined to the dome. These contained the images of Dhyani Buddhas
(Akshobhya-E, Amitabha-W, Amogsiddhi-N and Ratnasambhawa-S representing the
different aspects of the activities of Buddha). The fifth was called Vairochana and
was thought to reside in the centre of the stupa, represented by the eyes of the
harmika. The painting of the eyes is a unique Nepali practice and began during the
Malla period after the 15th century.
- The design of the finial varies but consists of 3 principal parts: i) the cube ii) the
tapered mid-section and iii) the crowning parasol. The cube or the harmika is derived
from the pavilion that surmounted the early Indian stupas which was supposed to be
the home of the gods. The tapering 13 stages symbolize the 13 stages to perfection or
the 13 Buddhists heavens and is capped by the parasol. The 13 stages became
standard during the transitional period after the 11th century. The conical or pyramidal
spire is known as “Chura Mani”. In the earliest Indian stupas, these consisted of
flattened stone discs, 3-7 in numbers, attached to the yasti symbolizing the parasol
provided to respected personages. The eyes of the harmikas were the eyes of the
Adibuddha but were sometimes believed to represent the Lokpalas who survey the
quarter of the universe accorded to them. The finial is either simple or elaborately
gilded along with the parasol.

Vrisadeva is credited with the construction of Svayambhu, one of the earliest stupas. The stupa
has been repaired and extensively changed during the later renovations so that it has become
difficult to imagine the earlier structure. The hemisphere is constructed of brick, plastered and
whitewashed. The dome is flattened at the top and the harmika is elongated to correct for this
shape. The harmika would have been a cube if the dome had followed its regular curve. Gilded
toranas are placed over the eyes of the harmika while the 13 layers of the finial are made of
circular metal discs supported on the timber pole, the yasti. Above it is the decorative parasol and
the gajur. At the circumambulatory level the dome has chapels with images of the four
Adibuddhas in the four cardinal points and four Taras in the diagonals. An additional chapel
dedicated to the vajra is built in the east and a mandala with a vajra is placed in front of it. All the
chapels are believed to have been added during the Malla period.

WATER
 Ghats with stepped or circular platforms were built at river edges for ritual bathing and
cremation.
 Pokharis were large brick lined tanks eg. Rani Pokhara, Tawa Pokhari and Siddhapokhari of
Bhaktapur. They were used for commercial and household purposes such as dyeing and
washing.
 Ghaidharas (gahiti) or deep sunken pit taps were provided for larger community uses.
 Tutedharas consisted of tanks filled with water and drawn out through stoppered spigots.
 Inars or brick lined wells were built primarily for private use but also served communal
function.