21EN21T COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH

21EN11T
COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH
FIRST SEMESTER B.E. / B.TECH.
COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES

R2021

VEL TECH HIGH TECH

Dr. RANGARAJAN Dr. SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
An Autonomous Institution

Approved by AICTE-New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

Accredited by NBA, New Delhi & Accredited by NAAC with “A” Grade & CGPA
of 3.27

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UNIT - I
PARTS OF SPEECH

Every word in a sentence has a function. According to the work they do in a sentence, words are divided into

differentcategories called Parts of speech. They are eight in number.

1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adverb
5. Adjective
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection

Countable nouns (two books, five matters) and Uncountable nouns(Sand, stars, water, sand)

1. Noun: A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events, ideas and feelings.

A noun functions as a subject or object of a verb and can be modified by an adjective.

Example:This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

Kinds of noun:

Common noun (Queen, servant, Girls, Flowers).

Proper noun (Delhi, Asoka the great, Zen)

Collective noun (Bundle of books, Herd of Elephant)

Material noun (Gold, wood, brick)

Abstract noun (Happy, Sad, Beauty, ugly)

Concrete noun (table, earth, mobile phone)

2. Verb : A verb is used to show an action or a state of being.

Example: English Club is a web site. I like English Club.

Types: 1. Main Verbs – All action verbs are main verbs (write, sing, dance, and speak)

2. Auxiliary Verbs – It is also called Helping verbs.

Primary Auxiliary Verbs – Be form (am, is, was, are, were) Do form (do, does, did) Have form (have has had)

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Secondary Auxiliary Verbs – (Modals) (will, would, can, could, shall, should, may, might, ought to, need to, dare to).

3. Adjective: Adjectives are used to describe or specify a noun or pronoun.

Example: I have two dogs. My dogs are big. I like big dogs.

4. Adverb: An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective and other adverbs.

Example: My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly.

5. Pronoun: A pronoun is used in the place of a noun or phrase.

Example: Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

6. Preposition: Prepositions are used before nouns to form a phrase that shows where, when, how and why.

Example: We went to school on Monday.

7. Conjunction: Conjunctions join clauses or sentences or words.

Example: I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats.

8. Interjection: Interjections are used to show surprise or emotion.

Example: Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

art of speech function or "job" example words example sentences

Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, like, work, EnglishClub is a web sitelike EnglishClub.
sing, can, must

Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, music, town, This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live
London, teacher, John inLondon.

Adjective describes a noun a/an, the, 2, some, good, big, I have two dogs. My dogs are big. I
red, well, interesting like big dogs.

Adverb describes a verb, quickly, silently, well, badly, My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry,
adjective or adverb very, really he eatsreally quickly.

Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

Preposition links a noun to another to, at, after, on, but We went to school onMonday.
word

Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I

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sentences or words like dogs but I don't like cats.

Interjection short exclamation, oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I
sometimes inserted into don't know.
a sentence

Parts of Speech Examples

Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:

verb noun verb noun verb verb

Stop! John works. John is working.

pronoun verb noun noun verb adjective noun

She loves animals. Animals like kind people.

noun verb noun adverb noun verb adjective noun

Tara speaks English well. Tara speaks good English.

pronoun verb preposition adjective noun adverb

She ran to the station quickly.

pron. verb adj. noun conjunction pron. verb pron.

She likes big snakes but I hate them.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

interjection pron. conj. adj. noun verb prep. noun adverb

Well, she and young John walk to school slowly.

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SENTENCE PATTERNS

In these lessons, we will learn the different ways of introducing the subject in a declarative sentence, basic
sentence patterns and the types of sentence patterns.

The following diagram gives some examples of sentence patterns. Scroll down the page for more examples of
sentence patterns.

Basic Sentence Patterns

Subject + Verb
Example:
Melissa reads.
She is eating.

Subject + Verb + Object

Example:
I like eggs.
She sees her sister.

Subject + Verb + Adjective

Example:
Laura is busy.
He is smart.

Subject + Verb + Adverb

Example:
Sarah is here.
Jack ran slowly.

Subject + Verb + Noun

Example:
She is my friend.
They are teachers.

Types of Sentence Patterns

We will now look at 5 patterns in the English language.

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Pattern 1 - Subject + Verb
Example:
Paul waited onto the dance floor.
She read.
The tired old woman cleaned often.

Pattern 2 - Subject + Verb + Direct Object

Example:
Paul bought a new dress.
She read the book.
The old woman cleaned the drapes.

Pattern 3 - Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Indirect Object

Example:
Paul bought her sister a new dress.
The old woman gave the pharmacy her prescription.

Pattern 4 - Subject + Linking Verb + Noun Complement

Example:
Melissa was the class president.
The boys were boy scouts.

Pattern 5 - Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective Complement

Example:
The house is very old.
I am very hungry.

TENSES

 Definition: The word ‘tense’ comes from the Latin word “tempus” which means time. Verbs that indicate a particular time
period are called Tenses. In this context, verbs take different forms to denote the change in time that is Past, Present, and
Future.
 Verb Forms : Main Verb (V) - go
 V1 ( V+s) - goes
 V2 (past tense) - went
 V3 (past participle) - gone
 V4 (present participle) (V+ing) - going

Present tense Past tense Future tense

Do Did shall/Will do

See Saw shall/will see

Play Played shall/willplay

Present Tense can be divided into four types they are:

1. Simple present Tense (V) (V1-S)

2. Present continuous Tense (am/is/are+V4)

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3. Present perfect Tense (has/have+V3)
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense (has/have +been+V4)

1. Simple present Tense (V) (V1-S)

Key words: Generally, always, sometimes, every day, every year, never, occasionally, often.

E.g. I sing a song

She writes a Letter

2. Present continuous Tense (am/is/are+V4)

Key words: now, still, at present, at the moment

E.g. I am singing a song

She is writing a letter

3. Present perfect Tense (has/have+V3)

Key Words: yet, just, already, lately, quickly, just now.

E.g. I have sung a song

She has written a letter

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense (has/have +been+V4)

Key Words: Since (Particular time eg. Since 1982 since 5 o‘clock)

For (Period of time eg. For 10 yrs, for 5 hours etc.)

Eg. I have been singing a song

She has been writing a letter

Past Tense can be divided into four types they are:

5. Simple Past Tense (V2)

6. Past continuous Tense (was/were+V4)
7. Past perfect Tense (had+V3)
8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense (Had+been+V4)

5. Simple Past Tense (V2)

Key words: Yesterday, last night, last week.

Eg. I sang a SongShe wrote a letter

6. Past continuous Tense (was/were+V4+ing)

Key words: When and While

Eg. I was singing a songShe was writing a letter

7. Past Perfect Tense(Had + V3)

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Eg. Before I sang a song, the rain had startedShe had written a letter

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense (Had+been+V4+ing)

Eg. I had been singing a songShe had been writing a letter

Future Tense can be divided into four types they are:

9. Simple Future Tense (shall/will+V1)

10. Future continuous Tense (shall/will+be+V4)
11. Future perfect Tense (shall/will + have+V3)
12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense (shall/will+have+been+V4)

9. Simple Future Tense (shall/will+V1)

Key words: Tomorrow, next month, next year/day/week, in a few days, shortly, soon.

Eg. I will sing a songShe will write a letter

10. Future continuous Tense (shall/will+be+V4)

Key Words: Next week by this time

Eg. I will be singing a song She will be writing a letter

11. Future perfect Tense (shall/will + have+V3)

Eg. I will have sung a song She will have written a letter

12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense (shall/will+have+been+V4)

Eg. I will have been singing a song She will have been writing a letter.

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TENSES

Explanation Past Present Future

Simple Past Simple Present Future I Simple

action that takes place once, never or He played football every He plays football every He will / is going to play
several times Tuesday. Tuesday. football every Tuesday.

actions that happen one after another He played football and He plays football and He will play football and
then he went home. then he goes home. then he will go home.

state He loved football. He loves football. He will love football.

Past Progressive Present Progressive Future I Progressive

action going on at that moment He was playing football. He is playing football. He will be playing football.

actions taking place at the same time He was playing football He is playing football He will be playing football

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and she was watching. and she is watching. and she will be watching.

Past Perfect Simple Present Perfect Simple Future II Simple

action taking place before a certain moment He had won five matches He has won five He will have won five
in time; emphasises the result until that day. matches so far. matches by then.

Past Perfect Progressive Present Perfect Future II Progressive

Progressive

action taking place before a certain moment He had been playing He has been playing He will have been playing
in time (and beyond), emphasises the football for ten years. football for ten years. football for ten years.
duration

WH Q UESTIONS

FRAMING ‘WH’ Q UESTIO NS

Wh- questions differ from questions beginning with auxiliary verb forms such as: is, are, am, do, does, has, have, can, will,
must.

Instead, the pronouns who, where, what, why and how are used to embed the question clause into the main clause. There are eight
wh-questions, which, what, who, whom, whose, when, where and why and to this list we usually add how as they are all used to
elicit particular kinds of information.

Who, what, which and whose can all be used to elicit information about the subject or object of the sentence.

Whom can only be used to elicit information about the object of the sentence. Although using whom would be grammatically correct,
we normally use who instead because it doesn’t sound so formal.

When which, what, who or whose refers to the subject, the question word comes before the verb without the use of the
auxiliary do.

Which or what?

When there are only two or three possibilities to choose from, which is normally preferred.

When there are an unlimited number of choices, what is used.

Whose

Whose indicates possession, and like which and what, can be used with or without a noun as a question word.

E.g. Whose coat is this?

Whose is that red car across the road?

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when, where, why and how

These question words elicit an adverbial expression and ask for information about time (when), place (where), reason (why) and
method or way in which something is done (how).

E.g. When are you getting married?

Where does your fiancée come from?

Why didn’t you get married earlier?

How was your holiday?

Question Word How to use the word Example sentence

What asking for information about anything What is your age and name?

What? I missed that can you say it again please.

What asking someone to repeat something or get confirmation
You did what?

what for asking for a reason, asking why What made you do that for?

When asking about time When did you leave the office yesterday?

Where asking in or at what place or position Where do they live?

Which asking about choice Which colour do you want?

Who asking what or which person or people (subject) Who opened the door?

Whom asking what or which person or people (object) Whom did you see?

Whose are these shoes?

Whose asking about ownership
Whose turn is it to clean the car?

Why asking for reason, asking what...for Why do you say that?

why don't making a suggestion Why don't I help you?

How asking how to do something How does this work?

How asking about someone’s condition or quality How was your test today?

how + adj or adv how to ask about extent or degree

how far distance to a certain place How far is London from Manchester?

how long length (time or space) How long will the chicken take to cook?

how many quantity how many How many cars are there?
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how much quantity (uncountable) How much cash do you have in the bank?

how old What is your age How old are you?

how come
asking for reason, asking why How come I can't see her?
(informal)

COUNTABLE NOUNS AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns refer to items that can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily high (like
counting all the people in the world, for example). Countable nouns can be used with articles such
as a/an and the or quantifiers such as a few and many. Look at the sentence below and pay particular attention to
the countable noun:
Here is a cat.

Uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns, or mass nouns, are nouns that come in a state or quantity that is impossible to count; liquids
are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). Abstract ideas like creativity or courage are also
uncountable. Uncountable nouns are always considered to be singular, and can stand alone or be used with some,
any, a little, and much. See the examples below for reference:

Cat is singular and countable.

Here are a few cats.
Here are some cats.

Other examples of countable nouns include house, idea, hand, car, flower, and paper.
An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have many homework these days.

Because homework is an uncountable noun, it should be modified by much or a lot of, not many.
Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.
A lot of equipment is required to play hockey safely.

Since uncountable nouns are singular, they also require singular verbs. If you’re ever trying to decide whether to
write the information is or the information are, remember that information is an uncountable noun and therefore
needs is.
Good information are necessary for making good decisions.
Good information is necessary for making good decisions.

Additional examples of uncountable nouns include water, soil, love, literature, and dust. 1
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Both countable and uncountable nouns

Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on the context of the sentence. Examples of
these versatile nouns include light, hair, room, gear, art, and science. See the examples below:
Did you have a good time at the party?

Here, time is countable (a time).

I don’t think I have time to do my hair before I leave.

In this sentence, time is uncountable.

There is some juice on the table.
There are some juices on the table.

In the first sentence, juice refers to the liquid beverage; thus, it is uncountable. In the second
sentence, juice refers to the different varieties of juice (e.g., apple, grape, pineapple, etc.), and therefore, is
considered a countable noun.
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
In English grammar, countable nouns are individual people, animals, places, things, or ideas which can be
counted. Uncountable nouns are not individual objects, so they cannot be counted. Here, we’ll take a look at
countable and uncountable nouns and provide both countable noun examples and uncountable noun examples.
Although the concept may seem challenging, you’ll soon discover that these two different noun types are very
easy to use.

Countable Noun Examples

Anything that can be counted, whether singular – a dog, a house, a friend, etc. or plural – a few books, lots of
oranges, etc. is a countable noun. The following countable noun examples will help you to see the difference
between countable and uncountable nouns. Notice that singular verbs are used with singular countable nouns,
while plural verbs are used with plural countable nouns.
1. There are at least twenty Italian restaurants in Little Italy.
2. Megan took a lot of photographs when she went to the Grand Canyon.
3. Your book is on the kitchen table.
4. How many candles are on that birthday cake?
5. You have several paintings to study in art appreciation class.
6. There’s a big brown dog running around the neighbourhood.

Uncountable Noun Examples

Anything that cannot be counted is an uncountable noun. Even though uncountable nouns are not individual
objects, they are always singular and one must always use singular verbs in conjunction with uncountable nouns.
The following uncountable noun examples will help you to gain even more understanding of how countable and
uncountable nouns differ from one another. Notice that singular verbs are always used with uncountable nouns.
1. There is no more water in the pond.
2. Please help yourself to some cheese.
3. I need to find information about Pulitzer Prize winners.
4. You seem to have a high level of intelligence.
5. Please take good care of your equipment.
6. Let’s get rid of the garbage.
Uncountable nouns can be paired with words expressing plural concept. Using these words can make your
writing more specific. Here are some examples of how to format interesting sentences with uncountable nouns. 1
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• Garbage – There are nine bags of garbage on the curb.
• Water – Try to drink at least eight glasses of water each day.
• Advice – She gave me a useful piece of advice.
• Bread – Please buy a loaf of bread.
• Furniture – A couch is a piece of furniture.
• Equipment – A backhoe is an expensive piece of equipment.
• Cheese – Please bag ten slices of cheese for me.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns Exercises

Is the underlined noun countable or uncountable?

1. The children fell asleep quickly after a busy day of fun.
2. Be careful! The water is deep.
3. The parade included fire trucks and police cars.
4. We like the large bottles of mineral water.
5. My mother uses real butter in the cakes she bakes.
6. How many politicians does it take to pass a simple law?
7. Most kids like milk, but Joey hates it.
8. Most pottery is made of clay.
9. Michael can play several different musical instruments.
10. I was feeling so stressed that I ate an entire box of cookies.

Answers: 1 – countable, 2 – uncountable, 3 – countable, 4 – countable, 5 – uncountable, 6 – countable, 7 –

uncountable, 8 – uncountable, 9 – countable, 10 – countable.

PREFIX

A prefix is a group of letters added before a word or base to alter its meaning and form a new word. In contrast, a suffix is a group
of letters added after a word or base. This page contains free worksheets, online activities and other educational resources to help with
prefixes and suffixes.

Prefixes indicate the following meaning when added to the root word:

Prefix Meaning Example

Ante- : earlier, before antechamber

Anti- : against, opposed to antisocial

Auto- : self autograph

Bio- : life bio data

Co- : together coeducation

Com- : together, with compromise

Suffixes
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capable of portable - able to be carried
able, ible
(adjective suffix) legible - able to be read

cardiac - pertaining to heart

ac, ic like, pertaining to
aquatic - pertaining to water

audacious - full of daring,

acious, icious full of
avaricious - full of greed

maniacal - insane
al pertaining to portal - doorway
logical - pertaining to logic

eloquent - pertaining to fluid,

ant, ent full of effective speech.
verdant - green

dictionary - book connected with

ary like, connected with words
honorary - connected with honor

to make consecrate - to make holy

ate
(verb suffix) mitigate - make less severe

that which is
ation irritation - that which is irritated
(noun suffix)

PREFIX AND SUFFIX

Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word to make a new word, eg mis +take. Some common prefixes
are 'mis', 'dis', 're', 'for', 'anti', 'ante', 'sub', 'un' and 'in'. New words are made by placing a prefix in front of a
word. It is helpful to know the meanings of prefixes. Prefix ’re’ means again, therefore reappear means to
appear again.

Common prefix meanings pre - before

mis - bad(ly) sub -
under inter -between
semi - half
The following prefixes of 'im', 'ir', 'il', 'in' and 'un' can be added to the beginning of words to make them
into a negative.
Examples

im + possible = impossible
ir + responsible = irresponsible
il + legal = illegal 1
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in + active = inactive
un + happy = unhappy

Suffixes
Letters added to the end of a main word are called suffixes. Common suffixes are: 'ed', 'ful', 'ly', 'ing', 'able',
'ance', 'ence', 'ness'.
Example
harm + less = harmless
When 'full' is added to a word you drop the final 'l'. If you add 'ly' to any word ending with 'ful' you keep the
existing 'l'.
Example
hand + full = handful
rest + full = restful
restful + ly = restfully
Prefix definition: an affix attached to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning.

Suffix definition: a particle attached to the end of a word to modify its meaning or change it into a different
word class.

What is the Difference between Prefixes and Suffixes?

In the English language, we often place prefixes and suffixes at the beginning and end,
respectively, of a word in order to modify it.
The original word does have meaning in itself, but by adding a prefix or suffix to it, we change the word.
What is a prefix? Prefixes are placed at the beginning of a word in order to alter its meaning.
 Janet resubmitted her application after she was initially denied a loan.

Resubmitted includes the prefix re which means again.

What is a suffix? Suffixes are placed at the end of a word in order to alter its meaning or change the
classification of the word.
 We work hard in order to ensure our children’s happiness.
Happiness includes the state of being suffix ness. By adding the suffix, we have changed our word from an
adjective to a noun in order for it to fit grammatically in our sentence.
What are Prefixes?
What does prefix mean? A prefix can be a letter or group of letters that may be added to the beginning
of a word in order to modify its meaning.

Prefix Examples:
 a-, an- = without; amoral, anemic
 ante- = before; antecedent
 co- = with;co-worker
 de- = off, remove;de-ice
 ex =out of, former;ex-boyfriend
 il = not; illegal
 inter = between;intergalactic
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 post = after;postpone
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 super = above;supersede
 un = not; unnatural
Let’s try using a prefix in a sentence.
 Craig was dissatisfied with the customer service he received at thestore.
o Prefix = dis =negative

When to Hyphenate Prefixes

Do you hyphenate prefixes? At times, you will want to add a hyphen in between your prefix and word.

Proper nouns: when adding a prefix to a proper noun, you must add a hyphen:
 Not liking apple pie may be seen a sun-American.
Same vowel: If the last letter of your prefix is the same as the first letter in the word, you need to add a
hyphen:
 In order to be allowed re-entry to the amusement park, patrons must obtain stamped ticket.

Special prefixes: Always use a hyphen when you use ex- and self-.

 Lisa was self-conscious about her body after having ababy.

 The ex-student body president trained the current officer on how to organizeprom.

Clarification: Use a hyphen when a word may cause confusion or look odd in the sentence.
 The mother reminder the children to re-cover the sandbox after they were doneplaying.

We need the hyphen, so that readers don’t confuse re-cover with the word recover, which means to reinstate
health or regain a lost possession.

What are Suffixes?

What does suffix mean? Suffixes are used at the end of words in order to change the word to fit
grammatically within your sentence.

Suffix Examples:
 –al = having characteristics of; remedial,denial
 –ed = past-tense verbs; traveled,talked
 –en = made of, consisting of; wooden,golden
 –er, -est = comparative; stronger,strongest
 –tion, -ion = state of being, condition; completion, relation
 –ity = quality of; humility,enormity
 –less = without; hopeless,homeless
 –ly = characteristic of; brotherly,lovely
 –s, -es = more than one; apples,trenches

Let’s look at an example of a suffix used in a sentence:

 In government class, students will research the current election.
o Suffix = ion = act, process 1
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When to Hyphenate Suffixes
Do you hyphenate suffixes? We rarely hyphenate suffixes, but here are some instances in which you may
add one.

Cumbersome words: an optional hyphen can be used when a word seems lengthy without one.

 community-wide
Exception words: -like, -type, -elect,

 scholarly-like

When last letter is same as first letter:

 graffiti-ism, past-tense
Define prefix: the definition of prefix is an element placed at the beginning of a word to alter or qualify its
meaning.

Define suffix: the definition of suffix is a particle placed at the end of a word to alter its meaning
or adjust its grammatical sense.

In summary,

 Prefixes and suffixes are added to words to changethem.

 Prefixes are added to change the meaning of the rootword.
 Suffixes are added so that the word will make grammatical sense in asentence.
Here are a couple of final examples of how we use prefixes and suffixes.
 Many science fiction books include an intergalactic war.
o Prefix = inter =between
 The employee rushed to his car after work on Friday.
o Suffix = ed = past-tenseverb
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

ante- before antenatal, anteroom,antedate

anti- against,opposing antibiotic, antidepressant, antidote

circum- around circumstance, circumvent,

co- with co-worker, co-pilot,co-operation
off, down, away devalue, defrost, derail, demotivatefrom
de-

dis- oppositeof, not disagree, disappear, disintegrate

em-,en- cause to,putinto embrace, encode, embed, enclose,

engulf
upon, close to,
epi-

epicentre, episcope, epidermis

1
VEL TECH HIGH TECH DR. RANGARAJAN DR. SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
 -acy state or quality democracy, accuracy,
lunacy
-al the action or process of remedial, denial, trial,
criminal
-ance, -ence state or quality of nuisance, ambience,
tolerance
-dom place or state of being freedom, stardom,
boredom

ex- former,outof ex-president, ex-boyfriend,exterminate

extra- beyond, more than extracurricular, extraordinary, extra-

terrestrial
fore- before forecast, forehead, foresee, foreword,

foremost

homo- same homosexual, homonuclear, homoplastic

hyper- over, above hyperactive, hyperventilate
il-, im-, in-, im-,in- into insert, import, inside

infra- beneath,below infrastructure, infrared, infrasonic, infraspecific

inter-,intra-between interact, intermediate, intergalactic, intranet macro-
large macroeconomics, macromolecule
micro- small microscope, microbiology, microfilm, microwave mid-
middle midfielder, midway, midsummer
mis- wrongly misinterpret, misfire, mistake,misunderstand
mono- one,singular monotone, monobrow, monolithic
non- not,without nonsense, nonentity,nondescript
omni- all, every omnibus, omnivore, omnipotent
para- beside parachute, paramedic,paradox
post- after post-mortem, postpone,post-natal

pre- before prefix, predetermine, pre-intermediate re-

again return, rediscover, reiterate,reunite
semi- half semicircle, semi-final,semiconscious
sub- under submerge, submarine, sub-category, subtitle super-
above,over super food, superstar, supernatural, superimpose
therm- heat thermometer, thermostat, thermodynamic
trans- across,beyond transport, transnational,transatlantic tri-
three triangle, tripod,tricycle
un- not unfinished, unfriendly, undone,unknown

uni- one unicycle, universal, unilateral,unanimous

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE

person or object that does a specified action

-er,-or

-ism doctrine, belief Judaism, scepticism, escapism

person or object that does a specified action Geologist, protagonist, sexist, scientist, theorist,
-ist

communist

-ity, -ty quality of extremity, validity, enormity

-ment condition enchantment,argument

-ness state of being heaviness, highness,sickness

-ship position held friendship, hardship, internship

-sion,-tion state of being position, promotion,

cohesion
VERBSUFFIXES
-ate become mediate, collaborate, create

-en become sharpen, strengthen, loosen

-ify,-fy makeorbecome justify, simplify, magnify, satisfy

-ise,-ize become publicize, synthesize, hypnotize

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES
-able,-ible capableof being edible, fallible, incredible, audible

-al having the form or character of fiscal, thermal, herbal,colonial

-esque in a manner ofor resembling picturesque, burlesque,grotesque

-ful notablefor handful, playful, hopeful, skilful

psychological, hypocritical,methodical,
-ic,-ical having the form or character of
Nonsensical, musical
-ious,-ous characterized by pious, jealous, religious,ridiculous

-ish having thequalityof squeamish, sheepish, childish

-ive having thenatureof inquisitive, informative, attentive

-less without meaningless, hopeless,homeless

-y characterisedby dainty, beauty, airy, jealousy

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES
-able,-ible capableof being edible, fallible, incredible, audible

-al having the form or character of fiscal, thermal, herbal,colonial

-esque in a manner ofor resembling picturesque, burlesque,grotesque
-ful notablefor handful, playful, hopeful, skilful
 psychological, hypocritical,methodical,
-ic,-ical having the form or character of
Nonsensical, musical

-ious,-ous characterized by pious, jealous, religious,ridiculous

-ish having thequalityof squeamish, sheepish, childish

-ive having thenatureof inquisitive, informative, attentive

-less without meaningless, hopeless,homeless

-y characterizedby dainty, beauty, airy, jealousy

ADVERBSUFFIXES
-ly related toor quality softly, slowly, happily, crazily,madly
-ward,-wards direction towards, afterwards, backwards,inward

COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
In grammar, the comparative is the form of an adjective which denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing,
or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in extent than that of another, and is used in this context with a
subordinating conjunction, such as than, as...as, etc. If three or more items are being compared, the corresponding
superlative needs to be used instead.

The structure of a comparative in English consists normally of the Positive form of the adjective Plus the Suffix -er.
If the adjective ends with 'Y' we remove 'Y' and add -ier. If the adjective ends with a consonant preceded by a vowel
the consonant is doubled before adding -er. In the case of polysyllabic adjectives the modifier more (or less/fewer) is
added before the adjective. If the adjective ends with -e only 'r' is added. There are certain irregular comparative
forms
 Adjectives have three forms: positive, comparative, andsuperlative.

 The simplest form of the adjective is its positive form. When two objects or persons are being compared, the
comparative form of the adjective is used. When three or more things arebeing compared, we use the
adjective's superlativeform.

 A few adjectives, like good and bad form their comparatives with different words:
 That is a good book. This is a better book. Which of the three is the bestbook?
 He made a bad choice. She made a worse choice. They made the worst choice ofall.

 The comparative forms of most adjectives, however, are formed by adding the suffixes –erand -est, or
by placing the words more and most in front of the positiveform.

1. Words of more than two syllables form the comparative with more andmost:
Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.
Resonant, more resonant, most resonant
2. Past participles used as adjectives form the comparative with more and most: crooked,
broken, damaged, defeated,etc.
3. Predicate adjectives (adjectives used to describe the subject of a sentence) form the comparative
Withmore and most:
Afraid,mute, certain, alone, silent, etc.
Adjective Types Positive form Comparative form
Adjectives with one Syllable Rich Richer
Adjectives ending in 'e' Safe Safer
Adjectives ending with a Big Bigger
consonant preceded by a vowel
Adjectives ending with 'y' Happy Happier
Polysyllabic adjectives Important More Important
Irregular Comparative forms Good Better
Bad/evil Worse

Solved Example:
1. Energy Conservation is cheaper (cheap) than extra energyproduction.
2. Today making investments in landed properties is wiser (wise) than investing in articles ofgold.
3. Madhya Pradesh is bigger (big) than other Indian states.
4. Lead is heavier ( heavy) than aluminum
5. The tiger is more ferocious (ferocious) than other animals.
6. A wise enemy is better (good) than a foolishfriend.
 UNIT – II

COMPOUNDWORDS

A compound word isa combination that is made with two or more words. A compound word is usually [noun + noun] or
[adjective + noun], but there are other combinations (see below). It is important to understand and recognize compound
nouns. Each compound noun acts as a single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.

A compound word is made up of two or more words that together express a single idea. Most compound nouns in
English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.

For example:
The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you join them together they form a new word-
toothpaste.
The word black is an adjective and board is a noun, but if you join them together they form a new word-blackboard.

Inboththeseexamplethefirstwordmodifiesordescribesthesecondword,telling us what kind of object or person it is, or

what its purpose is. And the second part identifies the object or person in question.

Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words.

Noun + Noun toothpaste

Adjective + Noun monthlyticket

Verb + Noun Bathtub

Preposition + Noun underground

Noun + Verb haircut

Noun + Preposition hangeron

Adjective + Verb dry-cleaning

Preposition + Verb output

Expansionofthecompoundwords

1. Air supply–Supply of air

2. Battery car- a car which runs on battery

3. CableTelevision–atelevisionworkingwithsignalstransmittedthroughcables

4. Power transmission problems–problems in the transmission of power

5. Jet engine–an engine used to propel a jet

6. Laser printer–a printer that uses laser technology

7. Pedal power–power derived from a pedal device

8. NickelAlloy-analloycontainingnickel

9. Temperaturedrop-dropintemperature

10. Pressurevalve–avalveusedtoreleaseexcesspressure
11. Battery car –car which runs on battery
12. Color television – television showing pictures in color
13. Concrete wall –wall made of concrete
14. Pedal power – power derived from a pedal
 SINGLE WORD SUBSTITUTES

EXAMPLES:
Someone who makes charitable donations for the welfare of humanity, Lover of mankind.
Philanthropist

Pioneer A person who is the first to lead, explore or develop something new.
Posthumous Something occuring or awarded after the death of the originator.
Purist One who has very strong ideas about what is acceptable.
Referendum Direct decision by a general vote on the single question.
Which takes effect from some earlier date, Looking back and dealing with past events and situations.
Retrospective

Sanctuary A place of refuge recognized as secure.

A person who imports or exports goods into or from a country secretly because they are illegal or in
Smuggler
order to avoid paying duty on them
Teetotaler One who does not take alcoholic drinks
Tripod Having three legs.
Universal Belonging to all parts of the world.
Ventriloquist A person who can make his voice appear to come from somewhere else.
Weather-cock A cock-shaped indicator on the building top to show the direction of air.

1. A person who renounces the world and practices self-discipline in order to attain salvation:

A. Sceptic

B. Ascetic

C. Devotee

D. Antiquarian B
2. One who abandons his religious faith:

A. Apostate

B. Prostate

C. Profane

D. Agnostic A

Question 3.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A hater of knowledge and learning:

A. Bibliophile

B. Philologist

C. Misogynist

D. Misologist D

Question 4.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Commencement of words with the same letter:

A. Pun

B. Alliteration

C. Transferred epithet

D. Oxymoron B

Question 5.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Person who does not believe in the existence of God:

A. Theist

B. Heretic

C. Atheist

D. Fanatic C

Question 6.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A lady's umbrella is:

A. Parasol
 B. Granary

C. Epitaph

D. Aviary A

Question 7.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Story of old time gods or heroes is:

A. Lyric

B. Epic

C. Legend

D. Romance C

Question 8.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A sad song:

A. Ditty

B. Knell

C. Dirge

D. Lay C

Question 9.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who believes in the power of fate:

A. Fatalist

B. Optimist

C. Pessimist

D. Parsimonious A

Question 10.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person who loves everybody:

A. Cosmopolitan

B. Fratricide

C. Altruistic
 D. Aristocrat C

Question 11.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who cannot easily pleased:

A. Cosmopolitan

B. Frightening

C. Fastidious

D. Feminist C

Question 12.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
The murder of Brother:

A. Homicide

B. Regicide

C. Fratricide

D. Suicide C

Question 13.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person who is indifferent to pains and pleasure of life:

A. Stoic

B. Sadist

C. Psychiatrist

D. Aristocrat A

Question 14.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
An act of speaking one's thoughts aloud when by oneself or regardless of any hearers, especially by a character in a play:

A. Sinecure

B. Soliloquy

C. Pessimist

D. Philanthropist B

Question 15.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A disease which spreads by contact:

A. Incurable

B. Infectious

C. Contagious

D. Fatal C

Question 16.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A man who rarely speaks the truth:

A. Crook

B. Liar

C. Scoundrel

D. Hypocrite B

Question 17.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A remedy for all diseases:

A. Narcotics

B. Antiseptic

C. Panacea

D. Lyric C

Question 18.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
International destruction of racial groups:

A. Matricide

B. Regicide

C. Genocide

D. Homicide C

Question 19.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Custom of having many wives:

A. Misogamy
 B. Bigamy

C. Polygamy

D. Monogamy C

Question 20.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A pioneer of a reform movement:

A. Apostle

B. Apothecary

C. Apotheosis

D. Renegade A

Question 21.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person who pretends to have more knowledge or skill than he really has:

A. Crook

B. Apotheosis

C. Renegade

D. Charlatan D

Question 22.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person who forsakes religion:

A. Apostle

B. Apotheosis

C. Renegade

D. Charlatan C

Question 23.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who studies insect life:

A. Geologist
 B. Zoologist

C. Entomologist

D. Botanist C

Question 24.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A doctor who treats skin diseases:

A. Ophthalmologist

B. Dermatologist

C. Paediatrician

D. Cardiologist B

Question 25.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A lady who remains unmarried:

A. Spinster

B. Artist

C. Bachelor

D. Misanthrope A

Question 26.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who has good taste for food:

A. Gourmet

B. Curator

C. Parasite

D. Stoic A

Question 27.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who knows two languages:
 A. Bigot

B. Bigamy

C. Bilingual

D. Brittle C

Question 28.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Government by the representatives of the people:

A. Autocracy

B. Democracy

C. Socialism

D. Anarchy B

Question 29.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A disease that spreads over a large area:

A. Academic

B. Epidemic

C. Incorrigible

D. Invincible B

Question 30.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
That which can never be believed:

A. Irrevocable

B. Inevitable

C. Incredible

D. Irritable C

Question 31.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
That which cannot be avoided:
 A. Inevitable

B. Irreparable

C. Incomparable

D. Indisputable A

Question 32.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who able to use the right and left hands equally well:

A. Sinister

B. Ambidextrous

C. Ambivalent

D. Amateur B

Question 33.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Government by rich:

A. Oligarchy

B. Aristocracy

C. Pantisocracy

D. Plutocracy D

Question 34.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
An independent person or body officially appointed to settle a dispute:

A. Arbiter

B. Mediator

C. Agent provocateur

D. Arbitrator D

Question 35.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Murder of man:
 A. Regicide

B. Fratricide

C. Homicide

D. Genocide C

Question 36.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Use of force or threats to get someone to agree to something:

A. Coercion

B. Conviction

C. Confession

D. Cajolement A

Question 37.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Animal that feeds on plants:

A. Carnivorous

B. Herbivorous

C. Insectivorous

D. Graminivorous B

Question 38.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Group of stars:

A. Orbit

B. Constellation

C. Solar system

D. Comet B

Question 39.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Lasting only for a very short time:
 A. Transparent

B. Temporal

C. Temporary

D. Temperate C

Question 40.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
To examine one's own thoughts and feelings:

A. Meditation

B. Retrospection

C. Reflection

D. Introspection D

Question 41.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One indifferent to art and literature is:

A. Aromatic

B. Critic

C. Philistine

D. Scholar C

Question 42.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Open to injury or Criticism:

A. Invincible

B. Vulnerable

C. Naïve

D. Sensitive B

Question 43.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Government by a small group of all powerful persons:
 A. Oligarchy

B. Monarchy

C. Democracy

D. Anarchy A

Question 44.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A narrow piece of land connecting two large masses of land:

A. Peninsula

B. Isthmus

C. Continent

D. Gulf B

Question 45.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who collects coins as hobby:

A. Philatelist

B. Ornithologist

C. Statistician

D. Numismatist D

Question 46.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Extreme old age when a man behaves like a fool

A. Imbecility

B. Youth

C. Dotage

D. Superannuation C

Question 47.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
That which cannot be corrected
 A. Unintelligible

B. Indelible

C. Illegible

D. Incorrigible D

Question 48.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
The study of ancient societies

A. Anthropology

B. Archaeology

C. History

D. Ethnology B

Question 49.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person of good understanding knowledge and reasoning power

A. Expert

B. Intellectual

C. Snob

D. Literate B

Question 50.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person who insists on something

A. Disciplinarian

B. Stickler

C. Instantaneous

D. Boaster B

Question 51.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
State in which the few govern the many
 A. Monarchy

B. Oligarchy

C. Plutocracy

D. Autocracy B

Question 52.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A style in which a writer makes a display of his knowledge

A. Pedantic

B. Verbose

C. Pompous

D. Ornate A

Question 53.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
List of the business or subjects to be considered at a meeting

A. Schedule

B. Timetable

C. Agenda

D. Plan C

Question 54.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Leave or remove from a place considered dangerous

A. Evade

B. Evacuate

C. Avoid

D. Exterminate B

Question 55.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person pretending to be somebody he is not
 A. Magician

B. Rogue

C. Liar

D. Impostor D

Question 56.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
A person who knows many foreign languages

A. Linguist

B. Grammarian

C. Polyglot

D. Bilingual A

Question 57.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who has little faith in human sincerity and goodness

A. Egoist

B. Fatalist

C. Stoic

D. Cynic D

Question 58.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who possesses many talents.

A. Versatile

B. Nubile

C. Exceptional

D. Gifted A

Question 59.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
Words inscribed on tomb
 A. Epitome

B. Epistle

C. Epilogue

D. Epitaph D

Question 60.
Choose the option which describes the closest meaning for the expression given.
One who eats everything

A. Omnivorous

B. Omniscient

C. Irresistible

D. Insolvent A

ENGLISH VOCABULARY - ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION

1. A name and opted by a writer - Pseudonym

2. Of unknown authorship = anonymous
3. Taking one’s own life = suicide
4. A person concerned with practical results= pragmatist
5. A speech by an actor at the end of a play= epilogue
6. A political leader who tries to stir up people = Demagogue
7. Animals living on land and in water = Amphibians
8. A person with long experience = veteran
9. Atonement for one’s sins = repentance
10. A man of odd habits = Eccentric
11. A person who derives pleasure by inflicting pain on others = Sadist
12. A general pardon of political offender = Amnesty
13. A person who is made to bear the blame due to others = Scapegoat
14. A person who pays much attention to his clothes and appearance = Dandy
15. A person hard to please = Fastidious
16. A person who considers himself superior to others in culture and intellect Highbrow
17.A wishful longing for something one has known in the past = Nostalgia
18.The art of cutting trees and bushes in toornamental shapes = Topiary
19.An associate in an office or institution = Colleague
20.A person who believes in God = Theist
21.A person who does not believe in God = Atheist
22.Witty, Clever, Retart = Repartee
 23.A child who stays away from school without any good reason = Truant
24.One who compiles a dictionary = Lexicographer
25.One who does not care for literature and art = Philistine
26.One who totally abstains from alcoholic drinks = Teetotaler
27.A house for storing grains = granary
28.A person who is neither intelligent nor dull(average) = Mediocre
29.A person who dances to the tune of his wife = Henpecked
30.Branch of medicine which deals with the problems of the old = Neology(Geriatrics)
31.Careful in performing duties = Punctilious
32.A person who gives written testimony for use in a law court = deponent
33.Equal in rank, merit or quality = Peer
34.Indifference to pleasure or pain = Stoicism
35.Using of new words = Coinage
36.Fruit garden = Orchard

PRONOUNS

In grammar, a pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that may be substituted for a noun or noun phrase, which once
replaced, is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. How is this possible? In a nutshell, it’s because pronouns can do
everything that nouns can do. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, and
more.

Without pronouns, we’d have to keep on repeating nouns, and that would make our speech and writing repetitive, not
to mention cumbersome. Most pronouns are very short words. Examples include:

 He
 She
 They
 It
 We
 Who

As mentioned, pronouns are usually used to replace nouns, however they can also stand in for certain adverbs,

adjectives and other pronouns. Anytime you want to talk about a person, animal, place or thing, you can use
pronouns to make your speech or writing flow better.

Types of Pronouns
Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:
 Indefinite pronouns– those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or places
 Personal pronouns– those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except you have distinct
forms that indicate singular or plural number
 Reflexive pronouns– those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to which they refer, and
 ending in –self or–selves
 Demonstrative pronouns– those used to point to something specific within a sentence
 Possessive pronouns– those designating possession or ownership
 Relative pronouns– those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to introduce an adjective
(relative)clause
 Interrogative pronouns– those which introduce a question
 Reciprocal pronouns– those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one another
 Intensive pronouns– those ending in –self or –selves and that serve to emphasize their antecedents

Pronoun Rules
There are a few important rules for using pronouns. As you read through these rules and the examples in the next
section, notice how the pronoun rules are followed. Soon you’ll see that pronouns are easy to work with.

 Subject pronouns may be used to begin sentences. For example: We did a great job.
 Subject pronouns may also be used to rename the subject. For example: It was she who decided we
should go to Hawaii.
 Indefinite pronouns don’t have antecedents. They are capable of standing on their own. For example: No
one likes the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard.
 Object pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. These include: you,
me, him, her, us, them, and it. For example: David talked to her about the mistake.
 Possessive pronouns show ownership. They do not need apostrophes. For example: The cat washed its
whiskers.

Examples of Pronouns

In the following examples, the pronouns are italicized.

1. We are going on vacation.

2. Don’t tell me that you can’t go with us.
3. Anybody who says it won’t be fun has no clue what they are talking about.
4. These are terribly steep stairs.
5. We ran into each other at them all.
6. I’m not sure which is worse: rain or snow.
7. It is one of the nicest Italian restaurants in town.
8. Richard stared at himself in the mirror.
9. The laundry isn’t going to do itself.
10. Someone spilled orange juice all over the countertop!

Pronoun Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how pronouns work. Choose the best answer
to complete each sentence.

1. This is speaking.
 A. John
B. He
C. He john
D. Am
2. Greg is as smart as is.
A. I
B. me
C. she
D. we
3. The dogchewedon favorite toy.
A. it’s
B. it is
C. its’
D. its
4. It couldhavebeen .
A. Jerry
B. anyone
C. better
D. moredifficult
5. Terry is taller than am.
A. I
B. me
C. she
D. we

Answers

1. B. This is he speaking.
2. C. Greg is as smart as sheis.
3. D. The dog chewed on its favoritetoy.
4. B. It could have beenanyone.
5. A. Terry is taller than Iam.

List of Pronouns
As you read through this list of pronouns, remember that each one of these pronouns is a word that can be used to
take the place of a noun. Think about ways to use the pronouns on this list in sentences, as this will increase your
understanding.
I Him Whose Anybody Nobody

We They Whichever Anyone Neither

 Me Them Whoever Anything No one

Us It Whomever Each Nothing

You That This Either Somebody

She Which These Everyone One

He Who That Everybody Someone

Her Whom Those Everything Something

DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUESTIONS

Would you mind telling me ? B

w hat time it started

I'd like to know . A

if you could support us

I was wondering A

w here your classmates are

Do you know ? A

w hat time it is
Could you tell me ? B

how long the film w ill be

Do you have any idea ? B

w hen it happened
I'd like to know . A

w here it w as
Can you remember ? A

w hat their real names are

I want to know . B
 w hat I should do
Can you tell me ? B

how long he's been here

I wonder . B

w hy I'm so upset
Do you know ? A

1. Direct: Where is Market Street?

Indirect: Could you tell me where Market Street is?
2. Direct what time does the bank open?
Indirect: Do you know what time the bank opens?
3. Direct: Why did you move to Europe?
Indirect: I was wondering why you moved to Europe...
4. Direct: How has he managed to get in shape so quickly?
Indirect: Do you have any idea how he’s managed to get in shape so quickly?
5. Direct: How much does this motorcycle cost?
Indirect: I’d like to know how much this motorcycle costs.

1. Where can he get tickets?

Can you tell me where he can get tickets?

Can you tell me where can he gets tickets?

Do you know where can he get tickets?

2. What time should we be at the airport?

Do you know what time we should be at the airport?

Do you know what time should we at the airport?

Do you know what time should we be at the airport?

3. How much does a ticket cost?

Can you tell me how much a ticket costs?

Do you know how much a ticket cost?

Do you know how much does a ticket costs?

4. Does this coffee have caffeine?

Can you tell me if this coffee has caffeine?

 Can you tell me if this coffee have caffeine?

Can you tell me if does this coffee have caffeine?

5. When does winter vacation start?

Do you know when does winter vacation start?

Do you know when winter vacation starts?

Do you know when does winter vacation starts?

6. Where is the office?

Do you know where office?

Do you know where the office is?

Do you know where is the office?

7. Are the teachers in a meeting?

Do you know if the teachers in a meeting are?

Do you know if the teachers are in a meeting?

Do you know if the teachers in a meeting are?

8. Is there a subway station near here?

Can you tell me if there a subway station near here?

Can you tell me if there is a subway station near here?

Can you tell me if is there a subway station near here?

9. What is the weather going to be like tomorrow?

Do you know what is the weather going to be like tomorrow?

Do you know what the weather is going to be like tomorrow?

Do you know what the weather going to be like tomorrow?

10. Are there any buses after 10 PM?

Do you know if after 10 PM any buses are there?

Can you tell me if are there any buses after 10 PM?

Can you tell me if there are any buses after 10 PM?

11. Does this car get good gas mileage?

Do you know if this car gets good gas mileage?

Can you tell me if this car get good gas mileage?

 Can you tell me does this car gets good gas mileage?

Do you know if does this car get good gas mileage?

IMPERATIVES

Imperative sentences are how you communicate the things you need others around you to do.

When you tell your friend where to pick you up after work, when you teach your new colleague how to

perform their job duties, and even when you tell your dog to sit, you’re using imperative sentences.

When you make a request, offer advice, issue a command, or give an instruction, you use the imperative
mood. Sentences that use the imperative mood are known as imperative sentences.

To put it bluntly, an imperative sentence is a sentence that tells somebody to do something. That “somebody”
doesn’t necessarily have to be another person—when you use voice commands with virtual assistants such

as Alexa and Google Assistant, you’re using imperative sentences. Similarly, when you tell your dog to sit,

stay, leave it, or come, you’re speaking in imperative sentences.

Here are some examples of imperative sentences:

 Remember to pick up the dry cleaning today.

 Tell me if I should go to Hawaii or Alaska for my summer vacation.

 Leave the book under my doormat.

Imperative sentences are just one kind of sentence. Others include:

 Declarative sentences

 Exclamatory sentences

 Interrogative sentences
A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement. This statement can be a fact or an opinion. Here are
two examples of declarative sentences:

 German Shepherds are big dogs.

 Sushi is delicious.

Sometimes, it’s not always clear whether a sentence is imperative or declarative. Consider this:

 You need to put your phone away.

Although this sentence tells the listener what they need to do, it’s not directly commanding them to put their phone
away. Because of this, it’s a declarative sentence. An imperative version of this sentence would be “Put your
phone away.”
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses a heightened emotion. This kind of sentence always ends
with an exclamation point, like these:
 I love ice cream!

 We won!

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question. Here are two interrogative sentences:

 When is the band going to start?

 May I have a cookie?

An imperative sentence that makes a request isn’t the same as an interrogative sentence. Think about the
difference between these two sentences:

 Please join me in the study.

 Could you join me in the study?

While the first one, an imperative sentence, firmly tells the listener what the speaker wants them to do, the
second feels more open-ended and implies that the speaker would accept either “yes” or “no” as an answer.
The listener can certainly say “no” to the first sentence, but doing so—especially when the asker is a
supervisor or another person in a position of power over the listener—can feel like an act of noncompliance
and thus awkward.
We talk more about lessening the awkwardness that can come with imperative sentences later on in this
post.

Imperative sentence examples

An imperative sentence can tell its subject to do (or not do) just about anything. Take a look at a few more
examples:

 Don’t answer the door unless your parents are home.

 Please open with care.

 Judge the submissions by their artistic merit, not their technical skill.

Affirmative vs. negative imperative sentences

Imperative sentences come in two forms: affirmative and negative.

An affirmative imperative sentence tells the reader or listener to take a specific action. Here are a few
examples:

 Put your plate in the sink.

 Ask the teacher about last night’s homework.

 Call me!
A negative imperative sentence tells the reader or listener to not do something. Examples of these
include:

 Don’t touch the thermostat.

 Never judge someone before knowing their story.

 Stop making that noise.

Conditional imperative sentences

Although most of the example sentences we’ve used so far are simple, one-clause sentences, don’t
assume every imperative sentence is this brief. An imperative sentence can have multiple clauses, and in
many cases, these multi-clause sentences are conditional sentences.
A conditional sentence is a sentence that illustrates a cause and its (guaranteed, likely, or even highly
unlikely) effect. Take a look at these examples of conditional imperative sentences:

 If you miss the bus, call an Uber.

 When you hear your name, raise your hand.

Imperative sentence structure

Imperative sentences nearly always start with imperative verbs. Imperative verbs are the root forms of
verbs that, when followed by the objects of their sentences, form imperative sentences.

Take a look at the imperative verbs bolded in these examples:

 Follow me.

 Go back to school.

 Walk on the right side of the pathway.

 As you can see, the verb usually comes first in an imperative sentence. But this isn’t always the case. Take a
look at where the verb fits into these examples:

 Make sure you understand why we do this exercise

 Please don’t spoil the movie.

Typically, the subject of an imperative sentence is implied.

In some imperative sentences, an indirect object also follows the verb. In others, there is no indirect object.
And in some imperative sentences, like these, the verb is the entire sentence:

 Go.

 Stop!

 Run!

An imperative sentence always ends with either a period or an exclamation point.

The following imperative sentence could land as rude: “Don’t tell me what to do.”

One challenge writers often run into with imperative sentences is that they can come across as bossy, even
when the writer doesn’t mean for them to be. This is especially true when you’re communicating via text or
email because you can’t use your tone of voice or body language to soften the request.

So how can you tell people to do things without sounding like you’re barking orders at them?
There are a few ways, and the right way for a given sentence depends on a few factors:

 The request or direction you’re giving

 Your relationship to the listener/reader

  The circumstances under which you’re stating the imperative sentence

 The subject the sentence concerns

Generally, adding the word “please” to an imperative sentence instantly makes its tone more polite.
Compare these sentences:

 Turn off the lights.

 Please turn off the lights.

With a request, another way to soften your sentence’s tone is to turn it into a question:

 Please seat our party near the window.

 Could you please seat our party near the window?

In this case, it stops being an imperative sentence, but it achieves the same goal of making a request to
the listener.What about situations where you need to make a direct instruction? Context can help. For
example, if your party invitation simply states, “Don’t park in our driveway,” this could be interpreted as
cold and rude. But if you follow it up with the reason for the command with something like, “Don’t park in
our driveway;it’s a shared driveway and our neighbors need to be able to get in and out during the party,”
your tone instantly changes from demanding to approachable.

Navigating tone can be tricky in written communication, especially when you’re communicating with
people who’ve never met you face-to-face. If you ever aren’t sure how a sentence or a longer piece of text
will come across to its reader, try reading it aloud and listening to its tone. It can also be helpful to have
another person read your writing and tell you how your tone comes across.

Don’t use emoji to soften your tone except for in very casual conversation. While you might interpret an
emoji one way, your recipient might interpret it completely differently—and potentially perceive you as
smug, condescending, or mocking. Stick to softening your tone with politeness when necessary, but don’t
convolute your writing with excessive niceties. This only makes your message less clear, which is the
exact opposite of what you need when you’re using imperative sentences.
Grammarly can also help you determine if your tone is impolite and can be softened. Grammarly’s tone
detector will flag when your writing veers into unfriendly territory, and our tone suggestions can offer help
for adjusting your wording to help make your sentences, imperative or not, be interpreted as polite.

What is an imperative sentence?

An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives the reader an instruction, makes a request, or issues a
command.

How do you make a sentence imperative?

To make a sentence imperative, use an imperative verb. This is the root form of a verb followed by an
instruction to the subject to take a specific action.

What are examples of an imperative sentence?

 Call your sister on Friday.

 Please pass the salt.

  Stop crying and do something about it.

Can an imperative sentence also be a declarative, interrogative, or exclamatory sentence? No. Each type of
sentence achieves a specific goal, and when a sentence tells the listener to do something specific, it’s an imperative
sentence.
ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that describe how, where and when an action took place. I am standing here. The students wrote the test
actively.

I met my friend yesterday.

 Adverbs are mostly formed by adding the suffix -ly to an adjective.

quick- quickly neat- neatly most- mostly

 There are certain adjectives which have a different form for adverbs.

good- well

 Adverbs can be placed in different places in a sentence.

Gopialways comes first to the class. (Before the verb)

Always Gopi comes first to the class. (At the beginning of a sentence) Gopi comes first to the class always. (at the end of a
sentence)
There are different kinds of adverbs:
1. Adverbs of manner: they answer the question how the actionhappened.Shyam sang beautifully. (How did she sing?)
The professor explained the concept clearly. I eagerly read the article.

2. Adverbs of place: they answer the question where the action happened. She is waitingdown.
I didn't go there.

We do not use plastic here.

3. Adverbs of time: they answer the question when the actionhappened. I am going to meet my friendtoday.
Harish did not get any reply yet.
4. Adverbs of frequency: they answer the question how often the actionhappened. I go to the libraryeveryday.
Prashaanth never eats meat.

Praveen goes for swimming occasionally.

5. Adverbs of degree: they answer the question how well/ badly the actionhappened. I wrote the exam quitewell.
I could hardly hear you.

Examples:
Manner: bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, well
Place: by, down, here, near, there, up
Time: now, soon, still, then, today, yet
Frequency: always, never, often, occasionally, often, twice
Degree: fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very
 VERBS

A verb is a word or group of words that express an action or a state.

Examples:
Go, jump, sleep, eat, think, be, change, become, drive, complete.

Example sentences:
We had a nice lunch.
I think that he is right.

He drove for hours.

The word "verb" comes for the Latin word verbum, which means "word."

Auxiliary Verbs (also called "helping verbs")

Click here for the complete illustrated page on main verbs, auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) andcompound verbs.

Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used together with the main verb of the sentence to express the action or state.

Main verb + auxiliary verb = complete idea

The main auxiliary verbs are:

be, am, is, are, was, were, do, did, have, has, had.

Example sentences (the auxiliary verb is in bold, and the main verb is underlined):
They are jogging. She was sitting.

We were waiting for hours.

Is she sleeping?
He didn't know theanswer.

We have gone a longway.

Has she received any of my letters?

Do you smoke?

Will she help?

Compound Verbs
A compound verb = auxiliary verb + main verb.

Examples:

was playing, has eaten, doesn't want.

They were discussing their future. He didn't tell us the truth.

I have finished my homework. She will meet us there.

Stative Verbs

Click here for the complete illustrated page on stative verbs and dynamic verbs. Stative verbs are verbs that express a
state rather than an action.
Examples:
be, seem, love, own, want, sound, have, know, understand.

Examples sentences:
She is a great wife.
He seems rather strange. He wanted to see you. That sounds awesome!

We have enough things to do.

Stative verbs are usually not used in the progressive tenses.

Examples:
Incorrect: He is wanting to see you.

Correct: He wants to see you.

Incorrect: I am knowing what to do.

Correct: I know what to do.

Incorrect: They are seeming nice.

Correct: They seem nice.

However, if the same verb is used to describe an actual action (not a state), then it can be used in the progressive
tenses.

Example:
When the verb "have" means "own" – it is a state. So we do not use it in the progressive tenses.

Incorrect: I am having a laptop.

Correct: I have a laptop.

When the verb "have" means "eat" – it is an actual action. So we can use it in the progressive tenses.

Correct: I am having lunch with Kate.

Correct: I have lunch with Kate.

Dynamic Verbs
Dynamic verbs are the opposite of stative verbs. They express a real action.

Examples:
Jump, swim, catch, write, call, sleep, hit, open, and speak.

Example sentences:
They swam to the other side. She hit me on the head!
Open the window, please.

The dynamic verbs can be used in the progressive tenses.

Correct: He is drinking water.

Correct: He drinks water.

Regular Verbs
Regular verbs are verbs that follow this rule:
Past form of the verb = present form of the verb + ed / d.

Examples:
Past form of "check" = check + ed = checked. Past form of "open" = open + ed = opened.
Past form of "bake" = bake + d = baked.
There are certain rules to adding "d" or "ed" to a verb. Read about them in the Regular Verbs andIrregular Verbs
section.

Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs are verbs that do not follow the above rule, and there are quite a lot of them!

Examples:
Past form of "drink" = drank. Past form of "sleep" = slept. Past form of "bring" = brought.
 PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb is a verb that is combined with an adverb or a preposition. The combination creates a new meaning.

Examples:
Run = to move very quickly with your legs. ("She can run fast!")
Into = in the direction of something. ("He looked into my eyes.")
Run into = to meet someone by accident. ("I ran into Joeyesterday.")
Make = to create or do something. ("He made a lot of noise.") Up = to a higher point. ("Look up!")
Make up = invent (a story, an excuse). ("It never happened. He made the whole thing up!")
Put = to place something somewhere. ("Could you put this upstairs?")
Up = to a higher point. ("Look up!")
With = concerning ("She is happy with her workplace.")
Put up with = to tolerate. ("I cannot put up with his behavior anymore!")

ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that describes a person or thing.

Examples:
Big, pretty, expensive, green, round, French, loud, quick, fat.

Example sentences:
He has big blue eyes.

The new car broke down.

The old lady was talking in a quiet voice.

The word "adjective" comes from the Latin word jacere, which means "to throw."

Different Types of adjectives

Adjectives can be divided into several types:

Opinion
Nice, pretty, stupid, original, expensive, etc.
Size
Big, small, large, tiny, enormous, little, etc.

Age
Young, old, new, ancient, antique, etc.

Shape
Round, square, flat, straight, etc.

Colour
Blue, red, white, black, dark, bright, yellowish, etc.

Origin
Italian, British, Mexican, western, southern, etc.

Material
Metal, wooden, plastic, golden, etc.

Determiners

A determiner is a word that comes before a noun to show which person or thing you are talking about.
Examples:
A,an, the, my, your, some, any, several, enough, any.

Example sentences:
I have a red hat.
Please give me my bag.
Some people decided to leave.
She doesn't want any money.
They watched several movies.

Some people consider determiners to be a type of adjective. What's special about determiners is that you
usually can use only one determiner at a time.

Incorrect: He has the my ticket.

Correct: He has my ticket / He has the ticket.

that act like adjectives

Sometimes nouns function as adjectives. In other words, they come before another noun and describe it.

The order of adjectives

A noun can have several adjectives describing it.

Examples:
"She bought a new red Italian table."
"He is a great, successful father."
There are certain rules on the correct order of those adjectives.

This is the order you should generally follow:

Determiner -> opinion -> size -> age -> shape ->colour

->origin -> material -> a word describing purpose/function

Examples:

A nice little coffee shop

(Determiner -> opinion -> size -> purpose/function word)

My huge new swimming pool

(Determiner -> size -> age -> purpose/function word)

Several Chinese plastic cups

(Determiner -> origin -> material)

The round yellow ball

(Determiner -> shape ->color)

Adjectives of the same type:

When you have several adjectives of the same type, you should separate them with commas or a conjunction
(and, but).

Comparative adjectives

"Comparative" means "comparing something to something else."

Comparative adjective show us which thing is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth.

Examples:
Better, worse, bigger, smaller, nicer, fatter, thinner, and more dangerous.
Example sentences:
She is a better student than her brothers.
The test was worse than I'd expected.
You are stronger than me.

He seems healthier.

You are more beautiful than her.

Superlative adjectives

"Superlative" means "of the highest degree."

Superlative adjectives show us which thing is the best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples:
Best, worst, strongest, smallest, cheapest, and most expensive.

Example sentences:
You are my best friend.

This is the worst day of my life.

Even the smallest donation helps.

This is the most expensive restaurant I've ever heard of.

UNIT – III

ARTICLES

An article is a word used to modify a noun. It is a kind of adjective that is always used with a noun and gives
information about a noun. There are two different types of articles that we use in writing such as definite and
indefinite articles.

The definite article is ‘the’ and its remains same in any sentence, whether singular or plural, it indicates a
specific thing. The indefinite article is ‘a’ or ‘an’. We use a when the next word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o,
u because the noun it works with is indefinite or common.

The noun may be the next word as in (the woman or the man) or there may be adjectives and possibly adverbs
between the article and the noun as in (the very smart, young woman or man.)

Example:

• the freckles on his face

• the alligator in the pond
• the breakfast wrap on my plate
• a Mercedes from the parking lot
• an event in history

Types of Articles

Articles are mainly of two types

1. Indefinite Articles
2. Definite Articles
Indefinite articles
Indefinite articles are the words ‘a’ and ‘an’, these articles are used to refer to a noun, but the noun being
mentioned to is not particularly a specific person, place, object or idea. It can be any noun from a group of
nouns.

‘A’is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound. Consonant letters such as
B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z. or before words starting in u and eu when they sound likeyou.
 For example: a boy, a dog, a fight, a gym, a horse, a joke, a kite, a lion, a mirror, a pin, a quilt, a bottle, a pen, a
ring, a doll, a woman, a tree etc. ‘An’ is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. Vowel letters such as
A, E, I, O, U. or with a mute H.

For example: an hour, an honest lady, an apple, an elephant, an orange, an umbrella, an idiot, an orphan, an egg,
an engineer etc.
The indefinite article is used to refer to a particular member in the group or to refer something for the first time.
Such as:

Example:

• Would you like a drink?

• I've finally got a good job.
• An elephant and a rat fell in love.

Use 'a' with names of jobs.

Example:
• Jamie is a doctor.
• Marina is training to be an architect.
• He wants to be a dancer.

Use 'a' with nationalities and religions in the singular. Example:

• Jonathan is an Englishman.
• Maria is a Catholic.
• Loic is a French Trainer.

Use 'a' with the names of days of the week when not referring to any particular day. :

• Was born on a Thursday.

• Could I come over on a Friday sometime?

Use 'a' to refer to an example of something.

Example:
• The mouse had a tiny nose.
• The giraffe had a longneck.
• It was a very strangehouse.

Use 'a' with singular nouns after the words 'what' and 'such'. Example:
• What a shame!
• She's such a beautiful girl.
• What a lovely day!

Use 'a' meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person, or a single unit of measure. This add emphasis to
the number, and contrast with other numbers.
Example:

• I'd like an orange and two lemons please.

• I can think of a hundred reasons not to come.
• You can't run a mile in 5minutes!

Definite Articles

This article is the word ‘the’, and it is used before a singular and plural directly referring to a specific noun or
groups of nouns. Each noun or group of nouns being referred to is direct and specific. Nouns in English are led
by the definite article.
When the speaker trusts that the listener already knows what he is referring to we use the Definitearticles.

We also use Definite articles in cases such as:

 Use 'the' to refer to something which has already been mentioned. Examples:

• There's a position available in my office. The job will involve some internationaltravel.
• On Wednesday, an unarmed man stole $5,000 from the grocery shop. The thief hasn't been caughtyet.
• I was walking past Denny's Eatery when I decided to go into the eatery to get some fresh juice.

Use 'the' when you assume there is just one of something in that place, even if it has not been mentioned before.
Examples:

• We went on a walk in the woodsyesterday.

• Turn left and go to number 57. Our house is across from the Italianrestaurant.
• Where is therestorm?

Use 'the' in sentences or clauses where you define or identify a particular person or object. Examples:
• The man who wrote this book isfamous.
• He is the dentist I came tosee.
• I live in the small house with a bluedoor.

Use theto refer to people or objects that are unique.

Examples:
• The sun rose at 6:10 thismorning.
• You can go anywhere in theworld.
• Clouds drifted across the sky.
• The president will be speaking on TVtonight.

Use 'the' before superlatives and ordinal numbers. Examples:

• She read the last chapter of her new bookfirst.
• This is the highest building inLondon.
• This is the third time I have called youtoday.

Use 'the' with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people. Examples:

• The elderly require special attention.

• The French enjoy cheese.
• She has given a lot of money to the poor.

Use 'the' with decades.

Examples:
• This is a painting from the1720's.
• He was born in theseventies.

Use 'the' with clauses introduced by only Examples:

• The only tea I like is icedtea.
• This is the only day we've had sunshine all week.
• You are the only person he will listen to.
Uses of Articles

One can also use 'the' in cases such as:

1. Use ‘the’ with the names of restaurants & hotels, unless these are named after aperson.
2. Use ‘the’ with countries that have pluralnames.
3. Use ‘the’ with names of geographical areas,groups of islands, rivers, canals, mountain ranges and
oceans.
4. Use ‘the’ with countries that include the words "republic", "kingdom", or "states" in their names.
5. Use ‘the’ with the names of families, but not with the names ofindividuals.
6. Use ‘the’ with the names of famous buildings, museums, and works of art or monuments.
7. Use ‘the’ with newspaper names.
When not to use 'the'
1. Do not use 'the' with names ofcountries.
2. Do not use 'the' with the names ofmeals.
3. Do not use 'the' with names ofhops.
4. Do not use 'the' with people'snames.
5. Do not use 'the' withprofessions.
6. Do not use 'the' with titles when combined with names.
7. Do not use 'the' with the names of languages.

8. Do not use 'the' after thepossessive case.

9. Do not use 'the' with uncountable nouns.
10. Do not use 'the' with years.
11. Do not use 'the; when referring to points on the globe.
12. Do not use 'the' with most names of towns, stations, streets and airports.
13. Do not use 'the' with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands

Exclusion of Articles

We most often exclude the use of articles, some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:

• Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Russian, and Spanish (unless you are referring
to the population of the nation: "The Russian are known for theirwarmth.")
• Names of sports: volleyball, hockey,baseball
• Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computerscience
 PREPOSITIONS

What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a sentence.
Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns. In some cases,
you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.

There are two very important rules to remember when using prepositions. Because they are somewhat
vague, learning about prepositions and using them correctly in sentences takes practice. Because 1:1
translation is often impossible when dealing with propositions, even the most advanced English students
have some difficulty at first.
• The first rule is that certain propositions must be used to make the relationshipsbetween words in a
sentence clear. Most prepositions are interchangeable but only to a certain extent.
• The second rule for using prepositions is that these words must be followed bynouns.
There are more than 100 prepositions in the English language. In addition, there are endless possibilities for
creating prepositional phrases. In the following sections, you will find examples of prepositions, types of
prepositions, a comprehensive list of prepositions, and some helpful preposition exercise

PREPOSITIONS

Preposition Meaning Examples

above higher than, or over The sun is above the clouds.

across from one side to the other It's dangerous to run across the road.

- in opposition to - Stealing is against thelaw.

against - in contact with - The sofa is against thewall.

along from one end to the other They are walking along the street.

among surrounded by Peter was among the spectators.

- in a circle - He walked around thetable.

around - near, approximately - It costs around 50euros
before He bowed before the king.

behind at the back of Passengers sit behind the driver.

below lower than His shorts are below his knees.

beneath under The pen was beneath the books.

beside next to The bank is beside the cinema.

Between in the space separating two things Mary sat between Tom and Jane.

by near, at the side of The restaurant is by the river.

close to near The school is near the church.

down from higher to lower She pulled down the blind.

for what is intended I bought this book for you.

from where something starts or The wind is blowing from the north.

originates

in at a point within an area The pen is in the drawer.

in front of directly before The child ran out in front of the bus.

inside on the inner part of The bird is inside the cage.

into enter a closed space He went into the shop.

near close to The school is near the church.

next to beside The bank is next to the cinema.

off down or away from He fell off the horse.

on in a position touching a surface The plate is on the table.

move to a position on a
onto The cat jumped onto the roof of the car.
surface

opposite facing, on theother side Eva sat opposite Tom at thetable.

 oppositeof inside, on the outer The garden is outside the house

past beyond She drove past the supermarket.

round in acircularmovement The earth moves round the sun.
through from one side totheother The Seine flows throughParis.

throughout in every part of The virus spread throughout the country.

to in the direct of/towards On the way to the station.

towards in the direction of The child ran towards her father.

under beneath, below Water flows under the bridge.

underneath beneath There was dust underneath the rug.

up towards or in a higher position She walked up the stairs.

CONJUNCTIONS
Definition and Examples
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases, or clauses in a particular sentence. It links
these words or groups of words together, in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts of the
sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these convey will be connected.

What are the Different Types of Conjunctions?

In the English language, conjunctions come in three basic types: the coordinating conjunctions, the subordinating
conjunctions, and the correlative conjunctions.

1. Coordinating Conjunction
Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common one. The main function of coordinating
conjunctions is to join words, phrases, and clauses together, which are usually grammatically equal. Aside from that,
this type of conjunctions is placed in between the words or groups of words that it links together, and not at the
beginning or at the end.
Examples:
• Pizza and burgers are my favorite snacks.

In the sample sentence above, the underlined word serves as a coordinating conjunction that links two words together
(pizza + burgers).

• The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the underground lagoon.

The example above shows how coordinating conjunctions can join together two (or more) phrases. The coordinating
conjunction “or” in the sentence above links “in the cave” and “in the underground lagoon.”

• What those girls say and what they actually do are completelydifferent.
 In this sentence, you’ll see how the same coordinating conjunction ”and” from the first sample sentence can be used to
link clauses together (“what those girls say” and “what they actually do”), instead of just single words.

How to Punctuate Coordinating Conjunctions

• In joining two words, phrases, or dependent clauses together, a comma is not required before the coordinating
conjunction. Examples:
• aliens and predators
• by the beach or on the hill
• what you see and what youget
• If, on the other hand, you are linking more than two words, phrases, and dependent clauses together, a series
of commas must be placed in between the distinct elements.

Examples:

• spiders, snakes, and scorpions

• in the bedroom, in the garage, or at the garden
• Lastly, for joining together two independent clauses, a comma must be used before
placing the coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
• Cassandra fell asleep, so Joaquin just went home.
• I don’t really like spaghetti, but I can eat lasagna any day.

For you to easily recall the different coordinating conjunctions that you can use, you can just
remember the word “FANBOYS,” which stands for:

2. Subordinating Conjunction
This type of conjunctions is used in linking two clauses together. Aside from the fact that they
introduce a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions also describe the relationship between the
dependent clause and the independent clause in the sentence.
List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

• while
• as soon as
• although
• before
• even if
• because
• no matter how
• whether
• wherever

• when
• until
• after
 • as if
• how
• if
• provided
• in that
• once

• supposing
• while
• unless
• in case
• as far as
Sample Sentences:

• It is so cold outside, so I brought you a jacket.

• Because it is so cold outside, I brought you a jacket.

• Now that
• as
• so that
• though
• since

By looking at the sentences above, you will easily notice that a subordinating conjunction can be found either at the
beginning of the sentence or between the clauses that it links together. Aside from that, a comma should also be placed in
between the two clauses (independent clause and dependent clause) of the sentence.
3. Correlative Conjunction
The correlative conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions which are used to join equal
sentence elements together.

List of Common Correlative Conjunctions:

• either…or
• neither…nor
• not only… but also
• both…and
• whether… or
• so…as
Sample Sentences:
• Both my brother and my father are lawyers.
• I can’t decide whether I’ll take Chemical Engineering or take Medical Technology in college.

What is a Conjunctive Adverb?

Although a conjunctive adverb is not a real conjunction, this kind of words functions as
conjunctions in a sentence. Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are:
 • In addition
• For example
• however
• therefore
• on the contrary
• hence

• in fact
• otherwise
• as a result
• indeed
• still
• thus

• on the other hand

• furthermore
• instead
• incidentally
• after all
• likewise
• meanwhile
• consequently

Final Thoughts
Conjunctions are very essential in speech and in writing. They improve the cohesion between the
different parts of the text and enable you to construct long sentences without sounding awkward.
Although the concept of conjunctions may seem too simple, you should still take time and make sure
that you place the punctuations properly, choose the appropriate conjunctions, and see to it that you
adhere to the standard rules of grammar.

REFERENCE WORDS

Reference words are a type of rhetorical device that allow a writer to create cohesion throughout a text by
reintroducing, manipulating, or anticipating information continually and in interesting ways. Reference words can be almost
any part of speech, but most of them are pronouns and noun phrases.
Example:
New Zealand is becoming an increasingly popular destination for overseas visitors. It attracts tourists and people on
business, but the vast majority come as students. Mostly from Asian countries, they stay for anything from a few weeks to a
few years or more, studying at language schools, colleges and universities. New Zealand can offer good home stay
accommodation, a clean and beautiful environment and a reasonable cost of tuition. These factors attract an ever-increasing
number of overseas students, accounting for millions of dollars in revenue for New Zealand
 DISCOURSE MARKERS

A discourse marker is a wordor phrasethat plays a role in managing the flow and structure of
discourse.
Examples of discourse markers include the particles"oh", "well", "now", "then", "you know", and "I
mean", and the 'discourse connectives', "so", "because", "and", "but", and "or".

DISCOURSE MARKERS

Connectives connect and relate sentences and paragraphs. They assist in the logical flow of ideas as they signal the relationship

between sentences and paragraphs. In prose, the material is supported and conditioned not only by the ordering of the material
(its position) but by connectives which signal order, relationship and movement. Some of the more commonly used connectives
are listed below. Note especially how these connections function to develop, relate, connect and move ideas.

USAGE CONNECTIVE WORDS

and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover, in addition, then, of equal
addition of ideas
importance, equally important, another
next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now, subsequently, then, when, soon,
time thereafter, after a short time, the next week (month, day, etc.), a minute later, in the
meantime, meanwhile, on the following day, at length, ultimately, presently
first, second, (etc.), finally, hence, next, then, from here on, to begin with, last of all,
order or sequence
after, before, as soon as, in the end, gradually
above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right (left), nearby, opposite, on the
space and place other side, in the background, directly ahead, along the wall, as you turn right, at the
top, across the hall, at this point, adjacent to
for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as, moreover, furthermore,
to signal an example
just as important, similarly, in the same way
as a result, hence, so, accordingly, as a consequence, consequently, thus, since,
results
therefore, for this reason, because of this
purpose to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason(s)
comparison like, in the same manner (way), as so, similarly
but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, and yet, on
contrast connectives
the other hand, on the contrary, or, in spite of this, actually, in fact
to summarize or in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally, on the whole, therefore, as
report I have said, in conclusion, as you can see

Examples of Using Connectives

The teacher liked my grades, in particular my 100% grade for writing. (Emphasizing)

I can go out with friends, as long as I am home by 9:00 p.m. (qualifying)

The film is long and boring, whereas the book is thrilling and well written. (Contrasting)
Class debates are interesting, for example the one about the Civil War. (Illustrating)

Today, we completed the chapter on cells; therefore,

Activity #1

Complete the blanks with the appropriate connective from the list

at the bottom:

1. I put a note beside his cereal bowl; ________, he would not notice it.

2. She married him _________ he was extremely rich.

3. You should study more, _________ you might fail your exams.

4. Sarah was not smiling. _____________, Sarah was already

lonely.

5. I will go for a walk if the weather is nice; ________, you can

ride your bike.

(since, because, furthermore, otherwise, likewise)

CAUSE AND EFFECT

‘Cause and effect’ types of sentences are in common use in technical writing. The common phrases are because, since and

as. Certain phrases used of ‘cause-words’ are the following – in view of the fact, on account of the fact, owing to the fact,

the reason why and due to.

E.g. As/because/since the temperature use has reached a very high point, some method of cooling must be adopted.

‘Cause and effect’ need not be a single event. These may be a chain of causes and effects.

Look at the chain of ‘causes and effects’

Growth of population More demand for oil and gas

Danger of exhaustion More oil extracted of natural sources of energy

Cut of oil down in the increase in the price of oil.

production of oil.

Stopped using cars People find it difficult to maintain cars

Cars sold at cheap rates.

Some expressions denoting cause and effect are:

And, so, as, therefore, since, because, because of, on account of.
 PARAGRAPH WRITING

Paragraph writing is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. The word ‘Paragraph’ originated from
“Paragraphy” which means short passage. Paragraph writing is organizing thoughts into a coherent piece of writing. The best
way to pin those ideas down and put them into

a form that others can follow is to use an outline. Before you start writing a paragraph, you need to decide two things. What are
you writing about? What do you want to say? The purpose of any paragraph is to express an idea. Most paragraphs consist of a
fewrelated sentences.

You can write a successful paragraph by starting off with a plan. The key to doing a successful paragraph is to break down the

writing into short, simple steps.

Types: 1. Descriptive Paragraph 2. Argumentative Paragraph.

Descriptive Paragraph:

In this type we write about what a person or a thing is like. These sentences defines what the person x. x is a following
sentence which gives detail description of it.

Eg. Write a paragraph about Computer Virus.

Argumentative Paragraph:

It opens with a boldly expressed point of view and then presents arguments. We can use proofs and logic to support the point
of view when we write an argumentative paragraph our opinion carries more important. In other words we acknowledge our
opponents views but try to convenience the reader.

Eg. Compare Human brain and computer.

• Subject of your paragraph

Write down the subject of your paragraph. To express your subject, write only a word or phrase. Who or what are you
writing about?

• Pre-writing for your paragraph

Begin by brainstorming. Brainstorming doesn't involve writing complete sentences or paragraphs. Brainstorming
involves coming up with ideas using words or short phrases.

• One popular way to create pre-writing ideas is to ask yourself questions about your subject.

Here are some questions you might ask yourself:

What do I know about this subject?

How does this subject relate to me?

What do I like or dislike about this subject?

What words best describe it?

The basic requirements for writing a paragraph:

Topic sentence: It is a sentence that indicates in a general way what is the idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with.

A main idea sentence answers the following questions:

What is the paragraph about?

What is the main point I want to make?

What do I want to say?

Unity: The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus.

Coherence: coherence can be created or maintained in your paragraph by carrying over the same idea from sentence to sentence.
(Facts, details, explanations, reasons, examples, illustrations)

Variety: The topic should be discussed fully and adequately using different sentence structures.

Some points to make sure your paragraph is well developed:

a) use examples and illustrations

b) cite data in your paragraph
c) examine testimony(what other people say; such as quotes and paraphrases )
d) use an anecdote or story to illustrate or prove your argument in the paragraph
e) define terms in paragraph
f) compare and contrast
g) evaluate causes and reasons
h) examine effects and consequences
i) analyze the topic of the paragraph, you want to write
j) describe the topic
k) offer the chronology of an event(time segments)

1. Write a paragraph describing the uses of solar energy.

Solar energy is becoming increasingly popular because it is sustainable, requires little maintenance and is cost-effective in the
long run. Typically, solar energy is captured and converted into electricity via photovoltaic (PV) cells. There are also larger
solar power plants that collect the heat from the sun, which is subsequently used to produce steam for powering a generator.

UNIT – IV

CONCORD - SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT

Inasentence,thesubject(mostlyanounorapronoun)andtheverbformthecrux.

Thesetwogrammaticalitemsshouldagreewitheachotherintwoaspects.

1. TheverbshouldagreewiththesubjectinNumber(asinsingular:“Thebookis….”plural“Thebooksare…”)
2. TheverbshouldagreewiththePerson.

ThisisalsocalledSubject–VerbagreementorConcord.

Singular Plural

I. Person - I like sweets We like sweets

II. Person - You like You like

III. Person - He/ She/ It likes They like

Mistakesarisemainlydueto‘ingrainedspeechhabits’.

Certainaspectsbywhichonecandecidewhetherthesubjectissingularorpluralaregivenbelow:

1. Twoormorenounsjoinedby‘and’takethepluralverb.(e.g.) BothRajaandRaniaregoodatstudies.
 TwoandTwomakefour.Swetha and Haritha have come.
But,whentwoormorenounsrefertoonegeneralthing,singularverbisused.(e.g) Breadandbutterisawholesomefood.
Slowand steadywinstherace.Lawandorderisanelectionissue.
2. Whentwotitles/designationsareconnectedby‘and’andusedtorefertotwo
differentpersons,pluralverbfollows:

(e.g.) Thepoetandthephilanthropistarecomingtothefunction.

But,ifthesecondnounisnotprecededbythearticle‘the’,singularverbisused
becauseboththedesignations/titlesrefertooneindividual.(e.g.)Thepoetandphilanthropistiscomingtothefunction.
3. Thepattern‘oneof’isalwaysfollowedbyapluralnoun.Theverbagreeswith‘one’,
notwiththepluralnoun.

(e.g.) Oneoftheteachershasagoodsenseofhumour.

One of the booksismissing.

But,whenthesamephraseoccursinthemiddleofthesentenceasantecedentandisfollowedbytherelative‘who’,‘that’,‘which’,thever
bisplural.

(e.g.)Johnisoneofthestudents,whoaredependableinallcircumstances.

He isone ofthe players,whohavewon anumber ofmedals.

4. Whenwordsareaddedtoasingularsubjectby‘with’,togetherwith’,‘alongwith’,‘inadditionto’,‘aswellas’,‘besides’etc.,theve
rbissingular.

(e.g.) Thefile,withallthepapers, ismissing.

Acitation,alongwithacashaward,wasgiven.

But,ifcommasareomittedinwrittenEnglish,thesubjectistreatedaspluralandpluralverbisused.

(e.g.) Thedogalongwithitsmasteraregoingforawalk.

5. Whentwoormorenounsorpronounsinthesingularareconnectedby‘or’,‘nor’,‘either….Or’,‘neither…..nor’,theverbissingul
ar.

(e.g.)NeitherRosynorherfriendshascome.

But,ifthesubjectneartheverbisplural,thenpluralverbisused.

(e.g.) EitherRamuorhisfriendshavethebook.

NeitherSitanorherwell-wisherswerepresent.

6. When‘or’,‘nor’,‘either….or',‘neither…nor’,joinsdifferentPersons,theverbagreeswiththenearestsubject.
(e.g.) Eitherheoryouarelying.

Neitheryou nor Iamto come.

Neithertheynorsheisgoingtothemovie.

7. Theindefinitepronouns‘each’,‘every’,‘eachone’,‘everyone’,‘everybody’,‘anybody’,‘either’,‘neither’,

8. ‘noone’,‘nobody’,takethesingularverb.
(e.g.)Each of the books is worth readingneither of the answers is correct.Everydaybrings goodwilland cheer.
 Even if two nouns preceded by ‘each’, or ‘every’ are connected by ‘and’, the verb issingular.

(e.g.) Eachboyandeachgirl hasastorytosay.

Everymanand everywomanisprone todeath oneday.

9. Certainnouns,thoughsingularinform,areconsideredaspluralandtakethepluralverb.
(e.g.) Thecattlearegrazinginthefield.

ThepeoplearewaitingforthePresident.Thepolicewereforcedtoact.
10. Thereareseveralnounspluralinformbutsingularinmeaningandtakethesingular verb.
(e.g.) Physicsisaninterestingsubject.

Politicsisadirty game.

Measlesisaninfectiousdisease.

Afewotherwordsunderthiscategoryare:dynamics,economics,mathematics,innings,billiards,athletics,acoustics,tactics,Th
eUnitedStates,Naples,classics,comics,news,etc.

NOTE: Not all plural nouns are taken as singular in form. Care must be takentousepluralverbsaftersuchnouns.

Forinstance,toolsandarticlesconsistingoftwoequalpartsaretakenaspluralnouns.

(e.g.)Theclothesinthatshopareveryexpensive.

Herscissorsarenotverysharp.Thestairsareverysteep.
Afewotherwordsare:pants,forceps,cards,spectacles,wages,shortsetc.When
countability istakeninto account,these nounsareto bepreceded by‘apairof…….’

(e.g.) Threepairsoftrousersarehangingontheline.

Apairofscissorsisthere.

11. Certaincollectivenouns,takethesingularorpluralverbbasedonthecontext.Whenthenounistakenasagroup
orcollection,ittakes thesingularverb.

(e.g.) Acommitteehasbeensetuptoprobeintotheincident.

TheGovernmentisworkingforthewelfareofthedowntrodden.Theclassisgoingforanindustrialvisit.
Butthesamewordstakethepluralverb,wheneachmemberisconsideredasanindividual.

(e.g.) Thecommitteebelieveinstringentaction.

TheGovernmentwanttokeeptheplantothemselves.Theaudienceweredelightedwiththeperformance.
12. Almostthesameprincipleappliestotheclassnouns:Someof,mostof,alotof,agreatdeal of, plenty of, lots of, one-third of, (all
fractions) etc. These take the plural verbwhentheyrefertonumber.

(e.g.)Someoftheboysareveryintelligent.

Lotsof fans havecome.

Halfofthefruitsarenot ripeyet.

Plentyofrosesareavailableinthemarket.

The same nouns take the singular verb, when they refer to quantity.
 (e.g.) One-thirdoftheland isstillfertile. Someofthesugarisspilt.
Plentyofwaterisavailable. Lotsofteahasbeenprepared.

Note:‘Themajorityof’canbeusedonlyfornumber.Sotheverbisalways plural.(e.g.) Themajorityofstudents arenothard-

working.

13. Classnounssuchasfurniture,stationery,food,cutlery,footwear,information,equipmentetc.areconsideredas

singular.

(e.g.)Thecutleryinthecupboardiselegant.

The footwear you bought yesterday was good.Thefurnitureinthe roomneedspolishing.

Afactorywithmodernequipmentisfor sale.

14. ‘Manya’and‘morethanone’arefollowedbyasingularnounandtakethesingular
verb.

(e.g.) Manyabook isinteresting.

Morethanonecandidatewasabsentinthemeeting.

Butwhen‘many’and‘more’areusedalonerefertonumbertakethepluralverb.

(e.g.) Manystudentswerepresentatthefunction.

Morevolunteersareneeded.

‘A greatmany’ alsotakes the pluralverb.

(e.g.) Agreatmanyfooditemslieunused.

15. Phrases beginning with ‘a team of’, ‘a chain of’, ‘a flock of’, ‘a bouquet of’, ‘a crowdof’, ‘a series of’, and ‘a set of’
etc. take the singular verb though the word after them isplural.

(e.g.) Aseriesofserialsistelecasteveryday.Ateamofministershascomeonavisit.
Aregiment of soldiersisdeployed for election duty.

16. If a sentence begins with ‘a number of’, the verb is plural; whereas if it begins with‘thenumberof’theverbissingular.
(e.g.) A numberofstudentsareplaying in theground.

Here‘anumberof’meansmany.

But,‘Thenumberofstudentsgoodatsports isveryfew’.

17. Whenthesubjectofasentencebeginswithspecificquantity,amountordistance,theverbissingularwhenconsideredasawhole.
(e.g.) Threethousandrupeesisnotahugeamount.

Fiveyearscontractistoomuch.

Fourhundredmilesisnotabigdistance.

But,thesumofmoneyoryears,whenconsideredseparately,thepluralverbisused.(e.g.)Sevenyearshaverolledsinceweshiftedt
oChennai.
Onelakhrupeesweredistributedamongthevictims.

18. Titlesornamesofbooks,quotationstakethesingularverbonly.(e.g.)‘TheDiscoveryChannel’givesvastinformation.
 ‘TalesfromSherlockHolmes’makesreadinginteresting.

“Honestyisthebestpolicy”isasaying.

19. Certain adjectives are used with the article ‘the’ to refer to a group of people in aparticularcondition;Theblind,

Theyouth,Thebrave,Thepoor,Theunemployedetc.takethepluralverb.

(e.g) Thedestitutearetakencarebytheorganization.

Thebravedieonce.

Theunemployedarerestless.

Theyouthoftodayarethepillaroftomorrow.

20. Singularnounjoinedbyapreposition,takesthesingularverb.(e.g.) CityaftercityiscapturedbytheAmericans.

Dr.Kalam’sspeechafterspeechinspirestheyouth.

21. Introductory‘there’combinationis alwaysfollowedbyaverb whichcorresponds to

thenounfollowingit.

(e.g) Therewereanumberorbusinessmenattheparty.

Therewaslotsoffoodonthetable.

22. Somenounshaveonemeaninginthesingular andanotherintheplural.

Singulr Meaning Plural Meaning

Advice - Counsel Advices - Information

Good - Benefit Goods - Property

Work - Job Works - Composition;factories

Quarter - Onefourth Quarters - Houses

Air - Atmosphere Airs - Proudbehaviour

Force - Strength Forces - Army

Physic - Medicine Physics - Physicalsciences

(e.g.) 1. (a) Thereisonequarterofthefoodremaining.

(b) Iliveinthegovernmentquarters.

(a) Heworksforhisowngood.

(b) Thegoodsinthefactoryweredamaged.

(a) Mancannotlivewithoutair.

Itisnot goodtoputonairs.
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Abbreviations and acronyms are shorter versions of existing words and phrases. They're designed to save
time and take up less space (whether you're typing or writing by hand), and can even make your writing
easier to read.

What is an abbreviation?

Abbreviations are all around us, from common titles like Dr. and Prof. to the abbreviations you see
on street signs. Specifically, abbreviations are shorter spellings of words and expressions we use every
day.

What is an acronym?

You might already know some acronyms, like NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
and ATM (automated teller machine). An acronym is a stand-in for a string of words, usually an
organization name, slogan, or something else equally wordy. Unlike abbreviations, they aren't shorter
spellings of words—they're made up of the words' initials.

An acronym, a pronounceable word formed from the first letter (or first few letters) of each word in a
phrase or title. The newly combined letters create a new word that becomes a part of everyday language.
Using shortened forms of words or phrases can speed up communication. Explore this useful shorthand
with these examples of acronyms.

AM/PM Abbreviations for “ante meridiem” and “post meridiem”

ASAP As soon as possible

BOGO Buy one, get one

BOPUS Buy online, pick up in store

ICYMI An abbreviation meaning “in case you missed it”

FOMO Fear of missing out

FWIW An abbreviation meaning “for what it’s worth”

LASER Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

 Commonly considered an abbreviation for “miss,” but technically it’s not an
Ms abbreviation for anything. The period is there to indicate that it’s a valid title for adults
to use.

P.S. An abbreviation for “postscript”

PIN Personal identification number

RADAR Radio detecting and ranging

RIP Rest in peace (this can also be an initialism, as some people say “r” “i” “p”)

SCUBA Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

Specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time-bound (commonly used when setting

SMART
goals)

SNAFU Situation normal, all fouled up

Acronym used in mathematics to remember the trigonometric functions sine, cosine, and
SOHCAHTOA
tangent.

SONAR Sound navigation and ranging

Commonly assumed to stand for “save our ship”, but technically, the international
SOS
distress signal doesn’t stand for anything

TASER Tom A. Swift Electric Rifle

VIN Vehicle identification number

WD-40 Water Displacement, 40th formula

YOLO You only live once

ZIP Zone improvement plan

Computer and Internet acronyms

AJAX Asynchronous JavaScript And XML

CAPTCHA Completely Automated Public Turing Test to tell Computers and Humans Apart

CD-ROM Compact Disc Read-Only Memory

DVD Digital Versatile Disc

Fios Fibre Optic Service

GIF Graphics Interchange Format

JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group

JSON JavaScript Object Notation

PNG Portable Network Graphics

RAM Random Access Memory

SIM Subscriber Identity Module (as in a SIM card)

URL An initialism that stands for “Uniform Resource Locator”

An abbreviation commonly thought to stand for “Wireless Fidelity”, but technically, it

WiFi
doesn’t stand for anything

Military and government acronyms

AWOL Absent without leave

CONUS The Continental United States

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FLOTUS First Lady of the United States

FOIA Freedom of Information Act

HIPPA Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996

HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development

ICE Immigration and Customs Enforcement

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OCONUS Outside the Continental United States

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

POTUS President of the United States

SCOTUS Supreme Court of the United States

SWAT Special Weapons And Tactics

WIC Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children

Brand and organizational acronyms

The name of the famous Swedish pop group combines the first initial of its members’
ABBA
names—Agnetha, Björn, Benny, and Anni-Frid.

Aflac American Family Life Assurance Company of Columbus

AT&T An initialism for “American Telephone and Telegraph”

BAFTA British Academy of Film and Television Arts

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CVS An initialism for “Consumer Value Store”

DARE Drug Abuse Resistance Education

Epcot Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow

FIFA FederationInternational Football Association

GEICO Government Employees Insurance Company

H&M An initialism for “Hennes & Mauritz”

Ingvar Kamprad Elmtaryd Agunnary. The first two words are the founder’s name, Invgvar
IKEA Kamprad, and the second two refer to Kamprad’s family farm (Elmtaryd) and hometown
(Agunnary, Sweden)

MADD Mothers Against Drunk Driving

NASDAQ National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations

Necco New England Confectionary Company

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

Yahoo! Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle

Abbreviations and Acronyms

3G-Third Generation

AAA-Asian Athletics Association

AAFI-The Amateur Athletics Federation of India

ACA- Ashok Chakra, Air Conditioner

ADB-Asian Development Bank

AFI-Athletics Federation of India

AFMC-Armed Forces Medical College

AI-Artificial Intelligence, Air India

AICTE-All India Council for Technical Education

AIFF-All India Football Federation

AIIMS-All India Institute of Medical Science

AITUC-All India Trade Union Congress

ALGOL-Algebraic Oriented Language

AM-Ante Meridiem (before Noon), Amplitude Modulation

APEC-Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation

ARPANET-Advanced Research Project Agency Network

ASC-IIAmerican Standard Code for Information Interchange

ASEAN-Association of South East Asian Nations

ASLV-Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

AT&T-American Telegraphic and Telephone Co. Ltd.

ATC-Air Traffic Control

ATM-Automated Teller Machine

AVSM-AtiVishishtSeva Medal

B2B-Busines to Business

B2C- Business to Consumer

BARC-Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

BBC- British Broadcasting Corporation

BBS-Bulletin Board Service

BC-Before Christ

BHEL-Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd

BIOS-Basic Input Output System

BPL -Below Poverty Line

BPO-Business Process Outsourcing

BPR-Business Process Re-engineering bpsbytes per second

BSE-Bombay Stock Exchange

BSF-Border Security Force

BSNL-Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited

C2C-Consumer to Consumer

CA-Chartered Accountant

CAD-Computer Aided Design

CAT-Common Admission Test

CBI-Central Bureau of Investigation

CBSE-Central Board of Secondary Education

CDAC-Centre for the Development of Advanced Computing

CDMA-Code Division Multiple Access

CEO-Chief Executive Officer

FSL-Central Forensic Science Laboratory

CGI-Common Gateway Interface

CIA-Central Intelligence Agency

CID-Criminal Investigation Department

CISC-Complex instruction-set computing

CITU-Centre of Indian Trade Unions

CNN-Cable News Network

 MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are also called auxiliary verbs, helping verbs and modal auxiliaries. Modal verbs are not complete verbs, and
they can only be used with a verb. All the auxiliary verbs except be, do and have are called modals. Unlike other auxiliary
verbs modals onlyexist in their helping form; they cannot act alone as the main verbin a sentence.

The modal verbs are:-

CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHALL / SHOULD / OUGHT TO / WILL / WOULD

Can you help me?

Could you say it again more slowly?

Shall I help you with your luggage?

May I have another cup of coffee?

Use of modal verbs:

Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:
1. Permission
2. Ability
3. Obligation
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. possibility
8. probability

MODALS
There are 13 Modals including the Semi Modals. Out of them shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought
to and used to are always anomalous. Dare and need are anomalous when used as auxiliaries and not anomalous when they
are used as principal verbs.
Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are used before infinitives to add a different meaning. The following auxiliaries are called Modal
Auxiliaries or Modals.

Modal Auxiliaries Meanings / Functions

Can ability, permission, request, possibility

could ability, formal request, possibility

shall futurity, willingness, intention, suggestion, insistence

should obligation, necessity, expectation, advisability

Will willingness, intention, prediction, insistence

would willingness, habitual action in the past, probability, wish, desire

may permission, possibility, wish, purpose, concession

might permission, possibility, concession, reproach

must necessity, prohibition, compulsion, obligation, deduction, certainty, probability

Quasis / Semi Modals Meanings / Functions

ought to moral obligation, probability, certainty, advice, necessity, duty, fitness

use to discontinued habit

need necessity, obligation (used in negative and questions)

dare defiance, challenge, boldness (used in negatives and interrogatives)

Use can and could to say that someone is able to do something or Can and could are also used for asking for information or help
for offering something, and for suggesting something.
 He can play the piano.
can + infinitive (can do / can play / can come) etc.

Positive and Negative

do
can play
I / we / you / they / he / she / it
can not come
see

Question

do?
play?
can I / we / you / they / he / she / it
come?
see?

 I can play the piano. My brother can play the piano too.
 Nancy can speak English but she can not speak Latin
 Can you change your dress?
 Johncy and Nancy can not come to the party next week
  You can borrow my pen, if you like
 Can you ride a bike?
 I ran as fast as I could
 Nancy could not come to the party because she was ill
 Mom said I could have ice cream after my dinner
 I could lend you my cricket ball
Use may to ask if you are allowed to do something, or to give someone permission to do something.

 It may rain (Perhaps it will rain) - It might rain (Perhaps it is raining or it will rain)
may or might + infinitive (may go/ might go / may play / might play etc.)

be
may (not) go
I / we / you / they / he / she / it
might (not) play
come

You can use May or might:

may/might = it is possible that something will happen.

 I may go to the cinema this evening.

 I might go to the cinema this evening. (= perhaps I will go)
 Please may I see your ticket?
May/might = ask if you are allowed to do something and to tell someone that they are allowed to do something.
 May I borrow your pen?
 Please may I see your ticket?
 May I sit here?
 Put your purse away or it might get stolen

The negative is may not or might not:

 I might not go to work tomorrow. (= perhaps I will not go)
 She may not come to the party. (= perhaps she will not come)
Use must when you think it is necessary or very important to do something:
 The windows are very dirty. I must clean them.
 It is a fantastic film. You must see it.
 We must go to the bank today. We haven’t got any money.
 You must mail this letter today.
Must + infinitive (must do/ must see etc.)

do
go
I / we / you / they / he / she / it must
stop
write

Must is present of future:

  We must go to the bank now.
 We must go to the bank tomorrow.
For the past (yesterday / last week etc.), we use had to + infinitive (had to go / had to do / had to write etc.):
I had to go to the bank yesterday. [= It was necessary for me to go the bank].
We had to walk home last night. There was no bus.

Must not
I mustn’t do it = it is important not do it. It is a bad thing to do:
 I must hurry. I must not be late.
 You must not walk on the grass.
Need not

I need not do it = it is not necessary to do it. I do not need to do it:

 I need not clean the windows. They are not dirty.
 You need not go to the bank. I can give you some money.
We can also say do not need to ... => need not.
 I don’t need to clean the windows.
 You don’t need to go to the bank.
(Someone) should do something = it is a good thing to do or the right thing to do:
 Akbar should go to bed earlier. He usually goes to bed very late and he’s always tired.
 It is good film. You should go and see it.
 When you play tennis, you should always watch the ball.
Should + infinitive (should do / should write etc.)

should do
I / we / you / they / he / she / it
shouldn’t go
 LETTER WRITING

Letter writing is an art. It divided into two types

Formal Letters - Official Letters, Business Letters (Unknown persons)

Informal Letters – Personal letters (Family members, Friends & Relatives)

Formal Letters

Letter to the Editor, Complaint Letters, Requisition Letters, Job Application, Invitation Letters, Accepting and Declining
Letters, Permission Letters and Leave Letters.

Writing to : an organization / A person, writer never met

A formal letter should be precise, clear, reasoning and easy to understand.

Formal Letter parts:

1. Letter head
2. Date
3. Inside Address(from & to)
4. Salutation (Respected Sir/Madam)
5. Subject
6. Body of the letter
Paragraph – 1 (opening)
Paragraph - 2 (Main)
Paragraph - 3 (closing)
7. Complimentary close
8. Signature
9. Enclosure – Attachment

Informal Letter Parts:

1. Write your address at the right corner

2. Date – 23rd September 2014.
3. Salutation – My dear friend
4. Body of the letter
5. Complimentary close
6. Signature
7. Post script – P.S.

Abbreviations:

ASAP = As soon as possible

RSVP = Please Reply or Please Respond (Invitations)

PTO = Please Turn Over

 CC = Carbon Copy

BCC = Blind Carbon Copy

w.e.f = with effect from

encl = enclosures

P.S. = Post Script

N.B. = Nota Bean

P.P = Per Procurationum. (Signed on behalf of another person)

Sample Format of Informal Letter:

#10, V O C Street

Gandhi Nagar, Chennai – 78.

23rd September 2014.

My Dear Friend

-------------------------------------------------------

Yours lovingly

Letter is the most common form of written communication. We write letters to communicate with other people.

Letters are of two kinds:

Formal and informal (Friendly and business letters)

There are some common things that are to be followed in a letter

Heading
Date
The greeting or salutation
Communication or message of the letter
The subscription or courteous leave taking
Signature
The subscription on the envelope

There must always be a heading when we start a formal letter e.g.; letter for application

Leave letter, letter to the editor… and so on

Date must be written for future reference and so that the sender can remember the message. The address must mention the
sender’s address first and then the receiver’s address>

e.g:

Gupta

Nehru Street

Manjal

Gujarat

Ram / designation if any

Nehru Street

Takal

Bihar.

Next step is to write a greeting or salutation

Dear sir/ madam (Use names if necessary)

Body of the letter

Message can be communicated in splitting it into three paragraphs to four paragraphs. The first paragraph is an introduction,
the second and third paragraph is message, fourth is the conclusive paragraph.

Then in the below we state the subscription or courteous leave, we use yours faithfully or yours sincerely,

Then we add our signature

Finally we close it by the subscription of the envelope use if necessary.

Informal letters:

An informal letter has not much rules but it is informally written.

The informal letters starts with date in the right hand corner and then dear. There is no word limit and in the end the
subscription used is yours lovingly, yours truly … and so on. Then the signature of the person. Finally the subscription on the
envelope.

Kinds of letters

Formal

Letter to the Editor

Complaint letter
Letter of application

Accepting invitation and declining invitation

And so on …………

Formal Letters l

Imagine that you are the purchase manger of a company. Write a letter stating requirements of computer peripherals
for your company.
Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper bringing out the problems of drainage near your area.
Write a letter to a factory requesting them to permit you to undergo in-plant training during the summer vacation.
Give your academic achievements, project and other details necessary for the training.

Informal letters:

Write a letter to your brother about the vacation tour an Australia

Write an experience of yours at the kargil war.

E-MAIL WRITING

Points to remember while writing an e-mail Don'ts

1. Do not include vague or nonexistent subject line.
2. Do not Change the topic without changing the subject.
3. Do not include multiple subjects in one note.
4. Avoid sending the mail before thinking twice about the content.
5. Do not inadvertently reply to all.
6. Do not omit the context of reply.
7. Do not Display the addresses of recipients who are strangers to each other. 8. Do not confuse between Replying and
forwarding.

Do's
Addressing

• Limit to who really needs to know.

• Make it clear in text who has action and who is info addressee.
• Use BCC to protect Email addresses unless everyone knows each other.
• Watch Reply All.
• Use address book with mail groups &validate often.

• Make sure forward does not embarrass sender.

• Fill in addresses last to avoid sending an incomplete Email by mistake.

Message Text
• Keep the message focused and readable.
• Keep it short.
• Break into paragraphs; skip lines between.
• Use short sentences and active voice.
• Use plain text editor.
• AvoidHTML.
• Avoid fancyprefaces.
• Write in standard professional English with Capitalization and correctspelling. Sample e-mailformat
 Dear Mr. Miller,
As your business associate, it gives me great pleasure in informing you about the new offer we are giving on the Latest
Office Furniture Series.

As our customer of many years, you can avail of this offer at a Special Discount of 20%. This offer is only valid for special
customers like you and not across the board.

It gives us great pleasure to inform you that this latest series has been designed by our team keeping in mind comfort, style,
and durability. You can visit our website www.greatfurniture.com to see for yourself, the wide range we are offering.

We request you to kindly order at the earliest, so that you can avail of the fabulous discount andalsoget an additional special
gift fromus.
Your teacher asks you to write a paragraph on the advantages of e-mail communication and he advises you to send it
through e-mail. Prepare a paragraph and send it to your teacher's e-mail ID.

To: [email protected]

CC:

BCC:

Sub: Advantages of e-mail communication

Ans: Email communication has many advantages such as emails it the most wide used application on the internet. Email
proves time stamped proof of an interaction. Email is easy to archive for future recall.
Email
contains details of correspondence. Email lower the risk of embarrassing comments. Email is not expensive. Email is
speedy transfer. Email is a secured feature on the internet. Email is an effective marketing tool for consumers. Email is able
to decrease managerial layers. Email is the communication for transferring information quickly. Email is a nice nonverbal
tool. Email is the most used tool in the place of business.
Email has a linked permanency factor. Email is used upon millions of people to communicate verses using the telephone.
Email is used in place of mailing a letter. Email is easy to use. Email has changed the way
Companies do business and most important advantage is Email is easy.
Short forms are used in communicating In E- mail

AFAIK: as far as I know

* AFK: away from keyboard * ASAP: as soon as possible
* B4: before
* B4N: bye for now
* BFF: best friends forever
* BFN: bye for now

How to Write a Formal Email

It's not quite the same as writing a business letter, but it's definitely a huge step in that direction. Clarity, conciseness
and being correct are the keys! To write a formal email, follow these guidelines.Use a neutral e-mail address. Your e-
mail address should be a variation of your real name, not a username or nickname. Use periods, hyphens, or
underscores to secure an e-mail address that's just your name, without extra numbers or letters, if you can.
Writing letters and emails
Here are some phrases and conventions which you may find useful when writing letters and emails in English.
Writing an informal letterstart your letter by using the word Dear followed by the first name of the person you're
writing to, for example:
Dear Mark,
Dear Jane,

Here are some things you might say:

Thanks for your ...
letter
 postcard
present
invitation

Sorry it's taken me so long to

write.
I hope you're well.
Good to see you again last week.
Look forward to seeing you soon!
Here are some typical ways to finish an informal letter:
Best wishes,
Kind regards,
If writing to a family member, partner, or close friend, you can finish with the following:
Love,

Finish by signing your first name.

JUMBLED SENTENCES

When sentences in jumbled order are given, one has to look for the sequence/ connecting word or discourse
marker. As a paragraph constitutes a topic sentence and supporting sentences to substantiate it, one has to
look for a logical thought process.
Example:
a. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to achieve a desired result.
b. The distinctions between sciences, engineering and technology are not always clear.
c. Generally science is the reasoned investigation or study of nature aimed at discovering enduring
relationships among elements of the world.
d. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologies, but scientist less so. Such
as semiconductors, computers and other forms of advanced technology.
e. However, technology broadly involves the uses and application of knowledge both formally and
informally, to achieve some practical result.
f. It generally employs formal technique, i.e. some set of established rules of procedure such as the
scientific method

g. This knowledge then may be used by engineers to create artifacts, such as semiconductors,
computers and other forms of advanced technology
h. For example, science might study the flow of electron in electrical conductors.

Answer:

1. The distinctions between sciences, engineering and technology are not always clear.
2. Generally science is the reasoned investigation or study of nature aimed at discovering enduring relationships among
elements of the world.
3. This knowledge then may be used by engineers to create artifacts, such as semiconductors, computers and
other forms of advanced technology.
4. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to achieve a desired result.
5. It generally employs formal technique, i.e. some set of established rules of procedure such as the scientific
Method.

In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologies, but scientist lesson.
Such as Semi conductors, computers and other forms of advanced technology.
6. For example, science might study the flow of electron in electrical conductors.
7. However, technology broadly involves the uses and application of knowledge both formally and
In formally, to achieve some practical result.
 CLOZE READING

What is cloze in reading?

A CLOZE PASSAGE is a contextual analysis strategy that helps students learn to predict
and verify word meaning of unfamiliar words or familiar words that have new/unusual meanings by
searching for clues in nearby words, sentences, and paragraphs of a text. It is used before reading a
text.

Example

Linked in heavily with the spelling version of cloze procedure, this is all about vocabulary and
comprehension as well as dealing with multiple options and finding a 'best fit' rather than dealing
with each question at a time.

In the cloze spelling there had to be one answer and it was incontrovertible; in the cloze sentence
test there will be one 'best-fit' answer that will work and every other version will be considered
incorrect, as there is nooption of explaining your answers and why you have chosen them to an
examiner! It's because of this that your child must think very carefully when answering them.

Let's look at an example:

Look at the following passage and choose which of the words that follow should go in the gaps.

You must use each word only once.

When the ______ is ______, the ______ must watch it very carefully to ensure it gets ______ off the
middleof the ______.

BAT BALL HIT BOWLED BATSMAN

The capitalised words will all fit in the sentence and it is necessary to think about what is going
on before attempting to fit in the first word. Hopefully there will be a clear narrative which your
child can latch on tobefore reading the 'missing words' but I have deliberately made it a bit tricky to
do so as you are bound to get questions like this.

The capitalised words all point to a game of cricket. While it won't be expected that your child
would know the rules of cricket, it certainly is expected that they will know the very basics of such
a common activity andwould be able to work out what makes sense and what does not.

The key here is not to deal with one word at a time but get an overview and pick off the words
which HAVE to be in a particular place. For example, the first two words could be 'ball' and
'bowled' or 'ball' and 'hit' or'batsman' and 'bowled' and so on; you have to be more structured in your
approach.

The third word is the key for me here. It is followed by 'must watch' so it suggests that this word
must be a noun, and one which has the ability to watch. The only option is therefore 'batsman'. With
that word in place, the other nouns ('bat' and 'ball') must logically fit in as the first and last spaces in
 an order that needs to be checked. The verbs ('hit' and 'bowled') need to be in the second and fourth
spaces to make sense, although the order needs to be checked.

At this point, it could be worth writing possible words in gaps and seeing what seems to work
but the timing will be an issue so working in your head is much better. 'When the ball is hit, the
batsman must watch it very carefully to ensure it gets bowled off the middle of the bat' makes no
sense, regardless of how much you know of cricket. As ever, get your child to visualise what the
sentence is showing and see whether it makes sense. Switching the nouns around would still give a
nonsensical image so the correct option must be 'When the ball is bowled, the batsman must watch
it very carefully to ensure it gets hit off the middle of the bat'.

Example 2

An alternative presentation of the cloze exercise is the multiple choice format.

Instead of a bank of words which you need to go through carefully and try to arrange in a manner
that makes sense, you are presented with a passage and a series of blanks in the same way, but you
are given an option of one correct and three or four incorrect words to fill each blank. This format
means that there is less for your child to deal with at a time as they have less of a worry about
juggling twenty words to make sense when they are potentially going to do so in several ways;
however, it does mean that the examiners can increase the difficulty level of the vocabulary as it
will be possible to maintain the sense of a story regardless of the wrong answers that may have been
given earlier on. let's explore an example:

Read the following passage and, where there is a number, chose the correct word from the list which
follows:

Lisa walked into the _(1)_ building and felt a sudden _(2)_ as the door closed behind her. 'The wind
must have blown it shut,' she _(3)_ to _(4)_ herself.

(1) DARKENED IMPOSING DUBIOUS GRAVE

(2) TREMULOUS SHUDDERED THOUGHT TREMOR

(3) CALLED THOUGHT GRASPED CREPT

(4) CONFIDENT MEDITATE BRAVE REASSURE

The answers are generally a little more high-level than the first example. They are at a suitable level
so if your child is struggling, make sure they are reading at an appropriate level and are asking if they
don't know words they encounter.

The first gap seems to be asking for an adjective (describing word). 'Darkened' is a verb as it refers to
something that has happened. It cannot be the answer. The other three are all reasonable as they are
adjectives. At this point you need to picture the scene and decide what a fair description of a building
is. Having read on a bit, you understand it is a rather scary experience so we are looking for a word
 which suggests the building is a bit intimidating. While 'grave' is a very negative word, it doesn't get
used to describe buildings and 'dubious' is similarly not likely to describe a place but 'intimidating'
can do. It has to be the right word.

Using the same ideas, word two must be a noun as 'sudden' describes something. That only leaves
'thought' and 'tremor' and as you don't feel a thought, it can only be 'tremor'.

The third word has to be a verb but each word is a verb so that doesn't help. In order to get it right,
read the whole sentence and use the possible words in answer four as well. This means 'called' and
'thought' are the most likely words and common sense suggests she wouldn't call out such a thing
when entering a strange building on her own. If this word is 'thought', the final one can only be
'reassure'.

The danger in these types of passages is that the words offered are often 'of a similar meaning' but the
wary child will be able to pick out the correct form of the word (noun, adverb etc.) and not go for the
first word that fits with a theme or tone in the passage.

UNIT – V

DIALOGUE WRITING

Writing good dialogue takes practice and patience. There are ten tips to write dialogues:

1- Read dialogue aloud. It’s meant to be heard, after all. This will help you to listen to the voices of your characters, noticing
the flow and movement of their words.

2- Don’t use dialogue to convey large chunks of information (exposition). People don’t sound like this: “Since we arrived here
at four, to watch for Martin Good fellow, the murderer, I’ve felt hungry.” Its okay if readers don’t know exactly what’s
happening at all times – trust them to understand the story because they are intrigued by the voices of your characters.

3- Dialogue should sound real, but that doesn’t mean dialogue on the page is exactly like snippets of dialogue you
overhear. You don’t need all the Hellos, Goodbyes and boring small talk of daily life. Cut it out.

4- Good dialogue should move the story forward, convey character and feel full of life. The best place to see great dialogue is
by attending (or reading) plays, watching movies or even just switching on the TV.

5- If you want your character to say, “I need you,” think about the words they would actually use. Perhaps they’d say, “I can’t-
Do you have to catch the early bus?” Jane Espenson writes, “Want to write an emotional moment? Increase your quotient of
stumbles and restarts.” She writes scripts for TV (shows like Buffy and The Gilmore Girls) and her insight into writing dialogue
is helpful to think about here.

6- Learn how to write the correct punctuation for speech. It’ll be a useful tool for you as a writer, making it easier for you to
write the dialogue you want, and it’ll help your work look professional when publishers read it.
7- Another technical dialogue tip: he said and she said read just fine. Don’t worry about repetition, most readers glide over he
said/she said as if those words were punctuation. Too many of these: exclaimed, gasped, screeched, postulated, reasoned,
argued, pondered, mouthed, etc… and your dialogue will be overwhelmed by the words around it.

8- Have people argue with people, or have people saying surprising, contrary things. If everyone is agreeing with each other,
your story will feel flat.

9- Think about how each of your characters sounds. Make each voice distinct – this can be subtle or dramatic. Perhaps one
character likes to use a certain word or short phrase, so make sure the other characters don’t use that same word or phrase. It’s a
small distinction, but useful. More dramatic distinctions are up to you!

10- People don’t have to answer each other directly. Sometimes what’s not said has huge meaning.

REPORTED SPEECH

 If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future tense (e.g., say, will say) there is no change in the tense of the verb in the

Indirect speech.
Antony says, “I eat a mango”. (D.S.)
Antony says, that he eats a mango”. (I.S.)

 If Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense. the tense of the verbs in the reported speech or Indirect Speech must be generally
changed.
1. Present Tense in the Direct becomes past tense.
Johnsi said, “I write a letter”. (D.S)
Johnsi said that she wrote a letter. (I.S)

2. Past Tense in the direct becomes past perfect or remains unchanged.

Angel said, “I brought a pen yesterday”. (D.S)
Angel said that she had bought a pen the day before. (I.S)

3. Present Continuous in the direct becomes past continuous.

John said, “I am going to church”. (D.S)
John said that he was going to church. (I.S)

4. Past Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.

Nelson said, “I was playing cricket”. (D.S)
Nelson said that he had been playing cricket. (I.S)

5. Present Perfect in the direct becomes past perfect.

Kamal said, “I have done my homework”. (D.S)
Nelson said that he had done his homework. (I.S)

6. Present Perfect Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.

He said, “I have been reading a novel”. (D.S)
He said that he had been reading a novel. (I.S)

7. ‘Will’ and ‘Shall’ are changed to ‘would’.

He said, “I will go to London tomorrow”. (D.S)
He said that he would go to London the next day. (I.S)

8.

may - might

can - could

must - had to (or) must

Johnsi said, “I must go now”. (D.S)

Johnsi said that she must (or) had to go then. (I.S)
Exception to the above rule:
If the direct speech contains the Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech remains unchanged even if the reporting verb is
in the past.
The teacher said, “The sun rises in the East”. (D.S)
The teacher said that the sun rises in the East. (I.S)

Statement (or) Assertive Sentence

Rules :

 Remove the quotation marks in the statement

 Use the conjunction ‘that’
 Change the reporting verb ‘say to’ into ‘tell’
 Change the reporting verb ‘said to’ into ‘told’
Note:

 He said that (correct)

 He told me that (correct)
 He told that (Incorrect)
1. “I will work hard to get first class” said Lazar (D.S.)
Lazar said he would work hard to get first class. (I.S.)

2. “You can do this work” said Nelson to Johnsi (D.S.)

Nelson told Johnsi that he could do that work. (I.S.)

3. He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”(D.S.)

He says that he is glad to be there that evening. (I.S.)

4. “I‘m going to the library now” said David (D.S.)

David said that he was going to the library then. (I.S.)
Imperative Sentence (Order or Request)
Rules :

 Remove the quotation mark in an Imperative sentence.

 Use ‘to’ if it is an affirmative sentence. (without don‘t)
 Use ‘not to’ if the sentence begins without Don‘t.
 Don‘t use ‘that’
 Omit the word ‘please’. Use the word ‘request’ instead of ‘say’.
 If the direct speech contains a request or a command, the reporting verb (say, said) change to tell, request, order,
command
etc. In its correct tense.
1. “Don‘t talk in the class” said the teacher to the boys. (D.S.)
The teacher advised the boys not to talk in the class. (I.S.)

2.“Please give me something to eat. I am hungry” the old man said to them. (D.S.)
The old man requested them to give him something to eat and said that he was hungry (I.S.)

3. “Be careful” said he to her. (D.S.)

He ordered her to be careful. (I.S.)

4. “Bring me a cup of tea” said Nelson to Andriya. (D.S.)

Nelson asked Andriya to bring him a cup of tea. (I.S.)

Interrogative Sentence (Questions)

Rules:
 Remove the quotation marks and question mark in the interrogative sentence.
 Use ‘if’ or ‘whether’ if the sentence inside the quotation marks begins with a helping verb (Auxiliary verb).
 Use the given interrogative word (what, when, where, why, who, whom, whose, which, now etc.) if it does not begin
with
the helping verb.
 Don‘t use ‘that’
 Changing the reporting verb (say, said) into ‘ask’ or ‘enquire’ in its correct tense.
 Omit helping verb like ‘do, does, and did’. But don’t omit them when they are with ‘not’.
1. “Won’t you help me to carry this box?” said I to my friend. (D.S.)
I asked my friend if he would not help me to carry that box. (I.S.)
2. Mohan said to Stalin, “Why did not you attend the meeting yesterday”? (D.S.)
Mohan asked Stalin why he had not attended the meeting the day before. (I.S.)
3. “How often do you go to the theatre?” said David to John. (D.S.)
David asked John how often he went to the theatre. (I.S.)
4. Mohamed said to Sultan, “Do you like mangoes?” (D.S.)
Mohamed asked Sultan if he liked mangoes. (I.S.)
Exclamatory Sentence
Rules:
 Change the exclamatory sentence into statement or Assertive
 Remove the quotation marks and exclamatory mark.
 Use the conjunction ‘that’
 Omit the interjections such as Oh, O, Alas, how, what, hurrah.
 Add the word ‘very’ to the adjective or adverb if necessary.
If the verb is not given, use ‘Be’ form verb (is, was, are, were, am) in its correct tense according to the subject.
 Change the reporting verb (say, said) to ‘exclaim joyfully’
 Use ‘exclaim’ sorrowfully for sorrowful incidents.
1. “O, what a beautiful flower that is!” said she. (D.S.)
She exclaimed joyfully that that was a very beautiful flower. (I.S.)

2. “What a horrible sight!” we all exclaimed. (D.S.)

We all exclaimed that it was a very horrible sight. (I.S.)

3. “Alas! I have broken my brother’s watch” said he.

He exclaimed sorrowfully that he had broken his brothers watch. (I.S.)

4. “How beautiful she is!” said Boon. (D.S.)

Boon exclaimed joyfully that she was very beautiful. (I.S.)

I. Reported Speech
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and indirect.
In direct speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words:
He said, “I have written the exercise”.
The direct speech is found in conversations in books, in plays and quotations.
In Indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark in speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.
He said that he had written the exercise.

II. Look at the following examples of Direct and Indirect Speech:

1. He said, “John will be in London on Tuesday.”.

He said that John would be in London on Tuesday.

2. “I never eat meat”, he explained.

He explained that he never ate meat.

3. He said, “I wish I knew.”.

He said that He wished he knew.

4. She says, “I shall be there.”.

She said that she will be there.
5. He said, “She is coming this week.”.
He said that she was coming that week.

6. He said, “I bought this pearl for my mother.”.

He said that he had bought that pearl for his mother.

7. He said, “Where is she going?”.

He asked where she was going.

8. He said, “Lucy, when is the next bus.”.

He asked Lucy when the next bus was.

9. ”Is anyone there?” she asked.

She asked if anyone was there.

10. The mother said, “Lie down, David.”.

The mother asked David to lie down.

11. He said, “Don’t move, boys.”

He asked the boys not to move.

12. He said, “Please say nothing about this.”.

He asked her to say nothing about that.
III. Reported Speech - Mixed Type

1. “I don’t know the way. Do you?” he asked.

He said that he didn’t know the way and asked her if she did.

2.She said, “Oh! It’s a snake. Don’t go near it, children.”

She exclaimed with disgust that it was a snake and told the children not to go near it.

3. “I the floods get any worse we must leave the house”, he said.
(must = will have to)
He said that if the floods got any worse they would have to leave the house.

4. “I have just received a letter”, he said; “I must go home at once”.

He said that he had justreceived a letter and would have to go home at once.

(i) In all these sentences the reported part has more than one clause and tense. So both the parts need attention to be converted
into the Indirect speech from the Direct. This type of sentence is called Mixed Type.

(ii) When statements and questions are mixed, each section must be introduced by an appropriate verb, viz. tell, say, explain,
remark etc., for statements and ask, enquire, want to know, wonder etc., for questions. A useful connective device for plus
statement is ”adding that”...
eg. “I’m off to the pictures. Where are you going?”
He said that he was off to the pictures and wanted to know where I was going.
Reported Speech - Statement - Rules

Whatever may be the tense of the Reporting Sentence, if the Reported Sentence tells a universal fact, no change is made in the
tense of the Reported Sentence.

Example No. 1:
Direct Speech:
the mother is saying to the child, “The third day of the week is Tuesday.”.
Step 1: The Reported Sentence is: “The third ... .... Tuesday.”
Step 2: It is a Statement and a universal fact.
Step 3: So, the conjunction word is -- “that”.
Step 4: ‘is saying to’ changes into ‘is telling’.
Step 5: No change of pronoun.
Step 6: It is a universal fact. So, no change of tense is necessary.
Step 7: No change of extension.
Now, the Indirect Speech is:
The mother is telling the child that the third day of the week is Tuesday.

Example No. 2:
Direct Speech:
The History teacher says, “Magellan was the first navigator to come around the world.”.
Step 1: The Reported Sentence is: “Magellan ... .... world.”
Step 2: It is a statement.
Step 3: The conjunction word is -- “that”.
Step 4: ‘Says’ does not change. Use it as it is.
Step 5: There are no pronoun to get changed.
Step 6: No change of tense is made.
Step 7: No extensive word to get changed.
Now, the Indirect Speech is:

The History teacher says that Magellan was the first navigator to come around the world.

The following models have been answered for you:

1. The teacher has said to the pupils, “Sea-water is different from the river water.”.
The teacher has told the pupils that sea-water is different from river water.

2. David answered, “The Mines are under the ground”.

David answered that the Mines are under the ground.

3. John said to his brother, “The U.N.O. is a world organisation”.

John told his brother that the U.N.O. is a world organisation.
4. The Science teacher told the class, “Ice floats on water.”.
The Science teacher told the class that ice floats on water.

Here, we do not consider the changes under all the rules separately. We will consider them under two divisions.
You know the two types of Interrogative Sentences:

 Inverted questions requiring ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers -- 1st type.

 Questions that begin with interrogative words -- 2nd type
At first we shall deal with the First type:

Take an Example No. 1:

Direct Speech: The boy said to the fruit-seller, “Are all these mangoes sweet?”

Step 1: Identify the Reported Sentence.

Step 2: Know what kind of sentence the Reported Sentence is.

Step 3: Look for the correct Conjunction.

(The Conjunction of the First type is “If or Whether”)

Step 4: Change of ‘said to’ -- Since it is an interrogative sentence ‘said to ’ changes into ‘asked’.

Step 5: Look for the change of pronouns.

Step 6: Look for the change of tenses.

The Reported Sentence is in past tense. The Reported Sentences is in present tense. So, the Reported Sentence should be
changed into past tense, corresponding to the tense, of the Reporting Sentence.
The verb is ‘are’ -- Its past tense is ‘were’.

Step 7: Look for the change of extension words.

‘These’ changes into ‘those’.

The Indirect Speech is:

The boy asked the fruit-seller if all those mangoes were sweet.

Example No 2:

Direct Speech : The grandfather said to his grandsons, “Did you not like my story yesterday?”

Step 1: The Reported Sentence is: “Did you ... day?”

Step 2: It is an Interrogative Sentences. It is of the First type.

Step 3: So its conjunction word is: If or Whether.

Step 4: So ‘said to’ changes into ‘asked’.

Step 5: Look for the pronouns.

(i) The first one is: ‘You’ (subject)
‘You’ -- refers to grandsons. They are in the third person plural number.
So the third person of ‘You’ (subject, plural)
It is -- ‘they’. ‘You’ changes into ‘they’.
‘You’ -- grandsons.
‘You’ -- they.
(ii) The next on is ‘My’.
‘My’ -- refers to ‘the grandfather’ -- in the third person.
So, take the third person of ‘My’ - -It is ‘His’.
‘My’ changes into ‘His’.

Step 6: Look for the change of tenses.

Step 7: Extensive word ‘Yesterday’ changes into ‘the day before’. Now, the Indirect Speech is-
The grandfather asked his grandsons if they had not liked his story the day before.

Table for change in tense of reported speech for all TENSES.

TENSE CHANGE - IN - INDIRECT SPEECH

Present simple tense into Past simple
Present Continuous tense into Past continuous
Present Perfect tense into Pas perfect
Present Perfect Continuous into Past perfect continuous
Past simple into Past Perfect
Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect into Past Perfect
Future simple, will into would
Future Continuous, will be into would be
Future Perfect, will have into would have

Examples.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

PRESENT TENSE

PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE

He said, “I write a letter” He said that he wrote a letter.

She said, “he goes to school daily” He said that she went to school daily.

They said, “we love our country” They said that they loved their country
He said that he did not like computer.
He said, “he does not like computer”

PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS

He said, “he is listening to the music”

He said that he was listening to the music.

She said, “I am washing my clothes”

She said that she was washing her clothes.

They said, “we are enjoying the weather”

They said that they were not enjoying the weather.

I said, “it is raining”

She said that she was not laughing.
She said, “I am not laughing”

PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT

She said, “he has finished his work”

She said that he had finished his work.

He said, “I have started a job”

He said that he had started a job.

I said, “she have eaten the meal”

I said that she had eaten the meal.
They said that they had not gone to New York.
They said, “we have not gone to New York.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock” He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock.

She said, “It has been raining for three days.” She said that it been raining for three days.

I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007” I said that she had been working in this office since 2007.

PAST TENSE

PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT

He said to me, “you answered correctly” He said to me that I had answered correctly.

John said, “they went to cinema” John said that they had gone to cinema.

He said, “I made a table” He said that he had made a table.

She said, “I didn’t buy a car” She said that she had not bought a car.

PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

They said, “we were enjoying the weather” They said that they had been enjoying.

He said to me, “ I was waiting for you” He said to me that he had been waiting for me.
I said that it had been raining.
I said, “It was raining”
She said, “I was not laughing” She said that she not been laughing.

PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change)

She said, “She had visited a doctor” She said that she had visited a doctor.

He said, “I had started a business” He said that he had started a business.

I said, “she had eaten the meal” I said that she had eaten the meal.

They said, “we had not gone to New York. They said they had not gone to New York.

FUTURE TENSE

FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE

WILL changes into WOULD

He said, “I will study the book”

He said that he would study the book.

She said, “I will buy a computer”

She said that she would buy a computer.

They said to me, “we will send you gifts”

They said to me that they would send you gifts.
I said that I would not take the exam.
I said, “I will not take the exam”

FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

WILL BE changes into WOULD BE

I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him” I said to him that I would be waiting for him.

She said,” I will be shifting to new home” She said that she would be shifting to a new home.

He said, “I will be working hard” He said that he would be working hard.

He said, “he will not be flying kite” She said that he would not be flying kites.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE

He said, “I will have finished the work” He said that he would have finished the work.

She said, “they will have passed the examination” She said that they would have passed the examination.

He said, “I will have gone” He said that he would have gone.

 FIXED EXPRESSIONS

To children, non-native English speakers, and anyone who confronts a fixed expression for the first time, they can be
baffling. A fixed expression is a little like a secret code that allows access to a club that not everyone can enter. It’s a
phrase that has a very specific meaning that can’t be expressed any other way and also can’t be deduced just by considering
the sum of its parts.
Some fixed expressions, like “ready, aim, fire” are used so often that the opportunity to turn them into a joke creates
another fixed expression. Others, such as “before you know it” or “to tell you the truth” have been around for so long that
they function almost as a single word.

Unlike idioms, fixed expressions typically offer neither folk wisdom nor an image. “Two heads are better than one” creates
a bizarre, yet effective, visual idea of one body that operates with two heads, while the idiom’s meaning is that two people
working on a problem have a better chance of solving it than just a single thinker. Fixed expressions are more often a
collection of words with individual meaning that really have nothing to do with one another.

“All of a sudden” is a perfect example. “All” means a totality, a location or moment in time in which everything is
included. “Of a” is really just a grammatical phrase with no internal meaning of its own. “Sudden” refers to something
completely unexpected; it is only the final word in this expression that contributes meaning to the fixed expression, which
is simply another way of saying “suddenly.”
 CONNOTATIONS

Definition of Connotation

The connotation of a word refers to the emotional or cultural association with that word rather than its dictionary
definition. The connotation definition is therefore not the explicit meaning of the word, but rather the meaning that the
word implies.
Connotation comes from the Latin word “connotare,” which means, “to mark in addition.”
In some cases, connotation can also be similar to symbolism as it hinges on culturally-accepted meanings. For example,
the connotation of a red rose is love and passion, and if an author were to refer to a red rose while talking about a
relationship, the reader would understand that this connotation and symbolism was at play. However, there are many cases
of connotation thatdon’t use symbolism, as shown below in the “Examples of Connotation in Common Speech ”section.
Examples of Connotation in Common Speech

There are many words that can be understood as synonyms with the same definition, yet their connotations are notable
different. For example:
• “House” versus “Home”: Both words refer to the structure in which a person lives, yet “home” connotes more warmth and
comfort, whereas “house” sounds colder andmore distant.
• “Cheap” versus “Affordable”: While both words mean that something does not cost a lot, “cheap” can also connote
something that it not well-made or of low value, while “affordable” can refer to a quality item or service that happens to
bewell-priced.
• “Riots” versus “Protests”: The difference between these two words is that “riots” connotes a violent gathering of people
who are not necessarily in the right, while “protests” can have a more peaceful connotation and is often used when there is
sympathy with theprotesters.
The connotations of words can also change drastically from one culture to the next. For example, to call someone “fat” in
some cultures is a huge insult, whereas in others, it connotes that the person is healthy and well-fed.
Significance of Connotation in Literature
Connotation plays a role in almost every type of communication, as it adds nuance and more subtle meaning.
Authors use connotation to allow the readers to infer more meaning than there is explicitly written on the page,
making the readers more active parts of the interpretive process.
Examples of Connotation in Literature
My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips’ red; If snow be white, why then her breasts
are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
(“Sonnet130” by William Shakespeare)
In this famous sonnet, Shakespeare compares his lover unfavorably to many wonderful things. Shakespeare uses the sun,
the coral, and the snow to connote beauty, love, and purity. By saying that his lover is not like any of these things, she
carries none of their connotations. Therefore, she is not beautiful and certainly not pure or innocent.
 ERROR CORRECTION

Error correction is a process by which students have to identify the error/mistake in a sentence and
convert it into a grammatically correct sentence.

1. Adjective agreement error

INCORRECT: We sell t-shirts and some clothes.

CORRECT: We sell t-shirts and some other clothes.

RULE: Adjectives and noun modifiers should not take a plural form when they modify plural nouns in
English. There are, however, a few noun modifiers that end in an –s: operations, arms, sports, jobs,
forensics, physics

2. Adjective form error

INCORRECT: When I heard the news, I was very .

CORRECT: When I heard the news, I was very angry.

RULE: Use the adjective form not the noun form in this context.

3. Adverb error

INCORRECT: I trust than my friends.

CORRECT: I trust my parents more than my friends.

RULE: The adverb is in the wrong place. Do not separate more from than.

4. Article and plural noun error

INCORRECT: My sister has .

CORRECT: My sister has a child.

RULE: Don’t use indefinite articles with plural words.

5. Article and uncountable noun mistakes

INCORRECT: I have brown skin.

CORRECT: I have brown skin.

RULE: Don’t use an article with uncountable nouns like “skin”.

6. Aspect error
INCORRECT: Every day, I up late.

CORRECT: Every day, I wake up late.

RULE: Use the Present Simple, not the Present Progressive, for normal routines.

INCORRECT: He to win the award.

CORRECT: He deserves to win the award.

RULE: Use the simple aspect form of “deserving” in this context. When expressing a fact, these
stative verbs tend not to use the progressive aspect: agree, appear, believe, belong, concern, consist,
contain, deny, depend, deserve, disagree, dislike, doubt, fit, hat, hear, imagine, impress, include,
involve, know, like, love, matter, mean, mind, need, own, pleas, prefer, promise, realize, recognize,
remember, see, seem, smell, sound, suppose, surprise, taste, think, understand, want, wish.
7. Auxiliary error

INCORRECT: We have an exam next Tuesday.

CORRECT: We won’t have an exam next Tuesday.

RULE: You cannot negate a modal auxiliary in this way. Use “won’t” instead.

8. Capitalization error

INCORRECT: I work at Bordeaux as a prison guard.

CORRECT: I work at Bordeaux Jail as a prison guard.

RULE: Capitalize every lexical word in the name of an institution. Don’t capitalize prepositions and
conjunctions.

9. Collocation error

INCORRECT: I moved here to be closer school.

CORRECT: I moved here to be closer to school.

RULE: The usual collocation for closer is to not from.

INCORRECT: Success depends you.

CORRECT: Success depends on you.

RULE: The usual collocation for depend is on not of.

10. Comparative adjective error

INCORRECT: If I learn a second language, finding a job will become more easy for me.

CORRECT: If I learn a second language, finding a job will become easier for me.
RULE: Remove the word “more” and simply write “easier.” English has two comparative adjective
forms. Add -er to the end of one or two syllable adjectives. Use ‘more’ with longer adjectives. Here is a
list of adjectives that usually take –er: big, black, bold, brave, bright, busy, clean, clear, clever, cold,
cool, dark, dear, deep, dirty, dry, easy, fair, fast, fat, fine, funny, great, green, happy, hard, healthy,
heavy, high, hot, kind, large, late, lazy, light, long, low, lucky, mad, merry, narrow, naughty, near, new,
noisy, old, pale, poor, pretty, proud, quick, red, rich, sad, safe, shallow, sharp, short, slow, small,
smooth, strong, sweet, tall, thick, thin, tiny, ugly, warm, wealthy, wet, white, wide, wild, wise, young,
angry, little, short, blue, yellow, pink, orange, simple, shy.

INCORRECT: So my job will be easier for me if I am able to speak English as well as I can speak
French.

CORRECT: So my job will be easier for me if I am able to speak English as well as I can speak
French.

RULE: Do not use both –er and more. This is called a double comparative. Remove the word ‘more’
and simply write “easier.”

11. Contraction error

INCORRECT: That’s who.

CORRECT: That’s who I am.

RULE: Do not end a sentence with a pronoun + verb contraction.

INCORRECT: I know the answer.

CORRECT: I didn’t know the answer.

RULE: The apostrophe points to what is missing. In this case, it is the “o” in “not.” Revise: didn’t

12. Conditional error

INCORRECT: If I get a better job, I will buy a car.

CORRECT: If I get a better job, I will buy a car.

RULE: Do not put “will” in “If” clauses. Use the Present Simple instead.

INCORRECT: Wouldn’t it be great if there a Google grammar checker?

CORRECT: Wouldn’t it be great if there were a Google grammar checker?

RULE: In a second conditional structure, we put a past form in the if-clause.

13. Double negative error

INCORRECT: I made her cookies but she didn’t eat.

CORRECT: I made her cookies but she didn’t eat any.

RULE: This is called a double-negative error since “didn’t” and “none” are both negative. Use “any”
instead of “none.”

INCORRECT: In my opinion, video games don’t hurt.

CORRECT: In my opinion, video games don’t hurt anybody.

RULE: This is called a double-negative error since “didn’t” and “nobody” are both negative. Use
“anybody” instead of “nobody.”

14. Double subject error

INCORRECT: I like to dance.

CORRECT: I like to dance.

RULE: Start your sentence with “I” not “me, I.”

INCORRECT: What I’m sure about it’s that I was the first one to arrive.

CORRECT: What I’m sure about is that I was the first one to arrive.

RULE: The pronoun “it” in this sentence is unnecessary since you already have a subject, “What I’m
sure about.”

15. Future tense error

INCORRECT: In the future, we go on a trip to Africa.

CORRECT: In the future, we will go on a trip to Africa.

RULE: Don’t forget the auxiliary verb “will” for future events. You can, however, use the Simple
Present for future scheduled events. Here is an example: My train leaves at 10:20.

INCORRECT: I be rich one day.

CORRECT: I am going to be rich one day.

RULE: The word gonna is slang. Make sure you develop full command of am/is/are going to for
contexts where slang would be considered inappropriate.

INCORRECT: When I arrive, I will give you the money I owe you.

CORRECT: When I arrive, I will give you the money I owe you.

RULE: Do not use “will” in clauses that begin with as soon as, the moment, before, after, once,
if, or when. These time clauses already have a future meaning. Use the Present Simple instead.

16. Gerund error

INCORRECT: We talked about, but in the end decided to stay home.

CORRECT: We talked about going, but in the end decided to stay home.

RULE: You cannot use an infinitive form after a preposition. Use a gerund instead.

INCORRECT: The first thing I do when I arrive is to my locker to hang up my coat.

CORRECT: The first thing I do when I arrive is go to my locker to hang up my coat.

RULE: Use a bare infinitive not a gerund in this context.

17. Hepenthesis

INCORRECT: He my best friend.

CORRECT: He is my best friend.

RULE: An “h” was added to “is” by mistake. “His” is a possessive form. “Is” is a verb.

18. His or her instead of its

INCORRECT: The New Democratic Party is increasing popularity.

CORRECT: The New Democratic Party is increasing its popularity.

RULE: A political party is not a person. Use “its” for a non-person.

19. Idiomatic expression error

INCORRECT: They jumped on the occasion.

CORRECT: They jumped at the chance.

RULE: This is a rather unnatural phrase in English. Try “jumped at the chance” instead.

INCORRECT: This singer is known.

CORRECT: This singer is well-known.

RULE: This is a rather unnatural phrase in English.

20. Infinitive error

INCORRECT: I would like to all my friends for their help.

CORRECT: I would like to thank all my friends for their help.

RULE: Use the base form of the verb with “to”.

INCORRECT: We were supposed to early, but we woke up late.

CORRECT: We were supposed to go early, but we woke up late.

RULE: Use the base form of the verb with “to”. See more conjugations of “to go” here.

INCORRECT: While I was waiting for Courtney, I dropped coffee on my new yellow shirt.

CORRECT: While I was waiting for Courtney to shop, I dropped coffee on my new yellow shirt.

RULE: Use an infinitive form after the verb “wait.”

21. Intensifier error

INCORRECT: I like ice cream.

CORRECT: I really like ice cream.

RULE: Use “really” to intensify a verb, not “very.”

22. Irregular verb form error

INCORRECT: We at a restaurant.

CORRECT: We met at a restaurant.

RULE: Review irregular past tense verbs. You cannot add -ed to this verb.

23. It’s or it is

INCORRECT: hard to remember all these rules.

CORRECT: It’s hard to remember all these rules.

RULE: It’s is it plus the contracted form of the verb is, not a possessive form. Do not forget the
apostrophe in the contraction.

INCORRECT: Look at the dog chasing its tail.

CORRECT: Look at the dog chasing its tail.

RULE: It is a possessive form, not a contraction. Do not use the apostrophe in the possessive form
of pronouns.

LINK: its-or-it’s

24. Missing article

INCORRECT: I am accountant.

CORRECT: I am an accountant.

RULE: Use an indefinite article before the name of a job or profession.

25. Missing auxiliary

INCORRECT: You making me crazy.

CORRECT: You are making me crazy.

RULE: You need an auxiliary (helping) verb to go with the –ing form.

INCORRECT: I always be there for you.

CORRECT: I will always be there for you.

RULE: In a promise about the future, use the future modal auxiliary verb will with the infinitive
form of your main verb.

26. Missing word

INCORRECT: I decided to put my swimsuit and go for a swim.

CORRECT: I decided to put my swimsuit on and go for a swim.

RULE: You are missing the word on after swimsuit. The phrasal verb put on means “get dressed.”
The verb put without on means “to place.”

27. Modal error

INCORRECT: I will like to have a better job.

CORRECT: I would like to have a better job.

RULE: Use would not will to express a desire for a different present. Use will to express a
prediction.

28. Negation error

INCORRECT: I telling the bad news.

INCORRECT: I did not really enjoy telling the bad news.

RULE: To negate a Past Simple tense verb use did not instead of was not. Use was/were not for
adjectives and nouns instead.
INCORRECT: We did not happy when she told us.

CORRECT: We were not happy when she told us.

RULE: Use was not or were not to negate adjectives and nouns.

INCORRECT: I don’t have gone there before.

CORRECT: I haven’t gone there before.

RULE: Negate the Present Perfect by putting not or n’t after the auxiliary have or has.

INCORRECT: Did you know that animals have not the same rights around the world?
CORRECT: Did you know that animals do not have the same rights around the world?

RULE: In North American English, negate the verb “have” by adding the
auxiliary do and not or n’t.

29. Non-standard phrase

INCORRECT: In life, you have to accept the goods and the bads.

CORRECT: In life, you have to accept the ups and downs.

RULE: This is a non-standard phrase. The usual way to express this idea in English is to say ups
and downs or pluses and minuses.

30. One word written as two

CORRECT: My class is in the afternoon.

INCORRECT: My class is in the afternoon.

RULE: This word sequence is usually spelled together as one word. Here is a short list of other
combinations that should be written together: lookout, ourselves, overweight, straightjacket, workplace

31. Past tense error

INCORRECT: I have been living here since I am born.

CORRECT: I have been living here since I was born.

RULE: The phrase “since I am” means “because I am”. However, “since I was born” means “from
the day that I was born”.

INCORRECT: She has arrived yesterday.

CORRECT: She arrived yesterday.

RULE: You cannot use the Present Perfect with a specific time in the past. Use the Past Simple
instead.

32. Perfect infinitive error

INCORRECT: I often wonder how many opportunities I if I had finished university.

CORRECT: I often wonder how many opportunities I would have had if I had finished university.

RULE: There is a problem here with the perfect infinitive in this sentence. You cannot follow a
modal with a past form. The correct form is modal + have + past participle.

33. Plural-Singular error

INCORRECT: It hurt my.

CORRECT: It hurt my feelings.

RULE: When we talk about emotional pain, we use the word feeling with an -s on the end. It is
never singular. However, if we want to talk about a sensation, we can can use feeling without an -s. For
example, we say I have a strange feeling in my stomach.

INCORRECT: I am wearing a and a t-shirt.

CORRECT: I am wearing shorts and a t-shirt.

RULE: Some nouns are always plural. Here is a short list: shorts, jeans, pajamas, scissors, pliers,
news, politics, and sports.

34. Possessive form error

INCORRECT: The accident was no fault.

CORRECT: The accident was no one’s fault.

RULE: When the fault belongs to no one, then a possessive form is needed.

INCORRECT: My keys are in my pocket.

CORRECT: My keys are in my coat pocket. OR My keys are in the pocket of my coat.

RULE: You do not need a possessive form here. Use “coat” as a noun modifier instead. To talk
about parts of non-living things, use the noun + noun structure or the of structure, like this: in the
left pocket of my blue coat.

35. Preposition error

INCORRECT: I live Montreal.

CORRECT: I live in Montreal.

RULE: Use in for cities and towns. Use on for streets. Use at for a street address.

36. Present Perfect error

INCORRECT: It’s been 5 years that I work here.

CORRECT: I have worked here for 5 years.

RULE: Use the Present Perfect for past events that include the present.

INCORRECT: I am living here since 2012.

CORRECT: I have lived here since 2012.

RULE: Use the Present Perfect for past events that include the present.

37. Pronoun antecedent error

INCORRECT: This article is about how people learn words and remember it.

CORRECT: This article is about how people learn words and remember them.

RULE: In this sentence, the singular pronoun it incorrectly refers to the plural antecedent words.
Your pronoun should agree in number with its antecedent. Use them with a plural antecedent.

38. Punctuation error

INCORRECT: Education should be free.

CORRECT: Education should be free.

RULE: Do not put a space before a punctuation mark. Put the space after it.

39. Quantifier error

INCORRECT: How much people were there at the party?

CORRECT: How many people were there at the party?

RULE: Use much with singular or uncountable nouns and many with plural nouns.

40. Question form error

INCORRECT: Are you work here?

CORRECT: Do you work here?

RULE: Use a form of the auxiliary do with simple aspect verbs in questions. Use are for adjectives
and nouns.

INCORRECT: Did you are tired after work?

CORRECT: Were you tired after work?

RULE: Use a form of the auxiliary do with simple aspect verbs in questions. Use a form of be for
adjectives and nouns.

41. Quoted and reported speech

INCORRECT: I said, « The test is on Tuesday. »

CORRECT: I said, “The test is on Tuesday.”

RULE: In English, we do not use « » for quoted speech. We use “ “ instead. (Hint: you can find the
double quote symbol on the French keyboard above the number 2 key.)

INCORRECT: She said, that I was wrong.

CORRECT: She said that I was wrong.

RULE: Do not put a comma before reported speech (also known as an indirect quotation).
 42. Redundant phrase and wordiness error

INCORRECT: I think practicing English with classmates is equally as effective.

CORRECT: I think practicing English with classmates is as effective.

RULE: Do not say equally as. Use either equally or as on its own.

43. Slang

INCORRECT: The College has sent everyone an invite to the event.

CORRECT: The College has sent everyone an invitation to the event.

RULE: The word invite used as a noun is slang. Avoid slang in formal writing. Here is a list of
slang words that should be avoided in the formal register: anyways, gonna, kinda, sorta, wanna, ain’t

44. (Common) Spelling Errors

INCORRECT: Come me.

CORRECT: Come with me.

INCORRECT: one do you want?

CORRECT: Which one do you want?

INCORRECT: I you liked that.

CORRECT: I thought you liked that.

INCORRECT: I like my program even it is difficult.

CORRECT: I like my program even though it is difficult.

INCORRECT: I live in Montréal, .

CORRECT: I live in Montreal, Quebec.

RULE: Avoid using diacritics in English. They can appear (cliché, fiancé, resumé) but are never
compulsory.

INCORRECT: This is to make sense.

CORRECT: This is beginning to make sense.

RULE: Double a final single consonant before an –ing or –ed suffix when both of these conditions
apply: (a) one vowel precedes the consonant; and (b1) it is a one-syllable word or (b2) a stressed
syllable.

INCORRECT:
CORRECT: flies, ladies, cities, enemies, puppies, armies, supplies, skies, parties, libraries, relies,
marries, theories, studies

RULE: Change the y to -ie before adding –s when preceded by a consonant.

45. Verb agreement error

INCORRECT: One of my friends are driving.

CORRECT: One of my friends is driving.

RULE: Make sure your verb agrees with its subject. The noun phrase one of my friends is singular
and therefore requires the singular form is not are.

46. Tense shift

INCORRECT: At lunch, Jane pointed straight at me, and she , “You are a liar!”

CORRECT: At lunch, Jane pointed straight at me, and she said, “You are a liar!”

RULE: Do not shift from a past tense verb to a present tense arbitrarily in the same sentence.

INCORRECT: I stayed with her for a while to be sure that she be okay.

CORRECT: I stayed with her for a while to be sure that she would be okay.

RULE: Use would not will in a sentence describing past events.

Practice finding tense shift errors.

Practice correcting tense shift errors.

47. Word choice error

INCORRECT: There are people applying to Liberal Arts programs these days.

CORRECT: There are fewer people applying to Liberal Arts programs these days.

RULE: Less is the comparative form of the adjective little. Use less with uncountable nouns
like salt or time. Fewer is the comparative form of few. Use fewer with countable nouns
like people and cars.

48. Word form error

INCORRECT: I was, so I thought it would be fun to go on a trip and visit the island.

CORRECT: I was bored, so I thought it would be fun to go on a trip and visit the island.

RULE: “Boring” is the wrong form of the verb “to bore” for this context. An easy way to
remember the difference between “boring” and “bored” is anything that is “boring” is the cause of the
boredom and anyone who is “bored” is affected by boredom. In this case you were affected by
boredom.
49. Word order error

INCORRECT: My girlfriend has hair.

CORRECT: My girlfriend has long straight blonde hair.

RULE: Adjectives appear in a particular order: → size → shape → colour → NOUN

INCORRECT: I am not, and there is not to practice.

CORRECT: I am not good enough, and there is not enough time to practice.

RULE: Put the word enough after adjectives but before nouns.

50. Your or you’re

INCORRECT: Everybody knows crazy.

CORRECT: Everybody knows you’re crazy.

RULE: Your is a possessive word. You’re is the contracted form of you + are. When you want to link
a pronoun to an adjective like crazy, use you’re not your.

INCORRECT: Is that coat?

CORRECT: Is that your coat?

RULE: When you want to indicate possession, use your. You’re is the contracted form of you +
are.
 CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. (A clause functions as one part of
speech.)

Here are some interactive examples to help explain clauses. In these examples, the subjects are blue,
and the verbs are green.

 Show Simon your project when he arrives.

 The boy who has autism is the group leader.

 Let's find a table that gets the sunlight.

 He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate

An Explanation of Clause
Look at this sentence:

 All cars stop when they see a red flag.

This sentence has two clauses:

(1) "All cars stop"

(The subject of this clause is "All cars," and the verb is "stop." We have shown this clause in bold
because it is the main clause, called an independent clause.)

(2) "When they see a red flag"

(The subject of this clause is "they," and the verb is "see." We have not shown this one in bold because
it is a dependent clause. This clause is functioning like an adverb. Compare the sentence to "All cars
stop immediately." This proves that "when they see a red flag" is functioning as an adverb.)

Remember that a clause functions as one part of speech. Look at this info graphic:

TYPES OF CLAUSE

All clauses are categorized as one of the following:

(1) An Independent Clause. An independent clause (shown in bold throughout this lesson) functions
like a complete sentence. For example:

 John eats eggs.

(2) A Dependent Clause. A dependent clause functions like an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. This
means there are three types of dependent clause. In each of these examples, the dependent clause is
highlighted.
 (Notice that a dependent clause can be part of an independent clause, which is why some clauses in our
examples are bold and highlighted.)

A clause functioning like an adjective:

 John eats eggs that his chickens lay.

(Compare this to "John eats free-range eggs." This proves the clause is functioning like an adjective.
The subject of the dependent clause is "his chickens," and the verb of the dependent clause is "lay.")

A clause functioning like an adverb:

 John eats eggs when his chickens lay them.

(Compare this to "John eats eggs regularly." This proves the clause is functioning like an adverb.)

A clause functioning like a noun:

 John eats what his chickens lay.

(Compare this to "John eats eggs." This proves the clause is functioning like a noun. Notice that the
noun clause is part of the independent clause, which is why the dependent clause is
bold and highlighted.)

Clauses vs Phrases
A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a verb. The distinction between a
clause and a phrase is clearer when you see them side by side:

when she wakes up.

This is a clause. It has a subject ("she") and a verb ("wakes up").
Anna sings...
in the morning.
This is a phrase. There is no subject and no verb.

Here is another example:

Where the factories are.

This is a clause. It has a subject ("the factories") and a verb ("are").
The ravens lived...
in the area of the new factories.
This is a phrase. There is no subject and no verb.

More Examples of Clauses

 During the day, Vlad slept in a coffin.
(The subject of this clause is "Vlad." The verb is "slept." "During the day" is a phrase because there is
no verb.)
 When the Moon shone, he lurked in the shadows.
(The subject of the first clause is "the Moon." The verb is "shone." The subject of the second clause is
"he." The verb is "lurked.")

 He stalked a pretty milkmaid, who lived in the neighbouring village.

(The subject of the first clause is "He." The verb is "stalked." The subject of the second clause is "who."
The verb is "lived.")

Real-Life Examples of Clauses

Remember that there are two types of clause:
(1) An independent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. (We have shown them
all in bold.)
(2) A dependent clause. A dependent clause is a supporting part of a sentence. (These are highlighted.)

Here are three real-life quotations with the clauses explained.

 Even though I made $800 million, I am still grounded. (Boxer Floyd Mayweather)
(The independent clause could be a standalone sentence, but the dependent clause couldn't.)

 After I die, I'll be forgotten. (Anon)

 A computer once beat me at chess, but it was no match for me at kick boxing. (Comedian Louis
Hector Berlioz)
(It is possible to have a sentence with two independent clauses. This is called a compound sentence.)

The opening words of the dependent clauses above ("even though" and "after") are called subordinating
conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions link a dependent clause to an independent clause.

How Are Dependent Clauses Used in Sentences?

Dependent clauses can play a variety of roles in sentences. A dependent clause can function as
an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.

(1) Adjective Clauses

 My friend who lives in London looks like Homer Simpson.
(The dependent clause functions like an adjective. It could be replaced with an adjective, e.g.,
"my London-based friend." Notice that it sits within the independent clause.)

 You should never make fun of something that a person can't change about themselves. (YouTuber
Phil Lester)
(This dependent clause could be replaced with an adjective, e.g., "unchangeable.")

(2) Adverbial Clauses

 He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate.
(The dependent clause functions like an adverb. It could be replaced with an adverb, e.g., "recently.")

 I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold, or the sword. I will tell the truth wherever I please.
(Labour-rights campaigner Mary Harris Jones aka "Mother Jones")
 (The first sentence does not have a dependent clause. In the second sentence, the dependent clause
could be replaced with an adverb, e.g., "there.")

(3) Noun Clauses

 She cannot remember what she said last night.
(The dependent clause functions like a noun. It could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "her rant." Notice
that the noun clause is part of the independent clause. This is common with noun clauses.)

 Now I know why tigers eat their young. (Mobster Al Capone)

(This dependent clause could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "the reason.")

Why Clauses Are Important

Here are two great reasons to care about clauses. (For the rest of this lesson, we have stopped bolding
the independent clauses.)

Understanding when to offset an adjective clause with commas.

The adjective clauses in these two sentences are identical, except one is offset with commas and one
isn't. They are both punctuated correctly. So, what's going on?

 A boy who went to my school won the lottery.

 Michael Carroll, who went to my school, won the lottery.

Look at the first example. When an adjective clause is required to identify its noun (here, "boy"), then it
is not offset with commas. (Put another way, the subject of the sentence is "A boy who went to my
school.")

Look at the second example. When an adjective clause is just additional information, then it is offset
with commas. (Put another way, the subject of the sentence is "Michael Carroll.") If you'd happily put
brackets around the clause or delete it, then it should be offset with commas.

Here are some more examples:

 You went through a phase when you dyed your hair purple.
(There is no comma because the clause is needed to identify the phase. A clause that's necessary for
identification is called a restrictive clause.)

 You went through a punk phase, when you dyed your hair purple.
(There is a comma because the phase has already been identified as the punk phase. The clause is just
additional information. A clause that's just additional information is called a non-restrictive clause.)

 You went through a mod phase, when you started school, a punk phase when you dyed your hair

purple and a punk phase when you dyed your hair green.
 (The first adjective clause is just additional information (hence the commas), but the other two are
required to identify the punk phases (hence no commas).)

Lots of writers fly by the seat of their pants when it comes to commas, and mistakes with commas are
extremely common. Therefore, this is a key point for writers. It crops up all the time (especially with
"who" and "which"). It is covered again from slightly different perspectives in the entries on adjective
clauses, adjective phrases, relative adverbs, relative pronouns, restrictive clauses, and non-restrictive
clauses. Don't worry though! It's this idea every time:

The Same Idea Every Time

If you'd happily put your clause in brackets or delete it, then use commas because it must be non-
essential.

(2) Understanding when to offset an adverbial clause with commas.

The adverbial clauses in these two sentences are identical, except one is offset with a comma and one
isn't. They are both punctuated correctly. So what's going on?

 When the game has finished, the king and pawn go in the same box. (Italian Proverb)

 The king and pawn go in the same box when the game has finished.
When your adverbial clause (or phrase for that matter) is at the front of a sentence (often called a
"fronted adverbial"), it is good practice to use a comma afterwards (as in the first sentence above).
When it's at the back, the comma tends to be omitted (as in the second sentence).

This "rule" works well with most adverbial clauses (which tend to be adverbs of time, place, or
condition). Look at the commas after the fronted adverbials in these examples:

Adverbial Clauses of Time

 When you win, say nothing. When you lose, say less. (NFL coach Paul Brown)

 Say nothing when you win. Say less when you lose.
Adverbial Clauses of Place

 Where there are too many soldiers, there is no peace. Where there are too many lawyers, there is no

justice. (Chinese philosopher Lin Yutang)

 There is no peace where there are too many soldiers. There is no justice where there are too many

lawyers.
Adverbial Clauses of Condition

 If you think you can, you can. If you think you can't, you're right. (Businesswoman Mary Kay
Ash)
 You can if you think you can. You're right if you think you can't.

Key Points
 If your clause is needed to identify your noun, don't offset it with commas.

 The only man who never makes a mistake is the man who never does anything. (US President
Theodore Roosevelt)
 If your clause is just additional information that you'd happily put in brackets or delete, offset it with
commas.
 My father, who had previously been a civil engineer, died in the great influenza epidemic of

1918. (Physicist James Rainwater)

 If your adverbial clause is fronted, use a comma.
 Don't use a comma if your adverbial clause is at the back.
Which describes a clause?

A. A clause is the same as a phrase.

B. A clause is a group of words that functions as one part of speech and that includes a subject and a
verb.

C. A clause is half a sentence.

Which describes an independent clause?

A. An independent clause expresses a complete thought.

B. An independent clause always starts a sentence.

C. An independent clause is half a sentence.

Select the example with an independent clause in bold.

A. Even though he likes jam, he hates marmalade.

B. Even though he likes jam, he hates marmalade.

Which describes a dependent clause?

A. A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) is one that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
because it does not express a complete thought.

B. A dependent clause can be a simple sentence.

Select the example with a dependent clause in bold.

A. The wax is melting because it's too hot.

B. The wax is melting because it's too hot.

Select the example with an independent clause in bold.

A. Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily.

B. Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily.

Select the example with a dependent clause in bold.

A. Your sauce has ruined my hamburger, which is not funny.

B. Your sauce has ruined my hamburger, which is not funny.

Select the example with a noun clause in bold.

A. Whoever designed this maze is a genius.

B. The quality of this maze is quite astounding.

Select the example with an adjective clause in bold.

A. Snowflakes the size of postage stamps fell gracefully from the clouds.

B. Snowflakes the size of which I've never seen before filled the air.

Select the example with an adverbial clause in bold.

A. My alarm always wakes me just as I'm about to succeed in my dream.

B. My alarm clock, which was a present from my daughter, always wakes me at the wrong time.

Select the example with a noun clause in bold.

A. I was watching you like a hawk scans for rodents.

B. I saw what you did yesterday.

Select the example with a restrictive clause in bold.

A. The boy who stole your bike has been caught.

B. The police are questioning Trevor Jones, who handed himself in yesterday.

Select the example with a non-restrictive clause in bold.

A. The dog has eaten my birthday cake, which my wife left on the table to cool.

B. I'm afraid I've eaten all the cakes that you baked yesterday.

"Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily."

In this sentence, the clause in bold is functioning as what part of speech?

A. Adjective

B. Noun

C. Adverb

Select the example with a dependent clause in bold.

A. He stitched mail sacks until his fingers bled.

B. He stitched mail sacks until his fingers bled.

Select the example with a restrictive clause in bold.

A. I know the person who turned the ovens off.

B. Simon Jones, who turned the ovens off, is in trouble.

"The boy who stole your bike has been caught."

In this sentence, the clause in bold is functioning as what part of speech?

A. Adjective

B. Noun

C. Adverb
 Part -II

Communicative English 2024

UNIT- 1

Yes / No questions (closed questions)

In English, there are two basic types of questions: Yes / No questions ( Yes or No
questions) and Wh– questions. Yes / No questions are also called closed
questions because there are only two possible responses: Yes or No. When
forming a Yes / No question, it must include one of these verbs: BE, DO, HAVE,
or a modal verb. It is impossible to ask a Yes / No question without one of these
verbs.

Use the verb BE to ask Yes / No questions about the identity or description of a
person, place, or thing.
question response

Am I your friend? Yes. / Yes, you are. / Yes, you are my friend.

Is this a good restaurant? No. / No, it is not. / No, it is not a good restaurant.

Are these islands Greek? Yes. / Yes, they are. / Yes, these islands are Greek.

Was his idea interesting? No. / No, it wasn’t. / No, his idea was not interesting.

Were they happy? Yes. / Yes, they were. / Yes, they were happy.

Note that the response can be short (Yes. / No.), or long: Yes or No followed by
the subject and verb.
Use the verb BE with a preposition to ask Yes / No questions about a present or
past location.
question response
 Am I at the correct location? No. / No, you aren’t.

Are the keys under the books? No. / No, they are not.

Was his house on an island? Yes. / Yes, it was.

Were the demonstrations in the center of town? No. / No, they weren’t.
Use the verb BE to ask a Yes / No question about a current activity or situation.
This requires the present progressive: BE + (verb+ing).
question response

Am I going with you and Tom? Yes. / Yes, you are.

Is she working today? No. / No, she isn’t.

Are we seeing a play tomorrow? Yes. / Yes, we are.

Use the verb BE to ask a Yes / No question about a past activity or situation. This
requires the past progressive: WAS / WERE + (verb+ing).
question response

Was it raining? Yes. / Yes, it was.

Were they playing? No. / No, they weren’t.

Use the verb BE to ask a Yes / No question with the passive voice.
question response

Is gold mined in Canada? Yes. / Yes it is.

Are flowers grown here? No. / No, they are not.

Was the book read? Yes. / Yes, it was.

Use the verb HAVE to ask if somebody has done something or if some action has
taken place. Note that these Yes / No questions use the present perfect (HAVE +
past participle).
question response

Has your brother left? No. / No, he hasn’t.

Have you driven before? Yes. / Yes, I have.

Has the party started? Yes. / Yes, it has.

Use the verb DO to ask Yes / No questions in order to obtain facts about people,
places, or things.
question response

Do they smoke? No. / No, they don’t.

Does it rain here? Yes. / Yes, it does.

Did the key work? No. / No, it didn’t.

Use modal verbs to ask Yes / No questions about possibilities or uncertainties.

question response

Can we stay? Yes. / Yes, we can. / Yes, we can stay.

Could this be true? Yes. / Yes, it could (be true).

Should they stop? No. / No, they shouldn’t (stop).

May I help you? Yes. / Yes you may (help me).

Remember: When asking Yes / No questions with DO or a modal verb, the main
verb remains in the base form (without to).
 Do you drink coffee?

Does she work here?

Can I go with you?

Should we email her?

However, if there are two verbs that follow DO, the second verb remains in
the infinitive (with to).

Do you want to drink coffee?

Does she like to work here?

Did you need to go home?

Note that there are several ways to answer Yes / No questions, especially when
using contractions.

Word Formation
The English language is known for its wonderful quality of the way in which
words and sentences are formed and used. Formation of new words from an
existing root word by adding a syllable or another word is the general process;
however, there are multiple ways in which it can be done.
Types of Word Formation with Examples
The formation of words is classified into four types based on how the process of
formation is carried out. They are:

 By adding prefixes
 By adding suffixes
 Converting from one word class to another
 Forming compound words
Let us look at each type of word formation in detail.
Adding Prefixes
The term ‘prefix’ refers to one or more alphabets added to the stem of a word,
mostly to make it negative. The most commonly used prefixes include ‘in-’, ‘un-’,
‘dis-’, ‘im-’, ‘ir-’, etc. Look at the examples given below for a clearer
understanding of how prefixes are used to form new words.
Examples of Word Formation by the Addition of Prefixes

 Discipline – indiscipline
 Just – unjust
 Tidy – untidy
 Respect – disrespect
 Understand – misunderstand
 Comfortable – uncomfortable
 Comfort – discomfort
 Responsible – irresponsible
 Honest – dishonest
 Happy – unhappy
 Polite – impolite
 Experience – inexperience
 Practical – impractical
 Important – unimportant
 Legal – illegal
 Ethical – unethical
 Potent – impotent
Adding Suffixes
A suffix is a short syllable added at the end of a base word. The addition of
suffixes usually changes the word class of the particular word. The most common
suffixes include ‘-ment’, ‘-ness’, ‘-ity’, ‘-ous’, ‘-tion’, ‘-sion’, ‘-al’, ‘-able’, ‘-ible’,
‘-ive’, ‘-ly’, ‘-ate’, ‘-er’, ‘-or’, etc. Check out the following examples to see how
suffixes are added.
Examples of Word Formation by the Addition of Suffixes

 Comprehend (verb) – comprehension (noun) – comprehensible (adjective)

 Inform (verb) – information (noun) – informative (adjective)
 Invest (verb) – Investment (noun) – Investor (noun)
 Write (verb) – writer (noun)
 Authorise (verb) – authorisation (noun)
  Move (verb) – movement (noun)
 Add (verb) – addition (noun)
 Happy (adjective) – happiness (noun)
 Conserve (verb) – conservation (noun)
 Wide (Adjective) – widen (verb)
 Manage (verb) – manageable (adjective) – manager (noun)
 Courage (noun) – courageous (adjective)
 Brave (adjective) – bravery (noun)
 Profit (noun) – profitable (adjective)
 Quick (adjective) – quickly (adverb)
 Happy (adjective) – happily (adverb)
 Sad (adjective) – sadness (noun)
Conversion
The process of conversion focuses solely on changing the word class of the
particular word. If you have noticed, you would have seen how some nouns are
used to perform the role of a verb or an adjective acting like a noun just by the
addition of another word or slightly altering the spelling of the actual word.
Examples of Word Formation by Conversion

 The rich should help the poor.

Adjectives such as ‘rich’ and ‘poor’ are used as nouns by using them with the
article ‘the’.

 Everyone is talented.
‘Talented’ – a past participle is used as an adjective in the above sentence. The
word is formed by adding the suffix ‘ed’ to the end of the noun ‘talent’.

 There will definitely be a lot of ups and downs in life.

Prepositions ‘up’ and ‘down’ are used as nouns by adding ‘s’ to the end of it.

 He texted me about the meeting only at the last minute.

The noun ‘text’ used to refer to a text message sent on a phone is used as a verb in
the sentence by adding an ‘ed’ to the end of the word.

 The financial aid had to be approved before we could make a decision.

The noun ‘finance’ is used as an adjective by adding ‘ial’ to the end of it and the
verb ‘decide’ is used as a noun by removing ‘de’ and adding ‘sion’ to the word.
Forming Compound Words
Compound words are formed by combining one part of speech with another to
form a specific word class. There are many ways in which compound words are
formed. Verbs are combined with adjectives to form compound verbs, a
present participle is combined with a noun to form a compound noun, two nouns
are combined to form a compound noun, an adjective and a noun are combined to
form a compound noun, an adverb is combined with a noun to form a compound
noun, an adjective is combined with a past participle to form a compound adjective
and so on. Take a look at the following examples and go through the articles
on compound nouns, compound words and compound adjectives to understand
how they work.
Examples of Word Formation by Compounding

 Over (adverb) + load (noun) – Overload

 White (adjective) + wash (verb) – Whitewash
 Black (adjective) + board (noun ) – Blackboard
 Cup (noun) + board (noun) – Cupboard
 Short (adjective) + hand (noun) – Shorthand
 Swimming (present participle) + pool (noun) – Swimming pool
 Three (adjective) + legged (past participle) – Three-legged
 Break (verb) + Down (preposition) – Breakdown
 Up (preposition) + town (noun) – Uptown
 Copy (verb) + writer (noun) – Copywriter
 Sun (noun) + rise (verb) – Sunrise
 Count (verb) + down (preposition) – Countdown
 Flash (verb) + mob (noun) – Flash mob
 Master (noun) + piece (noun) – Masterpiece
 Round (adjective) + table (noun) – Round-table
Test Your Understanding of Word Formation
Exercise 1 – Add Prefixes and Suffixes
Add prefixes and suffixes to the following words.
1. Passion____
2. Remember____
3. ____conscious
4. Sense____
5. ____acceptable
6. Entertain____
7. ____representation
8. Neat____
9. Invent____
10. ____interpret
Answers for Exercise 1
1. Passionate
2. Remembrance
3. Unconscious/Subconscious
4. Sensible/Senseless
5. Unacceptable
6. Entertainment
7. Misrepresentation
8. Neatly/Neatness
9. Invention
10. Misinterpret
Exercise 2 – Conversion of Words
Go through the following words and convert them as directed.
1. Money (convert into adjective)
2. Brave (convert into noun)
3. Clean (convert into noun)
4. Prayer (convert into adjective)
5. Resemblance (convert into verb)
6. Slow (convert into adverb)
7. Treat (convert into noun)
8. Confession (convert into verb)
9. Vary (convert into adjective)
10. Beauty (convert into verb)
Answers for Exercise 2
1. Monetary
2. Bravery
3. Cleanliness
4. Prayerful
5. Resemble
6. Slowly
7. Treatment
8. Confess
9. Various/variable
10. Beautify
Exercise 3 – Form Compound Words
Go through the words in the box given below and use them to form ten compound
words.
up, table, spend, load, green, machine, case,
make, estimate, over, self
1. _______ confident
2. Washing _______
3. Time _______
4. Under _______
5. _______sufficient
6. Up_______
7. _______set
8. Suit_______
9. _______over
10. _______thrift
Answers for Exercise 3
1. Overconfident
2. Washing machine
3. Timetable
4. Underestimate
5. Self-sufficient
6. Upload
7. Upset
8. Suitcase
9. Makeover
10. Spendthrift
Synonyms and Antonyms

Words Synonyms Antonyms

Abate moderate, decrease aggravate

Absolve pardon, forgive compel, accuse

Abject despicable, servile commendable, praiseworthy

Abash disconcert, rattle uphold, discompose

Abjure forsake, renounce approve, sanction

Abolish abrogate, annul setup, establish

Abortive vain, unproductive productive

Abound flourish, proliferate deficient, destitute

Acumen awareness, brilliance stupidity, ignorance

Accord agreement, harmony discord

Acrimony harshness, bitterness courtesy, benevolence

Admonish counsel, reprove approve, applaud

Adherent follower, disciple rival, adversary

Adhere comply, observe condemn, disjoin

Adversity misfortune, calamity prosperity, fortune

Adamant stubborn, inflexible flexible, soft

Adjunct joined, added separated, subtracted

Alleviate abate, relieve aggravate, enhance

Allay pacify, soothe aggravate, excite

Alien foreigner, outside native, resident

Allure entice, fascinate repulse, repel

Amplify augment, deepen lessen, contract

Arraign incriminate, indict exculpate, pardon

Ascend climb escalate descend, decline

Audacity boldness, courage mildness, cowardice

Authentic accurate, credible fictitious, unreal

Awkward rude, blundering adroit, clever

Axiom adage, truism absurdity, blunder

Bawdy erotic, coarse decent, moral

Barrier barricade, obstacle link, assistance

Barren desolate, sterile damp, fertile

Baroque florid, gilt plain, unadorned

Barbarous frustrate, perplex civilized

Baffle astound, faze facilitate, clarify

Base vulgar, coarse summit, noble

Batty insane, silly sane

Befogged becloud, dim clear-headed, uncloud

Benevolent benign, generous malevolent, miserly

Benign favorable, friendly malignant, cruel

Bewitching alluring, charming repulsive, repugnant

Bind predicament release

Bleak austere, blank bright, cheerful

Bleak grim, austere bright, pleasant

Blunt dull, insensitive keen, sharp

Boisterous clamorous, rowdy placid, calm

Bold adventurous timid

Brittle breakable, crisp tough, enduring

Bustle commotion, tumult slowness, quiet

Busy active, engaged idle, lazy

Calumny defamation, aspersion commendation, praise

Calculating canny, devious artless, honest

Callous insensitive, indurated kind, merciful

Calamity adversity, misfortune fortune

Calm harmonious, unruffled stormy, turbulent

Camouflage cloak, disguise Reveal

Candid blunt, bluff evasive

Captivate beguile, bewitch repel

Captivate charm, fascinate disillusion offend

Captivity imprisonment, confinement freedom, liberty

Carnal earthly, fleshly spiritual

Catholic generic, liberal narrow- minded

Cease terminate, desist begin, originate

Celebrated acclaimed, lionized unknown, inglorious

Cement plaster, mortar disintegrate

Censure rebuke, reprimand praise, acceptance

Chastise punish, admonish cheer, encourage

Chaste virtuous, pure sullied, lustful

Cheap competitive, inexpensive dear, unreasonable

Clandestine covert, furtive open, legal

Classic simple, typical romantic, unusual

Coarse bawdy, boorish fine, chaste

Compassion kindness, sympathy cruelty, barbarity

Comic clown, jester Tragic, tragedian

Comprise include, contain reject, lack

Compact bunched, thick loose, diffuse

Compress abbreviate, shrink amplify, expand

Consequence effect, outcome origin, start

Contrary dissimilar, conflicting similar, alike

Consent agree, permit object disagree

Conceit egotism, immodesty modesty

Consolidate centralize, fortify weaken

Consolidate solidify, strengthen separate, weaken

Condemn castigate, chide approve, praise

Contradict deny, oppose approve, confirm

Contempt scorn, disregard regard, praise

Concur approve, agree differ, disagree

Confident bold, undaunted diffident, cowardly

Concord agreement, accord discord

Conspicuous prominent, obvious concealed, hidden

Courtesy generosity, reverence disdain, rudeness

Creation formation, foundation destruction

Cunning acute, smart naive, coarse

Deceit deception, artifice veracity, sincerity

Decay collapse, decompose flourish, progress

Decipher interpret, reveal misinterpret, distort

Defile contaminate, pollute purify, sanctity

Defray spend, pay disclaim, repudiate

Deliberate cautious, intentional rash, sudden

Demolish ruin, devastate repair, construct

Denounce blame, boycott defend

Dense opaque, piled sparse, brainy

Deprive despoil, divest restore, renew

Deride mock, taunt inspire, encourage

Derogatory sarcastic, critical laudatory, appreciative

Despair depression, misery contentment, hope

Destructive catastrophic, pernicious creative, constructive

Dissuade remonstrate, counsel persuade

Disdain detest, despise approve, praise

Docile pliable, pliant headstrong, obstinate

Dwarf diminutive, petite huge, giant

Deceit deception, artifice veracity, sincerity

Decay collapse, decompose flourish, progress

Decipher interpret, reveal misinterpret, distort

Defile contaminate, pollute purify, sanctity

Defray spend, pay disclaim, repudiate

Deliberate cautious, intentional rash, sudden

Demolish ruin, devastate repair, construct

Denounce blame, boycott defend

Dense opaque, piled sparse, brainy

Deprive despoil, divest restore, renew

Deride mock, taunt inspire, encourage

Derogatory sarcastic, critical laudatory, appreciative

Despair depression, misery contentment, hope

Destructive catastrophic, pernicious creative, constructive

Dissuade remonstrate, counsel persuade

Disdain detest, despise approve, praise

Docile pliable, pliant headstrong, obstinate

Dwarf diminutive, petite huge, giant

Fabricate construct, produce destroy, dismantle

Falter stumble, demur persist, endure

Fallacy delusion, mistake veracity, truth

Fanatical narrow-minded, biased liberal, tolerant

Feeble weak, frail strong, robust

Ferocious cruel, fierce gentle, sympathetic

Feud strife, quarrel harmony, fraternity

Fluctuate deflect, vacillate stabilize, resolve

Frantic violent, agitated subdued, gentle

Fragile weak, infirm enduring, tough

Frivolous petty, worthless solemn, significant

Frugality economy, providence lavishness, extravagance

Forsake desert, renounce hold, maintain

Gather converge, huddle disperse, dissemble

Genuine absolute, factual spurious

Generosity altruism, bounty stinginess, greed

Glory dignity, renown shame, disgrace

Gloom obscurity, darkness delight, mirth

Gloomy bleak, cloudy gay, bright

Guile cunning, deceit honesty, frankness

Glut stuff, satiate starve, abstain

Gracious courteous, beneficent rude, unforgiving

Grisly disgusting, atrocious pleasing, attractive

Grudge hatred, aversion benevolence, affection

Gorgeous magnificent, dazzling dull, unpretentious

Hamstrung cripple debilitate strengthen, encourage

Hamper retard, prevent promote, facilitate

Harass irritate, molest assist, comfort

Harmony conformity, amicability discord, discord

Hapless unfortunate, ill-fated fortunate, lucky

Hasty abrupt, impetuous leisurely, cautious

Haughty arrogant, pompous humble, submissive

Hazard peril, danger conviction, security

Heretic non-conformist, secularist conformable, religious

Hideous frightful, shocking attractive, alluring

Honor adoration, reverence denunciation, shame

Humble meek, timid proud, assertive

Humility resignation, fawning boldness, pride

Hypocrisy deception, pharisaism sincerity, frankness

Immaculate exquisite, impeccable defiled, tarnished

Immense huge, enormous puny, insignificant

Imminent impending, brewing distant, receding

Immerse submerge, involve emerge, uncover

Immunity prerogative, privilege blame, censure

Immaculate unsullied, spotless defiled, tarnished

Impute attribute, ascribe exculpate, support

Impenitent uncontrite, obdurate repentant

Impious irreligious, unholy pious, devout

Impulsive flaky, impetuous cautious, deliberate

Impediment hurdle, obstruction assistant, concurrence

Impair diminish, deteriorate restore, revive

Impartial just, unbiased prejudiced, biased

Inclination disposition, affection indifference, disinclination

Incongruous inappropriate, absurd compatible, harmonious

Incompetent inefficient, unskilled dexterous, skilled

Indigent destitute, impoverished rich, affluent

Indifferent equitable, haughty partial, biased

Inevitable unavoidable, ascertained unlikely, doubtful

Infernal damned, accursed heavenly

Infringe violate, encroach comply, concur

Ingenuous undisguised, naive wily, crafty

Insinuate allude, hint conceal, camouflage

Insipid tasteless, vapid delicious, luscious

Instill inculcate, inject eradicate, extract

Insipid tedious, prosaic pleasing, appetizing

Insolvent indigent, destitute wealthy, solvent

Intrigue scheme, conspiracy candor, sincerity

Intrinsic genuine, fundamental extraneous, incidental

Interesting enchanting, riveting dull, uninteresting

Intricate tangled, complicated regulated, orderly

Invective accusation, censure approval, acclamation

Invincible unconquerable, impregnable effeminate, languid

Irrepressible irresistible, unconfined composed, hesitant

Jaded tired, exhausted renewed, recreated

Jejune dull, boring interesting, exciting

Jubilant rejoicing, triumphant melancholy, depressing

Judicious thoughtful, prudent irrational, foolish

Just honest, impartial unequal, unfair

Justify defend, exculpate impute, arraign

Juvenile young, tender dotage, antiquated

Jovial frolicsome, cheerful solemn, morose

Keen sharp, poignant vapid, insipid

Kindred relation, species unrelated, dissimilar

Knave dishonest, scoundrel paragon, innocent

Knell the death knell, last blow reconstruction, rediscovery

Knotty complicated difficult simple, manageable

Languid sluggish, apathetic energetic, spirited

Lavish abundant, excessive scarce, deficient

Lax slack, careless firm, reliable

Lenient compassionate, merciful cruel, severe

Liable accountable, bound unaccountable, apt to

Liberal magnanimous, generous stingy, malicious

Linger loiter, prolong hasten, quicken

Lucid sound, rational obscure, hidden

Lunacy delusion, insanity normalcy, sanity

Lure attract, entice repel, dissuade

Luscious palatable, delicious unsavory, tart

Luxuriant profuse, abundant scanty, meager

Malice vengefulness, grudge goodwill, kindness

Mandatory imperative, requisite optional

Masculine gallant, strapping feminine, meek

Merit stature, asset demerit, dishonor

Miraculous marvelous, extraordinary ordinary, trivial

Mitigate alleviate, relieve augment enhance

Munificent liberal, hospitable frugal, penurious

Murky dusky, dreary bright, shining

Mutual joint, identical separate, distinct

Mutinous recalcitrant, insurgent submissive, faithful

Modest humble, courteous arrogant, pompous

Molest harass, tease console, soothe

Mollify appease, assuage irritate, infuriate

Monotonous irksome, tedious varied, pleasant

Momentous notable, eventful trivial, insignificant

Morbid nasty, macabre healthy, cheerful

Niggardly miser, covetous generous, profuse

Nimble prompt, brisk sluggish, languid

Nullify cancel, annual confirm, uphold

Numerous profuse, various scarce, deficient

Nonchalant indifferent, negligent attentive, considerate

Notion conceit, apprehension reality, concrete

Novice tyro, beginner veteran, ingenious

Noxious baneful, injurious healing, profitable

Obliging complaisant, willing mulish, obstinate

Obstinate stubborn, adamant pliable, flexible

Obstruct impede, prevent hasten, encourage

Obscure arcane, vague prominent

Obtain access, inherit forfeit

Obvious evident, apparent obscure, ambiguous

Occult latent, ambiguous intelligible, transparent

Odious malevolent, obnoxious engaging, fascinating

Offensive abhorrent, obnoxious engaging, fascinating

Offspring descendant, sibling ancestor, forefather

Ominous menacing, foreboding auspicious

Opaque obscure, shady transparent, bright

Optimist idealist pessimist

Oracular Cryptic, vague lucid, distinct

Ordain order, impose revoke abolish

Ornamental decorative, adorned unseemly, plain

Outrage offense, maltreatment praise, favour

Outbreak eruption, insurrection compliance, subjection

Pacify appease, chasten irritate, worsen

Pamper flatter, indulge deny, disparage

Paramount foremost, eminent trivial, inferior

Peevish perverse, sullen suave, amiable

Peerless matchless, unrivaled mediocre, commonplace

Placid tranquil, calm turbulent, hostile

Persuade cajole, impress dissuade, halt

Perturbed flustered, anxious Calm

Pertness flippancy, impudence modesty, diffidence

Perverse petulant, obstinate complacent, docile

Precarious doubtful, insecure Assured

Predicament plight, dilemma resolution, confidence

Progress pace, betterment retrogress, worsening

Prompt precise, punctual slow, negligent

Propagate inseminate, fecundate suppress, deplete

Prudence vigilance, discretion Indiscretion

Pompous Haughty, arrogant unpretentious, humble

Quack impostor, deceiver upright, unfeigned

Quaint queer, strange familiar, usual

Quarantine seclude, screen befriend, socialize

Quell subdue, reduce exacerbate, agitate

Quibble equivocate, prevaricate unfeigned, plain

Raid incursion, foray retreat, release

Rapidity quickness, velocity inertia, liquidity

Ratify consent, approve deny, dissent

Ravage destroy, ruin reconstruct, renovate

Reason acumen, bounds folly, speculation

Rebellious restless, attacking submissive, compliant

Rectify amend, remedy falsify, worsen

Redeem recover, liberate conserve lose

Reluctant cautious, averse anxious, eager

Remnant residue, piece entire, whole

Remorse regret, penitence ruthlessness, obduracy

Remonstrate censure, protest agree, loud

Rescind annul, abrogate delegate, permit

Resentment displeasure, wrath content, cheer

Restrain detain, confine incite

Retract recant, withdraw confirm, assert

Reverence respect, esteem disrespect, affront

Rustic rural, uncivilized cultured, refined

Ruthless remorseless, inhumane Compassionate, lenient

Rout vanquish, overthrow succumb, withdraw

Sacred cherish, divine ungodly, profane

Sarcastic ironical, derisive courteous, gracious

Saucy impudent, insolent modest, humble

Savage wild, untamed polished, civilized

Scanty scarce, insufficient lavish, multitude

Servile slavish, docile aggressive, dominant

Shabby miserable, impoverished prosperous, thriving

Shrewd cunning, craftly simple, imbecile

Slander defame, malign applaud, approve

Sneer mock, scorn flatter, praise

Solicit entreat, implore protest oppose

Spry nimble, brisk lethargic, sluggish

Spurious fake, counterfeit genuine, authentic

Sporadic intermittent, scattered incessant, frequent

Squalid dirty, filthy tidy, attractive

Stain blemish, tarnish honor, purify

Startled frightened, shocked waveringly

Sterile barren, impotent profitable, potent

Steep course, lofty flat, gradual

Stupor lethargy, unconsciousness sensibility, consciousness

Stranger immigrant, guest acquaintance, national

Sublime magnificent, eminent ridiculous

Subvert demolish, sabotage generate, organize

Substantial considerable, solid tenuous, fragile

Subsequent consequent, following preceding, previous

Subterfuge deceit, stratagem frankness, openness

Successful propitious, felicitous destitute, untoward

Succinct concise, terse lengthy, polite

Superficial partial, shallow profound, discerning

Sycophant parasite, flatterer devoted, loyal

Sympathy tenderness, harmony antipathy, discord

System scheme, entity chaos, disorder

Taboo prohibit, ban permit, consent

Taciturn reserved, silent talkative, extrovert

Tame compliant, subdued wild, untamed

Tedious wearisome. irksome exhilarating, lively

Temperate cool, moderate boisterous, violent

Tenement apartment, digs breakeven, dislodge

Tenacious stubborn, dodge docile, non- resinous

Terse incisive, compact diffuse, gentle

Thrifty frugal, prudent extravagant

Throng assembly, crowd dispersion, sparsity

Timid diffident, coward bold, intrepid

Transparent diaphanous opaque

Tranquil peaceful, composed violent, furious

Transient temporal, transitory lasting, enduring

Tranquil amicable, calm agitated, fierce

Trenchant assertive, forceful feeble, ambiguous

Treacherous dishonest, duplicitous forthright, reliable

Tremble vibrate steady

Trivial trifling, insignificant significant, veteran

Tumultuous violent, riotous peaceful, harmonious

Umbrage chagrin, offense sympathy, goodwill

Uncouth awkward, ungraceful elegant, compensate

Urchin foundling, orphan creep, knave

Urge incite, implore abhorrence, abomination

Utterly completely, entirely deficiently, incomplete

Vagrant wander, roaming steady, settled

Vain arrogant, egoistic modest

Valor bravery, prowess fear, cowardice

Vanity conceit, pretension modesty, humility

Venerable esteemed, honored unworthy, immature

Veteran ingenious, experienced novice, tyro

Venom poison, malevolence antidote, benevolent

Vicious corrupt, obnoxious noble, virtuous

Vigilant cautious, alert careless, negligent

Vilify malign, slur, defame cherish, commend

Virtue ethic, morality vice, dishonesty

Vivacious spirited, energetic dispirited, unattractive

Vivid eloquent, lucid dull, dim

Vouch confirm, consent repudiate, prohibit

Waive relinquish, remove impose, clamp

Wan pale, faded bright, healthy

Wane decline, dwindle ameliorate, rise

Wary cautious, circumspect heedless, negligent

Wed marry, combine divorce, separate

Wicked vicious, immoral virtuous, noble

Wield exert, employ forgo, avoid

Wile trickery, artifice naivety, honor

Wilt wither, perish revive, bloom

Winsome beautiful, comely alluring, rapturous

Yearn languish, crave content, satisfy

Yell shout, shriek whisper muted

Yield surrender abdicate resist, protest

Yoke connect, harness liberate, release

Zeal eagerness, fervor apathy, lethargy

Zenith summit, apex nadir, base

Zest delight, enthusiasm disgust, passive

Zig -zag oblique, wayward straight, unbent

UNIT - 2

Guessing the meaning from the context

Identify the meaning of the italicized word. Then write the word(s) in the sentence
which worked as clues to help you.

1. The rock singer was very popular. A crowd was waiting at the park to
listen to her songs.
‘Crowd’ means 1) a lot of people 2) few
The word(s) which helped me were: rock singer; park

2. There are many ships near our city, so there is a lot of tar in the
water. When there is tar in the water, the water is
1) dirty 2) clean.
The word(s) which helped me were: many ships
 3. I helped my friend in math. He was very grateful. He thanked me again
and again. A grateful person is
1) appreciative of someone’s favor 2) indifferent to
The word(s) which helped me were: thanked me

4. He ate large amounts of food, so he got very fat.

‘Large amounts of food’ is
1) a little food 2) a lot of
The word(s) which helped me were: very fat

5. I didn’t expect a present from Danny, so I was surprised when he gave

me a radio!
‘To expect’ means to think something
1) is going to happen 2) isn’t
The word(s) which helped me were: surprised

6. They bothered me all the time. They had no consideration for my

privacy or my need to rest.
‘To have consideration’ means
1) not to care about other people’s feelings 2) to care
The word(s) which helped me were: bothered me all the time

7. “Excuse me,” said the girl, “I thought you were someone else.” She was very
embarrassed.
When you are embarrassed you are
1) proud 2) uncomfortable
The word(s) which helped me were: Excuse me

Use the two sentences given after the question to help you guess the meaning of the
word. These words are more difficult, but remember, don’t use your dictionary.

1. What does ‘ravenous’ mean? Very hungry

A. Could I have a piece of bread? I missed breakfast and I’m simply ravenous.
B. The poor horse was ravenous and it ate the leaves and bark off the trees.

2. What does ‘dike’ mean? A wall to stop water

A. After so much rain, the river flowed over the dike and into the fields.
 B. People in this area began building dikes many centuries ago. It was the
only way to keep the sea out of their village.

3. What does ‘pitch’ mean? sound

A. The singer was so terribly off pitch that it hurt my ears to listen.
B. The ambulance siren was at such a high pitch that we all jumped.

4. What does ‘mold’ mean? A container in the shape of something we

want to copy or reproduce
A. The liquid plastic was poured into a mold and left there until it was hard.

B. The dentist first makes a mold of his patient’s teeth. From that he
makes a model of the teeth to decide how to correct any problem.

5. What does ‘squall’ mean? A storm

A. The squall arrived so suddenly that we all got wet when we ran home
from the beach.
B. When they saw the squall coming, the sailors took down the sail and
headed for the port.

6. What does ‘gush’ mean? To flow (violently)

A. When the fountain was turned on, the water gushed up several feet into
the air.
B. The blood gushed out of his wound until the doctor put on a tight bandage.

7. What does ‘soggy’ mean? Wet

A. The study window had been left open during the storm, and my papers
were a soggy mess.
B. We gathered up the soggy towels and bathing suits and hung them all in
the sun to dry.

8. What does ‘rugged’ mean? Rough, rural

A. Susan and her husband led a rugged life in the Alaskan mountains,
with no electricity and no running water.
B. The young man’s face was rugged, but his smile was friendly and
the children soon forgot their fears.

9. What does ‘stoop’ mean? To bend your body

A. The old man walked slowly along, all stooped over and leaning on a stick.

B. When I stooped down to get a better look, I realized that it was a dead
 rabbit. It must have been hit by a car.

10. What does ‘wink’ mean? To close one eye and rapidly open it

A. George winked at me from across the room. It was a signal not to

say anything about what we had seen.
B. I’ve only known one cat that could wink and that was Tinker. She
really could close just one of her eyes and she did it often.

UNIT -3
Cohesion and Coherence in Writing

Introduction
Coherent essays are identified by relevance to the central topic. They communicate a meaningful
message to a specific audience and maintain pertinence to the main focus. In a coherent essay,
the sentences and ideas flow smoothly and, as a result, the reader can follow the ideas developed
without any issues.

1. We will start with definitions of coherence and cohesion.

2. Then, we will give examples of how a text can achieve cohesion.
3. We will see how a text can be cohesive but not coherent.
4. The structure of a coherent essay will also be discussed.
5. Finally, we will look in detail at ways to improve cohesion and write a coherent essay.
Cohesion and Coherence in Essay Writing
Before illustrating how to write coherent essays, let us start with the definitions of coherence and
cohesion and list the ways we can achieve cohesion in a coherent text.

Definitions Cohesion and Coherence

In general, coherence and cohesion refer to how a text is structured so that the elements it is
constituted of can stick together and contribute to a meaningful whole. In coherent essays,
writers use grammatical and lexical cohesive techniques so that ideas can flow meaningfully and
logically.

What is coherence?

Coherence refers to the quality of forming a unified consistent whole. We can describe a text as
being coherent if it is semantically meaningful, that is if the ideas flow logically to produce an
understandable entity.
 If a text is coherent it is logically ordered and connected. It is clear, consistent, and
understandable.

Coherence is related to the macro-level features of a text which enable it to have a sense as a
whole.

What is cohesion?

Cohesion is commonly defined as the grammatical and lexical connections that tie a text
together, contributing to its meaning (i.e. coherence.)

While coherence is related to the macro-level features of a text, cohesion is concerned with its
micro-level – the words, the phrases, and the sentences and how they are connected to form a
whole.

If the elements of a text are cohesive, they are united and work together or fit well together.

To summarize, coherence refers to how the ideas of the text flow logically and make a text
semantically meaningful as a whole. Cohesion is what makes the elements (e.g. the words,
phrases, clauses, and sentences) of a text stick together to form a whole.

How to Achieve Cohesion and Coherence in Essay Writing

There are two types of cohesion: lexical and grammatical. Writers connect sentences and ideas in
their essays using both lexical and grammatical cohesive devices.

Lexical cohesion

We can achieve cohesion through lexical cohesion by using these techniques:

 Repetition.
 Synonymy.
 Antonymy.
 Hyponymy.
 Meronymy.
Now let’s look at these in more detail.

Repetition

Repeating words may contribute to cohesion. Repetition creates cohesive ties within the text.
 Example:

 Birds are beautiful. I like birds.

Synonymy

You can use a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word to achieve
cohesion.

Example:

 Paul saw a snake under the mattress. The serpent was probably hiding there for a long time.
Antonymy

Antonymy refers to the use of a word of opposite meaning. This is often used to create links
between the elements of a text.

Example:

 Old movies are boring, the new ones are much better.
Hyponymy

This refers to the use of a word that denotes a subcategory of a more general class.

Example:

 I saw a cat. The animal was very hungry and looked ill.
Relating a superordinate term (i.e. animal) to a corresponding subordinate term (i.e. cat) may
create more cohesiveness between sentences and clauses.

Meronymy

Meronymy is another way to achieve cohesion. It refers to the use of a word that denotes part of
something but which is used to refer to the whole of it for instance faces can be used to refer to
people as in “I see many faces here”. In the following example, hands refer to workers.

Example:

 More workers are needed. We need more hands to finish the work.
Grammatical cohesion

Grammatical cohesion refers to the grammatical relations between text elements. This includes
the use of:
 Anaphora.
 Cataphora.
 Ellipsis.
 Substitutions.
 Conjunctions and transition words.
Let us illustrate the above devices with some examples.

Anaphora

Anaphora is when you use a word referring back to another word used earlier in a text or
conversation.

Example:

 Jane was brilliant. She got the best score.

The pronoun “she” refers back to the proper noun “Jane”.

Cataphora

Cataphora is the opposite of anaphora. Cataphora refers to the use of a word or phrase that refers
to or stands for a following word or phrase.

Example:

 Here he comes our hero. Please, welcome John.

The pronoun “he” refers back to the proper noun “John”.

Ellipsis

Ellipsis refers to the omission from speech or writing of a word or words that are superfluous or
able to be understood from contextual clues.

Example:

 Liz had some chocolate bars, and Nancy an ice cream.

In the above example, “had” in “Nancy an ice cream” is left because it can be understood (or
presupposed) as it was already mentioned previously in the sentence.

Elliptic elements can be also understood from the context as in:

 A: Where are you going?

 B: Home.
 Substitutions

Substitutions refer to the use of a word to replace another word.

Example:

 A: Which T-shirt would you like?

 B: I would like the pink one.
Conjunctions transition words

Conjunctions and transition words are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences.

 Examples of conjunctions: but, or, and, although, in spite of, because,

 Examples of transition words: however, similarly, likewise, specifically, consequently, for this
reason, in contrast to, accordingly, in essence, chiefly, finally.
Here are some examples:

 I called Tracy and John.

 He was tired but happy.
 She likes neither chocolates nor cookies.
 You can either finish the work or ask someone to do it for you.
 He went to bed after he had done his homework.
 Although she is very rich, she isn’t happy.
 I was brought up to be responsible. Similarly, I will try to teach my kids how to take
responsibility for their actions.
Cohesive but not coherent texts
Sometimes, a text may be cohesively connected, yet may still be incoherent.

Learners may wrongly think that simply linking sentences together will lead to a coherent text.

Here is an example of a text in which sentences are cohesively connected, yet the overall
coherence is lacking:

The player threw the ball toward the goalkeeper. Balls are used in many sports. Most balls are
spheres, but American football is an ellipsoid. Fortunately, the goalkeeper jumped to catch the
ball. The crossbar in the soccer game is made of iron. The goalkeeper was standing there.

The sentences and phrases in the above text are decidedly cohesive but not coherent.

There is a use of:

 Repetition of: the ball, goalkeeper, the crossbar.

 Conjunctions and transition words: but, fortunately.
The use of the above cohesive devices does not result in a meaningful and unified whole. This is
because the writer presents material that is unrelated to the topic. Why should a writer talk about
what the crossbar is made of? And is talking about the form balls in sports relevant in this
context? What is the central focus of the text?

A coherent essay has to be cohesively connected and logically expressive of the central
topic.

How to write a coherent essay?

To achieve the coherence defined earlier, we need to follow these strategic steps:

1. Start with an outline

An outline is the general plan of your essays. It contains the ideas you will include in each
paragraph and the sequence in which these ideas will be mentioned.

It is important to have an outline before starting to write. Spending a few minutes on the outline
can be rewarding. An outline will organize your ideas and the end product can be much more
coherent.

Here is how you can outline your writing so that you can produce a coherent essay:

 Start with the thesis statement – the sentence that summarizes the topic of your writing.
 Brainstorm the topic for a few minutes. Write down all the ideas related to the topic.
 Sift the ideas brainstormed in the previous step to identify only the ideas worth including in your
essay.
 Organize ideas in a logical order so that your essay reflects the unified content that you want to
communicate.
 Each idea has to be treated in a separate paragraph.
 Think of appropriate transitions between the different ideas.
 Under each idea/paragraph, write down enough details to support your idea.
After identifying and organizing your ideas into different paragraphs, they have to fit within the
conventional structure of essays. Essay Outline Template

2. Structure your essay

It is also important to structure your essay so that you the reader can identify the organization of
the different parts of your essay and how each paragraph leads to the next one.

Here is a structure of an essay

 Parts of the
Content
essay

Introduces the topic.

Introduction Provides background information
Presents the thesis statement of the essay

The body of the essay is made up of several paragraphs depending on the

complexity of your argument and the points you want to discuss.
Each paragraph discusses one main point.
Body
Each paragraph includes a topic sentence, supporting details, and a
concluding sentence.
All paragraphs must relate to the thesis.

The conclusion summarizes the main points of the essay.

It must not include new ideas.
Conclusion It draws a final decision or judgment about the issues you have been
discussing.
May connect the essay to larger topics or areas of further study.

3. Structure your paragraphs

Paragraphs have to be well-organized. The structure of each paragraph should have:

1. A topic sentence that is usually placed at the beginning,

2. Supporting details that give further explanation of the topic sentence,
3. And a concluding sentence that wraps up the content of the paragraph.
The supporting sentences in each paragraph must flow smoothly and logically to support the
purpose of the topic sentence. Similarly, each paragraph has to serve the thesis statement, the
main topic of the essay.

4. Relevance to the main topic

No matter how long the essay is, we should make sure that we stick to the topic we want to talk
about. Coherence is about making everything flow smoothly to create unity. So, sentences and
ideas must be relevant to the central thesis statement.

The writer has to maintain the flow of ideas to serve the main focus of the essay.

5. Stick to the purpose of the type of essay you’re-writing

 Essays must be clear and serve a purpose and direction. This means that the writer’s thoughts
must not go astray in developing the purpose of the essay.

Essays are of different types and have different purposes. Accordingly, students have to stick to
the main purpose of each genre of writing.

 An expository essay aims to inform, describe, or explain a topic, using essential facts to teach the
reader about a topic.
 A descriptive essay intends to transmit a detailed description of a person, event, experience, or
object. The aim is to make the reader perceive what is being described.
 A narrative essay attempts to tell a story that has a purpose. Writers use storytelling techniques to
communicate an experience or an event.
 In argumentative essays, writers present an objective analysis of the different arguments about a
topic and provide an opinion or a conclusion of positive or negative implications. The aim is to
persuade the reader of your point.
6. Use cohesive devices and signposting phrases

Sentences should be connected using appropriate cohesive devices as discussed above:

Cohesive device Examples

Repetition.
Synonymy.
Lexical Antonymy.
Hyponymy.
Meronymy.

Anaphora.
Cataphora.
Grammatical Ellipsis.
Substitutions.
Conjunctions and transition words.

Cohesive devices such as conjunctions and transition words are essential in providing clarity to
your essay. But we can add another layer of clarity to guide the reader throughout the essay by
using signpost signals.

What is signposting in writing?

Signposting refers to the use of phrases or words that guide readers to understand the direction of
your essay. An essay should take the reader on a journey throughout the argumentation or
discussion. In that journey, the paragraphs are milestones. Using signpost signals assists the
reader in identifying where you want to guide them. Signposts serve to predict what will happen,
remind readers of where they are at important stages along the process, and show the direction of
your essay.

Essay signposting phrases

The following are some phrases you can use to signpost your writing:

Signposting Functions Examples

in addition – as well as – moreover –

Expressing addition
what is more…

however – yet – nevertheless –

Expressing contrast nonetheless – on the contrary –
whereas…

Transition words
consequently – as a consequence – as a
Expressing cause and effect
result – therefore…

Expressing purpose in order to – in order not to – so as to…

Summarizing in conclusion – to conclude – to sum up

– This essay aims at…

– This essay will be concerned with…
To introduce the essay
– It shall be argued in this essay…
– This essay will focus on…
Other signposting
expressions
– Having established…, it is possible
now to consider…
To introduce a new idea – … is one key issue; another of equal
importance is…
– Also of significant importance is the
issue of…
Signposting Functions Examples

– With regard to…

– With respect to…
– Firstly, …
– Secondly, …
– Finally, …

– One aspect that illustrates … is …

– An example of…
To illustrate something – …can be identified as…
– The current debate about… illustrates
– This highlights…

– Importantly,
– Indeed,
– In fact,
To be more specific and – More importantly,
emphasize a point – It is also important to highlight
– In particular, In relation to, More
specifically, With respect to, In terms
of

– To get back to the topic of this paper,

…
– Speaking of…, …
Changing direction – That reminds me of…
– That brings to mind…
– On a happier/sad note, …
– Another point to consider is …

– In comparison, …
– Compared to…
Comparing – Similarly, …
– Likewise,…
– Conversely
– In contrast, …
– On the one hand, …
Signposting Functions Examples

– On the other hand, …

– In particular…
– Specifically…
Going into more detail on a – Concentrating on …
point – By focusing on …. in more detail, it
is possible… to…
– To be more precise …

– In other words, …
– To put it simply, …
– That is to say…
Rephrasing
– To put it differently, …
– To rephrase it, …
– In plain English, …

– As discussed/explained earlier, …
– The earlier discussion on… can be
Reintroducing a topic developed further here, …
– As stated previously, …
– As noted above,…

– An alternative perspective is given

by… who suggests/argues that…
Introducing an
– This conflicts with the view held
opposing/alternative view
by…
– Alternatively, …

– It could be concluded that…

– From this, it can be concluded that…
Concluding – The evidence shows that…
– In conclusion,…
-In summary, …
 Note:

It should be noted though that using cohesive devices or signposting language may not
automatically lead to a coherent text. Some texts can be highly cohesive but remain incoherent.
Appropriate cohesion and signposting are essential to coherence but they are not enough. To be
coherent, an essay has to follow, in addition to using appropriate cohesive devices, all the tips
presented in this article.

7. Draft, revise, and edit

After preparing the ground for the essay, students produce their first draft. This is the first
version of the essay. Other subsequent steps are required.

The next step is to revise the first draft to rearrange, add, or remove paragraphs, ideas, sentences,
or words.

The questions that must be addressed are the following:

 Is the essay clear? Is it meaningful? Does it serve the thesis statement (the main topic)?
 Are there sufficient details to convey ideas?
 Are there any off-topic ideas that you have to do without?
 Have you included too much information? Does your writing stray off-topic?
 Do the ideas flow in a logical order?
 Have you used appropriate cohesive devices and transition words when needed?
Once the revision is done, it is high time for the editing stage. Editing involves proofreading and
correcting mistakes in grammar and mechanics. Pay attention to:

 Verb tense.
 Subject-verb agreement.
 Sentence structure. Have you included a subject a verb and an object (if the verb is transitive.)
 Punctuation.
 Capitalization.
 Spelling.

Conclusion
Coherent essays are identified by relevance to the thesis statement. The ideas and sentences of
coherent essays flow smoothly. One can follow the ideas discussed without any problems.
Lexical and grammatical cohesive devices are used to achieve coherence. However, these
devices are not sufficient. To maintain relevance to the main focus of the text, there is a need for
a whole process of collecting ideas, outlining, reviewing, and editing to create a coherent whole.
 Compare/Contrast Paragraph

A compare/contrast paragraph is one which shows either the similarities or the differences
between two things. A compare paragraph gives similarities and answers the question, “What do
they have in common?” A contrast paragraph gives differences and answers the question, “How
do they differ?” The paragraph below is an example of a contrast paragraph.

My life in Canada is very different from my mother’s life in our old country. The main
difference is that, as a girl, I have access to education in Canada. I am in high school now, and I
have studied a range of subjects: English, math, chemistry, biology, physical education, music,
and lots more. My mother had very little formal education, and most of her learning was from
traditional books at home. Another difference is that I have more freedom than my mother had. I
can go out with my friends, see a movie, or play soccer. My friends are both girls and boys. I am
even learning to drive, so I will be more independent. My mother could not do those things. She
had to stay at home, help her mother, and learn to cook traditional food. She certainly could not
go to a movie with a boy! Finally, I know there will be a big difference in the career
opportunities open to me later. After high school, I want to go to college and train to be a
paramedic or a firefighter. My mother did not have those opportunities; as a girl, she was not
expected to have a career, and certainly not the kind of career I want to have. She got married
when she was very young, and she has never had a paying job. I’m not saying my life is better
than my mom’s life; I’m just saying that living in a new culture makes a huge difference.

What Makes a Good Compare/Contrast Paragraph?

 It is about either similarities or differences. In one paragraph, you cannot address both in
detail. You should say early in your paragraph whether you are comparing or contrasting.
 It shows similarities or differences between two things that already have some kind of
connection. In the paragraph you have just read, the writer compares her own teenage
years to those of her mother. This is a logical comparison to make. You could also
compare two places, two kinds of music, two people, two religions, two systems of
government, and more. Don’t compare or contrast things that have no logical connection.
 It is about a topic that is easily managed in one paragraph. The example paragraph
addresses a topic that is small enough to be covered in one paragraph. This is much more
manageable than, say, a paragraph comparing Canadian culture and another culture.
 It is sufficiently detailed. As with all good paragraphs, don’t make your reader guess
what you want to say. Give examples.

Steps for Writing the Compare/Contrast Paragraph

1. As always, your writing should begin with some brainstorming. Think about your topic—
what do you want to say about it? Use a mind map to start to collect some ideas. Make
sure you are comparing or contrasting two things that already have a connection. Be sure
whether you are comparing them or contrasting them.
 2. Make a plan for your paragraph. Make sure you are presenting your ideas in a logical
order.
3. Write your first draft. Don’t worry about getting everything perfect at this stage; just get
your ideas on paper. Make sure you have included enough detail.
4. Revise your draft. Follow the ARMS checklist you learned in Unit 1 (Add, Remove,
Move, and Substitute). You may want to use words like Firstly, Secondly, and Finally to
introduce your various points.
5. Edit your paragraph and write your final draft. Now that your ideas are in place, you can
focus on grammar, spelling, word choice, and punctuation.

The most widely spoken Indigenous language in Canada is Cree, with around 100,000 speakers;
about half of them speak Cree at home. There are several important differences between the
grammar of Cree and the grammar of English. Firstly, Cree verbs are more complex than English
verbs. Often a whole sentence can be expressed in one or two words; a lot of meaning is included
in the form of the verb. For example, the English sentence I ate a lot of caribou is expressed in
Cree as Nichii mishtamuuwaatihkwen. Because so much meaning is included in the verb, Cree
speakers often leave out pronouns such as he or we. Secondly, Cree nouns are divided into two
groups: those that are living (animate) and those that are not living (inanimate). These groups
form their plurals in different ways. Animate nouns add –ich to make plural forms,
so awaash (child) becomes awaashich (children). Inanimate nouns form their plurals with –h,
so tehtapuwin (chair) becomes tehtapuwinh (chairs). Finally, there are no separate possession
words in Cree, such as my, your, his, her, and so on. Instead, ownership is included in the
noun. My book in Cree is nimasinahiikan, your book is chimasinahiikan, and their
book is umasinahiikanawaau. Despite these differences, Cree is not a difficult language to learn;
in fact, it may even be easier than English.

Paragraph 2

Two of the largest religions in the world are Christianity and Islam. People often think these
religions are very different, but there are actually some similarities between them. The first
similarity is that followers of both religions worship only one god, and this god is the source of
rules that must be followed. These include prohibitions on killing and stealing, and the
requirement to worship on a particular day of the week. A second similarity is that both religions
have a holy book. For Christians, this is the Bible; for Muslims, the sacred text is the Qur’an.
Both books provide guidance for followers of the religion with regard to suitable behaviour. A
third similarity is that both religions have a long history of pilgrimage. All Muslims are required
to travel to the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia at least once in their lives. Christians do not have
this exact requirement, but many of the great cathedrals in Europe have long been sites of
pilgrimage. A final similarity, and perhaps the most important, is that both religions promote
peace. While the conflict in the Middle East receives a lot of attention in the news, Muslims are
quick to point out that Islam, like Christianity, is inherently a peaceful religion. Of course, there
are differences between Christianity and Islam, such as the role of women in society and Islam’s
ban on eating pork and drinking alcohol. However, it is worth remembering that the two
religions have more in common than people often think.
 Process Description

A process is a series of actions, and fundamentally the description of a process is the description
of an action.

It examines an event over time. It does not tell the reader what to do; rather, it describes how
something happens step by step.

It is written in the steps involved in a process in a systematic and logical order.

The process description is usually written in passive voice.

The descriptions are written in a clear and concise manner without any personal estimation.

Tips to write process description

Answer the question, “how does it happen?”

Provide any necessary context (who or what performs the action, and under what conditions;
what is its significance?)

Give a concise overview of the process.

Conclude this section by breaking the process up into stages: “the principle stages of writing
process are planning, drafting, revising, and proof reading.”

Focus on each step in turn.

Example: 1
Description of process for making ‘Maggi Noodles"
Firstly, 500 ml of water is boiled in a container. After that noodles and taste makers are added.
Then finely chopped vegetables are mixed after steaming them separately. The mixed stuff is
cooked for only two minutes. It is then served hot.

Example:2
Procedure for washing the dirty white cotton clothes.
All the dirty white cotton clothes are collected and soaked in the boiling water and soap
solution. They are taken out and beaten with fists or stick. Then they are rinsed in running
water until the soap content is washed off. Then they are Squeezed and hung for drying.

The process of Cement Manufacturing

Wet Process and Dry Process

Wet Process

The wet process of cement manufacturing refers to grinding raw material into slurry after mixing
with water and then feeding them into the wet process kiln for drying and calcinations and finally
forming clinker. The slurry’s water content is usually between 32%-36%. In addition, the raw
material slurry can also be dehydrated into raw material blocks and put into the kiln to calcine
clinker. This method is called the semi-wet process, which still belongs to the cement wet
process production.

Advantages: the wet process of cement production has the characteristics of simple operation,
low dust and easy conveying. Because the slurry has fluidity so that its homogeneity is good and
the quality of clinker is improved. What’s more, the energy consumption of raw material
grinding in the wet process is reduced by nearly 30%.
Disadvantages: the heat consumption of the wet process is too high, usually between 5234-6490
J/kg and the consumption of ball mill vulnerable parts is also large. Compared with other
processing methods, the clinker manufactured by the wet process has a low temperature when it
comes out of the kiln, so this method is not suitable to produce the clinker with a high silica rate
and high aluminum-oxygen rate.

Dry Process

The dry process of cement manufacturing means that after raw materials with different particle
sizes are dried, broken and ground into powders of certain fineness, they will be sent into the dry
process kiln for calcining, finally forming clinker. Besides, the raw material powder can also be
made into raw material balls by adding a proper amount of water and then be directly sent to the
Lepol kiln for claiming. This method is called a semi-dry process, which belongs to the cement
dry process production.

Advantages: as the dry process is to directly feed raw material powder into the rotary kiln for
calcinations, and the moisture content of raw materials is about 1% – 2%, it saves the heat
consumption needed for the moisture evaporation. Therefore, this method has the advantages of
energy-saving, high production efficiency and stable output, which can meet the production
needs of large cement plants. At the same time, there is less sewage discharged in the dry process
cement production. It is conducive to environmental protection. Nowadays, we call the
production line with preheater and precalciner as the new dry process cement production line,
which is the development direction of dry process cement manufacturing in the future.

Disadvantages: the disadvantages of dry process are the inhomogeneous composition of raw
materials, high power consumption and the high dust content in the workshop.

Unit-5
FIXED AND Semi FIXED EXPRESSIONS (LEXICAL ITEMS)
Introduction

A fixed expression in English is a standard form of expression that has taken on a

more specific meaning than the expression itself. It is different from a proverb in
that it is used as a part of sentence, and is the standard way of expressing a concept
or idea.

Examples

● all of a sudden

● come to mind
● to tell you the truth

● come rain or shine

● fall in line

● so to speak

In everyday conversation and writing, fixed expressions are extensively used. For
example,

● The little girl was at ease on the stage when asked to perform in front of a large
audience.

● He is interested in birds and animals in general.

● The information on their website is out of date.

Practice Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with fixed expressions.
(out of sight, within reach, in short supply, out of danger, on duty, in fact, in
danger, in case, in brief, to tell you the truth)

1. The World Cup is now ________ of the Indian cricket team; they only need to
beat the Australian team.

2. She stood watching the car until it was out of sight ______.

3. Fortunately, he did not incur severe injuries; he is ______ now.

4. He is a police officer, and he usually has to be ______ even on Sundays.

5. In the market, vegetables were ______ because of the strike called by truck
drivers.

6. Call the doctor ______ he loses consciousness.

7. He described the situation ______ to the waiting crowds before rushing away to
the court.

8. If the bridge collapses they are _____of being cut off from the city.
9. I thought he was an engineer; _____, he's a mechanic.

10. _______ I don't enjoy going to parties.