But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a

specific group. For example secondary school teachers of, who have
some specific features like teaching experience, teaching attitudes etc.
Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a
defined population as representative of that population.
One type of population distinguished by educational
researchers is called the target population.
By target population distinguished by educational researchers is
called the target population.
By target population, also called universe, we mean all the
members of a real or hypothetical set of people , events or objects to
which we wish to generalize the results of our research.

The first step in sampling is to define the target population.

Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds
from specificity to generality. The sample observation is the specific
situation, which is applied to the population, it is the general situation.
The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures
of a population are termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of
Correlation of sample observation known as Statistics and Mean, S.D.,
coefficient of correlation of population are known as parameters.
Generally parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics.
Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and
not so common in physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical
methodology of behavioral and social research. It makes research
findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection of
individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has
equal chance to be taken into the sample.
Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of
an aggregate of material which has been selected in the belief that it

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will be representative of the whole aggregate. By Frank Yates “Sample
is set of units of an aggregate.”

Assumptions of Sampling:
1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:
Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to
be different from another. But at the same time they also possess
similarities in many respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the
possibility of such representative types in the whole population that
makes sampling possible.

2. Possibility of Representative Selection:

Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and
law of statistical regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down
that a group of objects chosen at random from a large group tend to
possess the characteristics of that large group (universe) by
L. R. Conner.

3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy

i.e. needed in case of large scale observations. Because it is practically
impossible to achieve because of errors in measurement, collection of
data , its analysis, interpretation.

Definition:
“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire
group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.”
P. Y. Young

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A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation
and analysis .It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the
objects or individuals of population which is selected for the express
purpose of representing the population.
By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make
certain inferences about characteristics of the population from which it
is drawn.
Sampling,”It is the process of selecting a sample from the
population. For this purpose, the population is divided into a number of
parts called sampling units.”
Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and
estimation. Sampling is a part of the strategy of research.
Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum.
Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller
representation of a larger whole.”
W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the
resources, to study more than a fragment of the phenomenon that
might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample and
phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the
phenomenon i.e. generalization.
David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect
data from every respondent relevant to our study but only from some
fractional part of the respondents. The process of selecting the
fractional part is called sampling.”

Need of Sampling:
1. Economy of time.
2. Economy of money.
3. True detailed knowledge.
4. Utility in experimental study.
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 5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.

Advantages of Sampling:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization.
4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and
accuracy in the observation”.
5. This technique has great accuracy.
6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:

1. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy)
2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly
representative sample.
3. Need of eligible researchers.
4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in
heterogeneous population.
5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

Essentials of an Ideal Sample:

 Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with
other units.
 Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.
 Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the
sample.

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 Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it
represents the whole data adequately.

In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to

enable derivation of conclusions applicable to the whole data.
Economical in terms of time and money.
High level of reliability.

Characteristics of a Good Sample:

1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit
prejudices, the learning and pre-conception, imaginations of the
investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting
procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates
or statistics and does not involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely
linked with true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality
of a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of the
investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research.

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 Types of Sampling Designs/Methods of Sampling

Sampling

A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling

A 1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or Accidental Sampling
A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling
A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling
A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling
A-5 Purposive Sampling
A-6 Cluster Sampling
A-7 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling

Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
It is a method of sampling which gives In the absence of any idea of
1. the probability that a sample is probability the method of sampling is
representative of population. known as non-probability sampling.
It is generally used in action
Probability sampling is generally used
researches in which one studies a
2. in fundamental research in which the
class without any generalization
purpose is to generalize the results.
purpose.
It refers from the sample as well as
3. There is no idea of population.
the population.
Every individual of the population has
There is no probability of selecting
4. equal probability to be taken into the
any individual.
sample.
It may be representative of the
5. It has free distribution.
population.
Its observations (data) are used for the The observations are not used for
6.
inferential purpose. generalization purpose.
7. Inferential or parametric statistics are Non-inferential or non-parametric

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 used. statistics are used.
There is no risk for drawing
8. There is a risk of drawing conclusion.
conclusions.
It is based on Law of probability
sampling i.e. Law of Statistical It is not based on law of probability
9.
Regularity and Law of Inertia of the sampling.
Large Sample.

Probability Sampling:

G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has been used

selected in such a way that every element chosen has a known
probability of being included.”

Probability sampling is of different types:

(1) Simple Random Sampling :
It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample
selected by randomization method is known as simple random sample
and this technique is simple randomizing.
Randomization is done by using the following techniques:
(a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice
(b) Lottery method (d) Blind folded method
(c) Tippett’s table method
Merits of Randomization:
1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.
2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.
4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential
purpose.

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Demerits of Randomization:
1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.
2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.
3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample.

(2) Systematic Sampling:

Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random
sampling. This method requires the complete information about the
population. There should be a list of information of all the individuals of
the population in any systematic way.
Now we decide the size of the sample:
Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N
Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the
desired size of sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for
this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any
systematic way.
Merits:
1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
2. It reduces the field cost.
3. Inferential statistics may be used.
4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions
and generalizations.
Demerits:
1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to
different ways of systematic list by different individuals.
2. Knowledge of population is essential.
3. Information of each individual is essential..

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 4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of
the sample.

(3) Stratified Sampling:

It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this
technique, the researcher divides his population into strata on the basis
of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogenous
groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units.
Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems
to be more relevant in his research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types;
(a) Disproportionate:
Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to
the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal
judgement and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective
for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is less
efficient for determining population characteristics.
(b) Proportionate:
It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure
includes representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis
of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to make
comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the
population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as
disadvantages of this method.
(c) Optimum allocation:
Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than
other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum.
Each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the

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population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation
sample.
Merits:
(i) It is a good representative of the population.
(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.
(iii) It is an objective method of sampling.
(iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Demerits:
(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the
researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
(ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it
seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification.
(iii) It is costly and time consuming method.
(iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the
used criterion but not for the other.
(v) There is a risk of generalization.

(4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling:

Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the
samplings. This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of
a sample. When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is
sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is done
because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires
may not return them.
Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if
the people who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental way
from the others in respect to the phenomenon being studied.
To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at
random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to

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