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Unit -IV
The Delhi Sultanate

Firoz Shah Kotla

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

™™Turkish Sultans of various dynasties who ruled India from Delhi
™™Their military conquests and extension of sovereignty
™™Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
™™Art and architecture of this period

Introduction Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290)

During the eleventh century, the Turkish Muslim rule in India was established by
horsemen pillaged northern India and due to Muhammad Ghori in 12th century A.D. (CE).
their persistent campaigns, they succeeded As he had no sons, he nurtured special slaves
in seizing political control of the Gangetic called bandagan (a Persian term used for slaves
plain by the next century. Though the success purchased for military service). These slaves
of their conquests could be attributed to their were posted as governors and they were later
audacity and ferocity, their success is really due raised to the status of Sultans. After Ghori’s
to the failure of Indians to defend themselves death in 1206, one of his slaves Qutb-ud-din-
and their territories. Indians viewed each Aibak who had been left behind by Muhammad
other with distrust, failing to take note of the Ghori to govern the territories he had conqured,
success of Islam in early years of its spread. The proclaimed himself ruler of the Turkish
superior military might of Muslim soldiers was territories in India. He laid the foundation of
yet another factor that contributed to success the Slave Dynasty. This dynasty is also known
in their conquests. In this lesson, we discuss as Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk is an Arabic word
how Turkish warriors set about founding and meaning ‘‘slave’’. Qutb-ud-din-Aibak, Shams-
consolidating their Islamic rule till the advent ud-din-Iltutmish and Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban
of Babur. were the three great Sultans of this dynasty. The
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Slave Dynasty ruled over the sub-continent for by suppressing rebellions. It was during his
about 84 years. reign that the threat of Mongols under Chengiz
Khan loomed large over the frontiers of India.
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak (1206 - 1210)
He averted the impending danger by refusing
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak began his rule by to provide shelter to the Kwarezm Shah Jalal-
establishing Lahore as the capital of his kingdom. ud-din, who had been driven out by Chengiz
Later he shifted his capital to Delhi. He was Khan. In order to counter the possible attack
active all through his rule in Delhi conquering of the Mongols, Iltutmish organised Turkish
new territories and suppressing rebellions. nobility into a select group of 40 nobles known
He personally led military campaigns to the as chahalgani or The Forty.
central and western Indo-Gangetic plain (north
Iltutmish granted iqtas (land) to members
India) and left the conquest of the eastern
of his army. Iqta is the land granted to army
Gangetic Plain (Bihar, Bengal) to the care of
officials in lieu of a regular wage. The iqta
Bakhtiar Khalji. Aibak built the Quwwat-ul-
holder is called the iqtadar or muqti who had
Islam Masjid (mosque) in Delhi. This mosque is
to provide the Sultan with military assistance
considered to be the oldest in India. He also laid
in times of war. The iqtadar collected revenue
the foundation of the Qutb-Minar, but he was
from his iqta to meet the cost of maintaining his
unable to complete it. It was later finished by his
troops and horses.
son-in-law and his successor Iltutmish. Aibak
died of injuries received during an accidental
fall from a horse, while playing polo in 1210.

Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid

Iltutmish (1210 - 1236)

Aibak’s son Aram Shah proved incompetent
and so the Turkish nobles chose Iltutmish, the
son-in-law of Aibak as the Sultan, who served
as a military commander of Aibak. Iltutmish
Qutb-Minar
firmly established his control over the territories

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Iltutmish completed the construction of the assurance that Mongols would not advance
the Qutb-Minar, which had been started by beyond Sutlej.
Aibak. Iltutmish died in April 1236 after ruling
for 26 years.

Razia (1236 - 1240)

As the most capable son of Iltutmish, Rukn-ud-
din-Firuz, was dead, Iltutmish nominated his
daughter Razia Sultana as his successor to the
throne of Delhi. Razia was an able and brave
fighter. But she had a tough time with Turkish
nobles as she favoured non-Turkish nobles. She Tomb of Balban
also faced the situation of the ferocious Mongols
raiding Punjab during her reign. Balban built forts to guard his empire
against the Mongol attacks. He patronised the
Razia made an Ethiopian slave named
famous Persian poet Amir Khusru. Balban died
Jalal-ud-din Yakut as her personal attendant
in 1287. Balban’s son Kaiqubad turned out to
and started trusting him completely. This led
be weak. In 1290 Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the
to a revolt of the Turkish nobles who conspired
commander of the army, assumed the office
against her and got her murdered in 1240.
of Naib (a deputy to the Sultan) and ruled the
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266 - 1287) kingdom in the name of Kaiqubad. Then one
day, Jalal-ud-din sent one of his officers and had
After Razia, three weak rulers in succession
Kaiqubad murdered. Jalal-ud-din then formally
ascended the throne. After them came Ghiyas-
ascended the throne. With him began the rule
ud-din Balban. Balban abolished The Forty
of Khalji dynasty.
as it was hostile to him. He established a
department of spies to gather intelligence Khalji Dynasty (1290 - 1320)
about the conspirators and the trouble makers
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1296 - 1316)
against his rule. He dealt with insubordination
and defiance of royal authority sternly. Tughril There were many military campaigns during
Khan, a provincial governor in Bengal, who the reign of Jalal-ud-din. But they were mostly
raised a banner of revolt against Balban, was organised and led by his nephew, Ala-ud-
captured and beheaded. He was ruthless in din, the governor of Kara. One significant
dealing with enemies like Meos of Mewat (a military expedition was against the Deccan
Muslim Rajput community from north-western kingdom Devagiri. Ala-ud-din, after defeating
India). Balban, however, took care to maintain the Yadava king Ramachandra, plundered
cordial relationship with the Mongols. He the city and returned with huge wealth. Ala-
obtained from Hulagu Khan, a grandson of ud-din treacherously killed Jalal-ud-din after
Chengiz Khan and the Mongol viceroy in Iran, buying off the prominent nobles and important
commanders with the wealth he had brought

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from the Deccan and declared himself as the the agrarian resources around his capital and
Sultan of Delhi in 1296. fixed a standard revenue demand. He entrusted
the task of collecting the revenue to the military
Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296 - 1316)
officers. This measure deprived the local chiefs
Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidated the Delhi and rajas of their time memorial privilege.
Sultanate. The range of his conquests is Ala-ud-din established a system of forced
impressive: in the Punjab (against the Mongols), procurement of food grains for Delhi and other
in Rajasthan and in Gujarat. With his northern garrison centres. The procurement prices were
frontiers secure, he sent his chief lieutenant fixed and grain collected as tax was stored in state
Malik Kafur into the southern parts who took granaries. In order to ensure the enforcement
even the distant Madurai in 1310. The Yadavas of his new regulations, he employed spies who
of Devagiri, the Kakatias of Warangal, the were responsible to report to him directly.
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of
Ala-ud-din died in 1316. The failure of his
Madurai accepted Ala-ud-din’s suzerainty.
successors to retain power led to the seizure of
Sack of Chittor power by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, who founded
(1303): When the Tughluq dynasty.
Ala-ud-din’s army
Tughluq Dynasty (1320 - 1324)
overwhelmed the
Rajput army in One of the major tasks of Ghiyas-ud-din as the
Chittor and in the Sultan was to recover the territories that the
context of threat of defeat, the men and Sultanate had lost during the turmoil following
women of the fortress, in accordance the death of Ala-ud-din. Ghiyas-ud-din
with their old custom, performed the Tughluq sent his son Jauna Khan to fight against
rite of jauhar. According to this custom, Warangal. Jauna Khan defeated Pratabarudra of
left with no other way to survive, the Warangal and returned with a rich booty. With
men would go out and die in the field this looted wealth, Ghiyas-ud-din is said to have
of battle and women would burn laid the foundation of the city Tughluqabad near
themselves on a pyre. Delhi. However, as Ala-ud-din treacherously
killed his uncle, Jauna Khan was said to have
killed his father and ascended the throne with
title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq in 1325.

Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (1325 - 1351)

Chittor Fort Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was a learned
man. Yet he was a person of cruelty. Ala-ud-
din had conquered, looted and left the old
Ala-ud-din’s political and administrative
ruling families as his dependents. In contrast,
reforms were as impressive as his military
Muhammad Tughluq dreamt of making the
conquests. Ala-ud-din undertook a survey of
whole of the subcontinent his domain. With

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the view to facilitating extended sovereignty, he which triggered peasant revolts. As the revolts
shifted his capital from Delhi to the centre of were cruelly dealt with, peasants abandoned
the kingdom, namely Devagiri. He also changed cultivation, which resulted in the outbreak of
its name to Daulatabad. When Muhammad frequent famines.
himself decided that the move was a mistake,
he ordered a return to Delhi as the capital again.
When Ibn Battuta, the Morocco traveller who
was with the Sultan, returned to Delhi, he found
Delhi ‘empty, abandoned and had but a small
population’.

It was a 40-days march to Coins of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq

Daulatabad from Delhi. Many people
left. Some hid themselves. When they Tughluq ruled as Sultan for 25 years.
were found, they were punished cruelly, During his long reign, he had to face many
even though one was a blind man and revolts of the provincial governors. The
another a paralytic. Describing the city Governors of Awadh, Multan and Sind revolted
as spreading over eight or ten miles, a and declared themselves independent. In South
historian observed: ‘All was destroyed. India, several states arose. The new Daulatabad
So complete was the ruin that not a cat and the conquered territories around them were
or a dog was left among the buildings of declared independent sultanate called Bahmani.
the city in its palaces or in its suburbs.’ Its founder after whom it was named, was a
soldier formerly in Tughluq service. Madurai
was proclaimed a separate sultanate in 1334.
Tughluq changed the Ala-ud-din’s system Bengal became independent in 1346. Tughluq
of revenue collections in grain and ordered died on 23 March 1351.
that land revenue, which was increased, should
Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351 - 1388)
henceforward be collected in money. This
proved disastrous during famines. When he
discovered that the stock of coins and silver
was inadequate for minting, he issued a token
currency in copper. Counterfeiting soon
became order of the day and, as a result, the
entire revenue system collapsed. Trade suffered
as foreign merchants stopped business. This
forced Sultan to withdraw the token currency
and pay gold and silver coins in exchange.
This move led the state to become bankrupt. Tomb of Firoz Shah Tughluq
Tughluq increased land tax in the Doab region,

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Firoz, the son of Ghiyas-ud-din’s younger He promoted agriculture by waiving off the
brother, succeeded Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. debts of the agriculturalists and constructing
Firoz could neither suppress revolts nor win many canals for irrigation. He laid out 1200
back the provinces that had broken away. He new gardens and restored 30 old gardens of Ala-
also showed no interest in re-conquering the ud-din-Khalji. He had built new towns such as
southern provinces. He refused to accept an Firozabad, Jaunpur, Hissar and Firozpur.
invitation (c. 1365) from a Bahmani prince to
Despite adopting a peaceful approach and
intervene in the affairs of the Deccan. Firoz
taking efforts to organise the Sultanate well, he
rewarded Sufis and other religious leaders
had to spend his last days in unhappiness. His
generously and listened to their advice. He also
own son Muhammad Khan revolted against
created charities to aid poor Muslims, built
him and Firoz Shah died in September 1388, at
colleges, mosques, and hospitals. He adopted
the age of 83.
many humanitarian measures. He banned
inhuman punishments and abolished taxes not
recognised by Muslim law.

Ind
us
TUGHLUQ DYNASTY
N
W E
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LAHORE

Ga
DELHI n
Yam ga
un
a a putra
Brahm

I N D I A
AHMADABAD
da
Narma
Tap
DAULATABAD
Godava
BOMBAY ri

BAY
Krishna OF
GOA
ARABIAN BENGAL
SEA MADRAS
Anda
Lakshadweep Island

m a n

CALICUT Kaveri TRANQUEBAR

(INDIA)

a
(INDIA)
nd Nicobar

MADURAI
TUGHLUQ DYNASTY
Isla
nd

INDIAN OCEAN Not to Scale

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Timur’s Invasion (1398) representative Khizr Khan as the governor of

the territories he had conquered (Delhi, Meerut
The sacking and massacre by Tamerlane or
and Punjab). He founded the Sayyid Dynasty in
Timur of Delhi came a decade after Firuz
1414, which lasted till 1451. The last ruler of this
Shah Tughluq died. As a ruler of the region
dynasty, Ala-ud-din Alam Shah, abdicated the
around Samarkand in Central Asia, Timur had
throne in 1451. This gave Bahlol Lodi, then the
occupied some parts in the north-west of India.
governor of Sirhind (Punjab), the opportunity
Taking advantage of India’s weakness, he entered
to become the new Sultan of Delhi, leading to
India in December 1398 and plundered Delhi.
the establishment of Lodi dynasty.
Punjab, besides the Delhi city, was the province
that suffered most by Timur’s raid. Timur, apart Lodi Dynasty (1451 - 1526)
from carrying huge wealth in the form of gold,
In 1489, Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by his son
silver, jewels, also took along Indian artisans like
Sikandar Lodi. Sikandar was a patron of arts
carpenters and masons to work on monuments
and learning. He founded the city of Agra and
in Samarkand.
made it his capital. He died in 1517 and was
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451) succeeded by his son, Ibrahim Lodi, who was
defeated by Babur in 1526 in the Panipat battle.
Though the Sultanate fragmented into a
Thus the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate
number of independent kingdoms, it endured
were ended by Babur who went on to establish
for 114 years more, till the Mughal invasion.
the Mughal Empire in India.
Before leaving Delhi, Timur had left behind his

Islamic art and architecture: The mansions of high-ranking Muslim nobles, soldiers and
officials were built first in cities and the neighbourhoods. Around them, the mosques in the
imperial style were constructed by successive Muslim regimes in Delhi. Mosques and Madrasas
looked architecturally different. The graceful decorations of doorways and walls with lines
from the Koran made a distinct appearance in these buildings. The shape of all these buildings
was Persian, while the decoration was Indian. So, it is called Indo-Saracenic architecture. Qutb
Minar, Alai-Darwaza, Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, the tombs of Iltutmish,
Balban and the forts of Daulatabad and Firozabad were all constructed in this style.

Daulatabad Fort Alai-Darwaza

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Summary
™™Establishment of Muslim rule in India by Muhammad Ghori
™™Slave dynasty founded by Qutb – ud- din- Aibak and consolidated by his Son-in-law Iltutmish
™™Razia, the daughter of Iltutmish, a brave fighter and a great administrator
™™Balban’s espionage system and the abolition of The Forty, to reduce the power of Turkish nobles
™™Ala – ud- din- Khalji as the founder of Khalji dynasty - his military conquests and administrative
reforms
™™Firoz Shah Tughluq as a compassionate ruler with his concentration on the well - being of the
people
™™The sacking of Delhi by Timur
™™Khizr Khan founding the Sayyid dynasty and Bahlol Lodi the governor of Sirhind establishing the
Lodi dynasty
™™The first battle of Panipat paving the way for the foundation of Mughal Empire by Babur in A.D.
(CE)1526

Glossary
1. impending about to happen எக்கணமும் நடைபெற
இருக்கிற / அச்சுறுத்தும்
நிலையில் இருக்கிற
2. ferocious cruel, violent மூர்க்கமான/ அச்சம் தருகிற
வகையில்
3. conspirator someone who conspires secretly with சதிகாரர்கள்
other people to do something unlawful
or harmful
4. patron supporter, promoter புரவலர்
5. plunder to steal goods forcibly from a place க�ொள்ளையடி
especially during a war
6. procurement the process of getting supplies க�ொள்முதல்
7. disastrous causing great damage பேரழிவு
8. fragment break into pieces துண்டு துண்டாக
9. counterfeit fake ப�ோலியான
10. waiving exempting விலக்கு அளி

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5. The threat of Mongols under Chengizkhan

Evaluation to India was during the reign
of_________________________.
iltutmish

III Match the following

I Choose the correct answer
A B
1 . ____________laid the
1. Tughril Khan Governor of Kara
foundation of ‘ Mamluk’
2. Ala-ud-din Jalal-ud-din Yakut 4
dynasty.
3. Bahlol Lodi Governor of Bengal
a) Mohammad Ghori
4. Razia Governor of Sirhind 3
b) Jalal-ud-din
c) Qutb-ud-din Aibak IV State true or false
d) Iltutmish 1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak died of mysterious
2. Qutb-ud-in shifted his capital to Delhi fever.
from_____________. 2. Razia was an able and brave fighter.
3. The Turkish nobles chose Iltutmish, son of
a) Lahore b) Poona Aibak, as Sultan after the death of Aibak.
c) Daulatabad d) Agra 4. FirozShah Tughluq refused to accept
3. ______________ completed the an invitation from a Bahmani Prince to
construction of the Qutb-Minar. intervene in the affairs of the Deccan.
a) Razia b) Qutb-ud-din -Aibak V. Match the statement with the
c) Iltutmish d) Balban reason.Tick the appropriate answer
4. _________laid the foundation of the city
Tughluqabad near Delhi. Assertion:-(A)Balban maintained cordial
relationship with Mongols
a) Muhammad-bin -Tughluq
Reason:- (R) The Mongol ruler, a grandson
b) Firoz shah Tughluq
of Chengiz Khan, assured that Mongols
c) Jalal –ud-din
would not advance beyond Sutlej.
d) Ghiyas –ud-din
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
II Fill in the Blanks
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
ghiyas ud din c) A and R are wrong.
1. ___________ was the founder of Tughluq
dynasty. d) A is wrong and R is the correct.

2. Muhammad–bin-Tughluq shifted his b) Find out the correct pair

capital from Delhi to___________.
1. Hoysala _ Devagiri
3. ____________
balban patronized the famous 2. Yadavas _ Dwarasamudra
Persian poet Amir Khusru. 3. Kakatias _ Warrangal
4. Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid in Delhi was 4. Pallavas _ Madurai
built by______________
qutbudin aibak .

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c) Find out the wrong statement /statements X Student Activity

1. After Ghori’s death in 1206, his slave Qutb- 1. Match the Father with Son
ud-din Aibak proclaimed him self the ruler
A B
of the Turkish territories in India.
1. Qutb-ud-din Rukn-ud-din-Firuz
2. Razia established the department of spies to
Aibak
gather intelligence about the conspirators
2. Iltutmish Kaiqubad
and the trouble makers against her rule.
3. Balban Ala-ud-din
3. Balban built forts to guard his empire
against the Mongol attack. 4. Ghiyas-ud-din Sikandar Lodi

4. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in 5. Bahlol Lodi Aram Shah

1526. 2. Prepare an album of pictures of Islamic art
VI Answer the following in one or and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate .
two sentences References
1. Name the land granted to army officials in 1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New
lieu of a regular wage. Delhi:Penguin, 2014.
2. Who founded the city of Agra?
2. R.C Majumdar, H.C. Ray Chaudhuri and
3. Name the ruler who established Muslim
Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of
rule in India in 12th century A.D (CE).
India, New Delhi:Trinity, 2018.
4. Write a note on chahalgani.
3. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi:
5. How did Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidate the
Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
Delhi Sultanate?
6. List out the contributions of Firoz Shah 4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India, New
Tughluq. Delhi: Axis Books, 2013.

VII Answer the following

1. Write about the invasion of Timur in 1398.

VIII HOTs

1. How would you evaluate Muhammad-bin-

Tughluq as Sultan of Delhi?

IX. Map Work

On the river map of India draw the extent
of Tughluq Dynasty and mark the following
places.

1. Delhi, 2. Devagiri, 3. Lahore, 4. Madurai.

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UNIT Advent of Arabs

and Turks
10
Learning Objectives
„„To learn the nature and outcome of the Arab Conquest of Sind and the
military raids of Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor
„„To acquire knowledge about the nature of Delhi Sultanate under its
various dynasties.
„„To know the socio-economic conditions of the country under the Sultanate.
„„To understand the impact of Islam in India with reference to syncretism in literature, art,
music and architecture.

Introduction in such a way that the students examine it

critically and raise new questions.
The period from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth centuries (1206-1526 CE) saw the Advent of Arabs: The Context
arrival of Islamic institutions and Islamic The geographical location of Arabia
culture in India. Historians have interpreted facilitated trade contact between India and
the history of this period from differing Arabia. As sea-faring traders the pre-Islamic
perspectives. Conventionally the regimes of Arabs had maritime contacts with the western
the Sultanate have been evaluated in terms of and eastern coasts of India. Arabs too settled in
achievements and failures of individual Sultans. Malabar and the Coromandel Coast. The Arabs
A few historians, critiquing this personality- who married Malabar women and settled down
oriented history, have evaluated the Sultanate on the West Coast were called Mappillais (sons-
as having contributed to material and cultural in-law). Arab military expedition in 712 and
development, leading to the evolution of a subsequent Ghaznavid and the Ghori military
composite culture in India. Historians focusing raids, intended to loot and use the resources
on history of class relations, have argued that the seized to strengthen their power in Central
medieval state served as the agent of the ruling Asia, created a relationship of the conqueror
class and hence, the regimes of the Sultanate were and the conquered. Following the invasion of
diminutive in their institutional advancement Afghanistan by Khurasan (Eastern Iran) Shah
when compared with the Great Mughals. Thus and later by Chengiz Khan severed the ties of
there is no consensus yet amongst scholars in North India Sultanate with Afghanistan. Mongol
determining the true nature of the Sultanate. invasions destroyed the Ghurid Sulatanate and
The two-fold objective of this lesson Ghazni, and cut into the resources of Sultan
are: (a) to introduce the students to a Nasir-ud-din Qubacha (1206-1228), the ruler
conventional study of rulers, events, ideas, of Uchch and Multan. Thus the Sultan Iltutmish
people and their conditions under the had the opportunity of expanding his influence
Sultanate, and (b) to structure the content in northern India that enabled Muslim rulers to

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rule Indian provinces with Delhi as capital for

about four centuries. Persian chronicles speak about the Delhi
Sultanate in hyperbolic terms. Their views
Though it is customary to describe this dealing with the happenings during the
period as the Muslim period, the rulers of period of a certain Sultan were uncritically
medieval India came from different regions appropriated into modern scholarship.—
and ethnicities: Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Sunil Kumar, Emergence of Delhi Sultanate
Central Asians were involved militarily and
administratively. Iltutmish was an Ilbari
10.1  The Arab
Turk and many of his military slaves were
of different Turkish and Mongol ancestries Conquest of Sind
brought to Delhi by merchants from Bukhara, The Arab governor of Iraq, Hajjaj Bin Yusuf,
Samarkhand and Baghdad. There were some under the pretext of acting against the pirates,
slaves of other ethnicities as well (notably sent two military expeditions against Dahar, the
Hindu Khan, captured from Mihir in Central ruler of Sind, one by land and the other by sea.
India) but Iltutmish gave them all Turkish Both were defeated and commanders killed.
titles. Hajjaj then sent, with the Caliph’s permission,
The Sultanate (1206–1526) itself was not a full-fledged army, with 6000 strong cavalry
homogenous. Its rulers belonged to five distinct and a large camel corps carrying all war
categories: (a) Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) requirements under the command of his son-
in-law, a 17-year-old Muhammad Bin Qasim.
(b) Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320) (c) Tughlaq
Dynasty (1320-1414) (d) Sayyid Dynasty (1414- Muhammad Bin Qasim
1451) and (e) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526).
Muhammad Bin Qasim marched on the
Sources for the Study of Delhi fortress of Brahmanabad where Dahar was
Sultanate stationed with a huge army. Dahar’s wazir
(Prime minister) betrayed him, which was
„„Al-Beruni: Tarikh-Al-Hind (Indian followed by the desertion of a section of his
Philosophy and Religion written in Arabic) forces. The predecessors of Dahar, the Brahmin
„„Minhaj us Siraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (1260) rulers of Sind, had usurped power from the
(World Islamic History written in Arabic) earlier Buddhist ruling dynasty of Sind and,
„„Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi(1357) with the patronage of Dahar Brahmins, had
History of Delhi Sultanate up to Firuz Tughlaq occupied all higher positions. This led to
„„Amir Khusrau: Mifta Ul Futuh (Victories discontentment and therefore Dahar lacked
of Jalal-ud-din Khalji); Khazain Ul Futuh popular support. In this context it was easy for
Muhammad Qasim to capture Brahmanabad.
(Victories of Allauddin Khalji - Texts in
Qasim thereupon ravaged and plundered Debal
Persian)
(Port) for three days. Qasim called on the people
„„Tughlaq Nama (History of Tughlaq dynasty of Sind to surrender, promising full protection
in Persian) to their faith. He sent the customary one-fifth of
„„Shams-i-Siraj Afif: Tarikh i Firuz Shahi (after the plunder to the Caliph and divided the rest
Barani’s account of Delhi Sultanate in Persian) among his soldiers.
„„Ghulam Yahya Bin Ahmad: Tarikh-i- The Arab conquest of Sind has been
Mubarak Shahi (Written in Persian during described as a “triumph without results”
the reign of Sayyid ruler Mubarak Shah) because it touched but a fringe of the country,
„„Ferishta: History of the Muslim Rule in India which, after Qasim’s expedition had a respite
(Persian) from invasions for about three centuries.
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Mahmud of Ghazni and plunder and destruction of their places of

worship. However, there is little evidence of any
In the meantime, the Arab empire in
large scale conversion of people to their faith.
Central Asia had collapsed with several of its
Even those who became Muslims to save their
provinces declaring themselves independent.
lives and properties, returned to their original
One of the major kingdoms that emerged out
of the broken Arab empire was the Samanid faith when the threat of Ghaznavid invasion
kingdom which also splintered, leading to ceased.
several independent states. In 963 Alaptigin, After defeating the Shahi king Anandapala,
a Turkic slave who had served Samanids as Mahmud went beyond Punjab, penetrating
their governor in Khurasan, seized the city of deep into the Indo-Gangetic plain. Before
Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan and established reaching Kanauj, Mahmud raided Mathura.
an independent kingdom. Alaptigin died soon In later historiography, of both the British and
after. After the failure of three of his successors, Indian nationalists, Mahmud is notorious for
the nobles enthroned Sabuktigin. his invasion of the temple city of Somnath
Sabuktigin initiated the process of southward (1025) on the seashore in Gujarat. Many
expansion into the Indian sub-continent. He scholars argue that these plundering raids
defeated the Shahi ruler of Afghanistan, Jayapal, were more of political and economic character
and conferred the governorship of the province than of religious chauvinism. Desecration of
on Mahmud, his eldest son. When Sabuktagin temples, vandalising the images of deities were
died in 997, Mahmud was in Khurasan. Ismail, all part of asserting one’s authority in medieval
the younger son of Sabuktagin had been India. Mahmud’s raids and his deeds fit this
named his successor. But defeating Ismail in a pattern, though their memories went into the
battle, Mahmud, aged twenty-seven, ascended creation of communal divide.
the throne and the Caliph acknowledged his This apart, the plundering raids of
accession by sending him a robe of investiture Mahmud were meant to replenish the treasury
and by conferring on him the title Yamini-ud- to maintain his huge army. The Turks relied on
Daulah (‘Right-hand of the Empire’). a permanent, professional army. It was built
around an elite corps of mounted archers who
To Arabs and Iranians, India was Hind and were all slaves, bought, trained, equipped, and
the Indians were ‘Hindus’. But as Muslim paid in cash from the war booty taken alike
communities arose in India, the name from Hindu kingdoms in India and Muslim
‘Hindu’ came to apply to all Indians who kingdoms in Iran.
were not Muslims. Persian sources contain exaggerated claims
about the wealth seized from these raids. For
Mahmud’s Military Raids instance, it is claimed that Mahmud’s plunder
Mahmud ruled for thirty-two years. of the Iranian city of Ray, in 1029, brought
During this period, he conducted as many as him 500,000 dinars worth of jewels, 260,000
seventeen military campaigns into India. He dinars in coins, and over 30,000 dinars worth
targeted Hindu temples that were depositories of gold and silver vessels. Similarly, Mahmud’s
of vast treasures. Though the motive was to raid on Somnath (1025) is believed to have
loot, there was also a military advantage in brought in twenty million dinars worth of
demolishing temples and smashing idols. spoils. Romila Thapar points out that those who
The Ghaznavid soldiers viewed it also as a had suffered from these predatory invasions
demonstration of the invincible power of seemed to maintain a curious silence about
their god. The religious passions of Mahmud’s them, as Hindu and Jain sources available on
army expressed itself in slaughter of ‘infidels’ Somnath expedition do not corroborate the
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Muhammad Ghori
If Ghaznavid
invasions were
intended for loot, the
Ghurids enlarged
their scope to establish
garrison towns to
ensure the regular
flow of plunder and
Somnath Temple tribute. Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori
details or viewpoints found in Arab chronicles. Muhammad of the (modern representation)
Such plundering raids were economic and Ghori dynasty, known generally as Muhammad
iconoclastic in nature, and communal character Ghori, invested in territories he seized. Through
was attributed to them later. They represented the 1180s and 1190s Ghori established garrisons
the kinds of disasters that were inseparable from in the modern provinces of Punjab, Sind, and
contemporary warfare and the usual plundering Haryana. These centres of military power soon
nature of rulers of the medieval period. attracted the in-migration of mercenaries in
The history of the Ghaznavid dynasty after search of opportunities. These mercenaries
the death of Mahmud is a story of endless clashes were recruited to organize fiscal and military
over succession between brothers, cousins, and affairs of the Sultanate. The Sultan’s military
uncles. There were, however, exceptions like commanders in north India were drawn from
Sultan Ibrahim who ruled for over forty-two his elite military class. Specially trained in
years and his son Masud who ruled for warfare and governance these slaves were
seventeen years. The ever-hanging threat from different from agrestic (related to land\field
Ghuris from the north and the Seljuq Turks labour) and domestic slaves. Lahore, then Uchch
from the west proved to be disastrous for the and Multan were initially considered significant
kingdom. The later rulers of Ghaznavid dynasty centres of power. In 1175 Ghori headed for the
could exercise their authority only in the Lahore city of Multan which he seized from its Ismaili
region and even this lasted only for three ruler. The fort of Uchch fell without a fight. The
decades. In 1186 Ghuri prince Muizz-ud-din Chalukyas of Gujarat inflicted a crushing defeat
Muhammad invaded Punjab and seized Lahore. on Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu (1179). After
The last ruler Khurav Shah was imprisoned this defeat Ghori changed the course of his
and murdered in 1192. With his death the expedition, consolidating his position in Sind
Ghaznavid house of Mahmud came to an end. and the Punjab.
Prithviraj Chauhan
Al-Beruni, mathematician, philosopher,
astronomer, and historian, came to India Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda
along with Mahmud of Ghazni. He learned (Bhatinda), a strategic point for the Chauhans
Sanskrit, studied religious and philosophical of Ajmer. The ruler of Ajmer Prithviraj Chauhan
texts before composing his work Kitab Ul marched to Tabarhinda and faced the invader
Hind. He also translated the Greek work in the First Battle of Tarain (1191). Prithviraj
of Euclid into Sanskrit. He transmitted scored a brilliant victory in this battle but failed
Aryabhata’s magnum opus Aryabattiyam
to consolidate his position believing this battle
(the thesis that earth’s rotation around its
to be a frontier fight, and did not expect the
axis creates day and night) to the West. He
was the inter-civilizational connect between Ghurids to make regular attacks. Ghori was
India and the rest of the world. wounded and carried away by a horseman
to safety. Contrary to the expectations of
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Prithviraj Chauhan,
Muhammad Ghori The world famous Khajuraho temple complex
consisting of many temples including the
marched into India
Lakshmana temple, Vishwanatha temple
in the following year and Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built
(1192). Prithviraj by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand who ruled
underestimated the from Khajuraho.
potential danger of
the enemy. In the The Rajputs had a long tradition of
Second Battle of Prithviraj Chauhan
martial spirit, courage and bravery. There was
Tarain, one of the (modern representation) little difference between the weapons used by
the Turks and the Rajputs. But in regimental
turning points in Indian history, Prithviraj
discipline and training the Rajputs were lax. In
suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually
planning their tactics to suit the conditions, the
captured. Ghori restored him to his throne in
Turks excelled. Moreover, the Turkish cavalry
Ajmer. But on charges of treason he was later was superior to the Indian cavalry. The Rajput
executed, and Ghori’s trusted general Qutb-ud- forces depended more on war elephants, which
din Aibak was appointed as his deputy in India. were spectacular but slow moving compared to
the Turkish cavalry. The Turkish horsemen had
Jaya Chandra of Kanauj
greater mobility and were skilled in mounted
Soon Ghori was back in India to fight archery. This was a definite military advantage
against the Kanauj ruler Jaya Chandra. When which the Turks used well against their enemies
all Rajput chiefs had stood by Prithviraja in and emerged triumphant in the battles.
his battles against Muhammad Ghori, Jaya Foundation of Delhi Sultanate
Chandra stood apart, as there was enmity
between Prithviraj and Jai Chandra, on account 10.2 The Slave Dynasty
of Prithviraj’s abduction of Jaya Chandra’s After the death of Ghori there were many
daughter Samyukta. So Ghori easily defeated contenders for power. One was Qutb-ud-din
Jaya Chandra and returned to Ghazni with an Aibak, who ascended the throne in Delhi with
enormous booty. On the way while camping his father-in-law Yildiz remaining a threat to
on the banks of Indus, he was killed by some him for the next ten years. The three important
unidentified assassins. rulers of this dynasty are Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
Iltutmish and Balban.
Rajput Kingdoms
By the beginning of the tenth century two The Slave dynasty is also known as the
powerful Rajput Kingdoms Gurjar Prathihara Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk means property. It
is also the term for the Arabic designation of
and Rashtrakutas had lost their power. Tomaras
a slave.
(Delhi), Chauhans (Rajasthan), Solankis
(Gujarat), Paramaras (Malwa), Gahadavalas Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)
(Kanauj) and Chandelas (Bundelkhand)
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was enslaved as a
had become important ruling dynasties of
boy and sold to Sultan Muhammad Ghori at
Northern India. Vighraharaja and Prithviraj, Ghazni. Impressed with his ability and loyalty
two prominent Chauhan rulers, Bhoja of the Sultan elevated him to the rank of viceroy of
Paramara dynasty, Ghadavala king Jayachandra, the conquered provinces in India. Muhammad
Yasovarman, Kirti Varman of Chandelas were Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji, a Turkish general from
all strong in their own regions. Afghanistan assisted him in conquering Bihar and
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Bengal. Qutb-ud-din Aibak reigned for four years rebellions of Rajputs at Gwalior, Ranthambor,
(1206 to 1210 CE) and died in 1210 in Lahore in Ajmer and Jalore. He overcame the challenge
an accident while playing chaugan (Horse polo). of Nasiruddin Qabacha in Lahore and Multan,
and frustrated the conspiracy of Alivardan, the
Bhakthiyar Khalji is charged with destroying Governor of Bengal. He diplomatically saved
the glorious Buddhist University of Nalanda India by refusing to support the Khwarizmi
in Bihar, who is said to have mistaken it Shah Jalaluddin of Central Asia against the
for a military camp! Detailed descriptions Mongol ruler Chengiz Khan. Had he supported
of Nalanda is found in the travel accounts
Jalaluddin, the Mongols would have overrun
of Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang. The
India with ease. His reign was remarkable
manuscripts and texts in the hundreds of
thousands in the Nalanda library on subjects for the completion of Qutb Minar, a colossal
such as grammar, logic, literature, astronomy victory tower of 243 feet at Delhi, and for the
and medicine were lost in the Turkish introduction of copper and silver tanka, the two
depredations. basic coins of the Sultanate period.

Since the dynastic traditions of the ‘slave
Iltutmish (1211–1236) regime’ were weak, succession to the throne was
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210-36) of not smooth after Iltutmish’s death. The monarch
Turkish extraction was a slave of Qutb-ud- was succeeded by a son, a daughter (Sultana
din Aibak. Many of his elite slaves were also Razia), another son, and a grandson, all within
of Turkish and Mongol ancestry. They were ten years, and finally by his youngest son Sultan
brought to Delhi by merchants from trade Nasir al-Din Mahmud II (1246–66). Iltutmish’s
centres like Bukhara, Samarqand and Baghdad. descendants fought long but in vain with their
(There were some slaves of other ethnicities as father’s military slaves who had been appointed
well). But Iltutmish gave them all Turkish titles. as governors of vast territories and generals of
Iltutmish’s reliance on his elite military slaves large armies. They constantly interfered in Delhi
(Bandagan) and his practice of appointing them politics, dictating terms to Iltutmish’s successors.
for the posts of governors and generals in far- Though Iltutmish’s royal slaves (bandagan-i-
off places did not change despite the migration khas) were replaced by junior bandagan, the
into North India of experienced military latter were not oriented to their master’s vision
commanders from distinguished lineages of a paramount, monolithic Sultanate to the
fleeing from the Mongols. same extent as their predecessors.
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, the slave and The slave governors located in the eastern
son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, ascended province of Lakhnauti (modern Bengal) and
the throne of Delhi setting aside the claim of the Punjab and Sind provinces in the west
Aram Shah, the son of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. were the first to break free from Delhi. Those
During his tenure he put down the internal in the ‘core territories’ the regions of Delhi

Raziya Sultana (1236-1240). Raziya was daughter of Iltutmish, who ascended the throne after a lot
of hurdles put up by the Turkish nobles. According to Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, ‘Raziya
rode on horseback as men ride, armed with a bow and quiver, and surrounded by courtiers. She
did not veil her face.’ Yet Raziya ruled for only three and half years. The elevation of an Abyssinian
slave, Jalal-ud-din Yaqut, to the post of Amir-i-Akhur, Master of the Stables, a very high office,
angered the Turkish nobles. The nobles overplayed her closeness with Yakut and tried to depose
her. Since Raziya enjoyed popular support, they could not do anything in Delhi. But while she was
on a punitive campaign against the rebel governor Altuniya in southern Punjab, the conspirators
used that occasion to dethrone her.

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Bandagan is the plural of banda, literally military slaves. They were graded according to the years
of service, proximity and trustworthiness. This trust led to their appointment as governors and
military commanders. The Ghurid bandagan in North India were the slaves of Muiz-ud-Din
Ghuri. Since these slaves were without a social identity of their own they were given new names
by their masters, which included the nisba, which indicated their social or regional identity. Slaves
carried the nisba of their master: hence Mu‘izz al-Din’s slave carried the nisba Mu‘izzi and later
Sultan Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish’s slave were called the Shamsi bandagan.

and its suburbs sought to resist the intervention were plundering the area with impunity. Balban
of Delhi by consolidating their home bases took it as a challenge and personally undertook
and allied with neighbouring chieftains. After a campaign to destroy the Mewatis. Meos
two decades of conflict amongst the Shamsi were pursued and slaughtered mercilessly. In
bandagan and successive Delhi Sultans, in 1254, the Doab region the Rajput strongholds were
Ulugh Khan, a junior, newly purchased slave destroyed, jungles cleared. Colonies of Afghan
in Iltutmish’s reign and now the commander soldiers were established throughout the region
of the Shivalikh territories in the North-West, to safeguard the roads and deal with rebellions.
seized Delhi. He took the title of na’ib-i mulk, Punitive Expedition against
the Deputy of the Realm, seizing the throne as
Tughril Khan
Sultan Ghiyas ud-din Balban in 1266.
Balban was ruthless in dealing with
Balban (1266-1287) rebellions. He appointed one of his favourite
The political intrigues of the nobility slaves, Tughril Khan, as the Governor of Bengal.
that destabilised the Delhi Sultanate came to But Tughril Khan soon became rebellious.
an end with the accession of Balban as the Amin Khan, the governor of Oudh, sent
Sultan. Assertion of authority by Balban led to by Balban to suppress the rebellion meekly
constant military campaigns against defiant retreated. Enraged by this, Balban sent two
governors and against their local allies. more expeditions, which also suffered defeat.
Barani mentions Balban’s campaigns in the Humiliated by these successive reverses, Balban
regions surrounding Delhi and in the doab. himself proceeded to Bengal. On hearing
During these campaigns forests were cleared, Balban’s approach, Tughril Khan fled. Balban
new roads and forts constructed, the newly pursued him, first to Lakhnauti and then towards
Tripura, where he was captured and beheaded.
deforested lands given to freshly recruited
Bughra Khan, a son of Balban, was thereupon
Afghans and others as rent-free lands
appointed the Governor of Bengal, who carved
(mafruzi) and brought under cultivation.
out an independent kingdom after the death of
New forts were constructed to protect trade
Balban. He did not claim the Delhi throne even
routes and village markets.
in the midst of a leadership crisis and his son
Balban and the Problem of Law Kaiqubad’s indulgence in debauchery.
and Order Measures against Mongol Threats
When Balban took over the reins of power Balban used the threat of Mongols as the
the law and order situation in the Ganga, context to militarise his regime. The frontier
Jamuna Doab regions had deteriorated badly. regions were strengthened with garrisoning of
The Rajput zamindars had set up forts and forts at Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana. At the
defied the orders of the Sultan. Meos, a Muslim same time, he took efforts to maintain a good
community from north-western region, living relationship with Hulagu Khan, the Mongol
in the heavily forested region around Mewat Viceroy of Iran and a grandson of Chengiz Khan.
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The term Mongol refers to all Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribes of Central Asia. In the twelfth
century, they had established a very large kingdom, which included most of modern-day Russia,
China, Korea, south-east Asia, Persia, India, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, under the leadership
of Chengiz Khan. Their phenomenal success is attributed to their fast horses and brilliant cavalry
tactics, their openness to new technologies, and Chengiz Khan’s skill in manipulative politics.

Balban succeeded Ala-ud-din, a nephew and son-in-law of

in obtaining from Jalaluddin Khalji, who was appointed governor of
him the assurance Kara, invaded Malwa and this campaign yielded a
that Mongols would huge booty. The success of this campaign stimulated
not advance beyond his urge to embark on a campaign to raid Devagiri,
Satluj. Halagu Khan the capital city of the Yadava kingdom in Deccan.
reciprocated this On his return he arranged to get Jalaluddin Khalji
gesture by sending murdered and captured the throne.
a goodwill mission Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316)
to Delhi in 1259. Balban’s Tomb (New Delhi) Ala-ud-din and Nobles
However, Muhammad Khan, the favourite son
Ala-ud-din spent
of Balban, who was given the charge of governor the first year of his rule in
of Multan to protect the frontiers from Mongol eliminating the enemies
aggression, was killed in an encounter. Saddened and strengthening his
by this tragedy, Balban fell ill and died in 1286. position in Delhi. Soon
he turned his attention
10.3  The Khaljis (1290-1320) to establishing a firm
hold over the nobles.
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296)
He dismissed several
Ala-ud-din Khalji
As Balban’ son Kaiqubad was found unfit of his top officers. He (modern representation)
to rule, his three-year-old son Kaymars was was particularly severe
placed on the throne. As there was no unanimity with the nobles who had shifted loyalty and
on the choice of a regent and a council to opportunistically joined him against Jalal-ud-din.
administer the empire, the contending nobles
Mongol Threats
plotted against each other. Out of this chaos
a new leader, Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the Mongol raids posed a serious challenge to
commander of the army, emerged supreme. Ala-ud-din. During the second year of his rule
(1298), when Mongols stormed Delhi, the army
While he ruled the kingdom for some time in
sent by Ala-ud-din succeeded in driving them
the name of Kaiqubad, he soon sent one of his
back. But when they returned the following year
officers to get Kaiqubad murdered and Jalal-
with more men, people of the suburbs of Delhi
ud-din formally ascended the throne. However,
had to flee and take refuge in the city. Ala-ud-
Jalal-ud-din faced opposition on the ground din had to meet the problem head-on. In the
that he was an Afghan and not a Turk. But ensuing battle, Mongols were routed. Yet raids
Khaljis were indeed Turks settled in Afghanistan continued until 1305, when they ravaged the
before the establishment of Turkish rule and so doab region. This time, after defeating them, the
they were Afghanized Turks. Jalal-ud-din won Sultan’s army took a large number of Mongols as
many battles and even in old age he marched prisoners and slaughtered them mercilessly. But
out against the Mongol hordes and successfully the Mongol menace continued. The last major
halted their entry into India (1292). Mongol incursion took place in 1307–08.
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Malik Kafur in 1307 to capture Devagiri fort.

Following Devagiri, Prataparudradeva, the
Kakatiya ruler of Warangal in the Telengana
region, was defeated in 1309. In 1310 the
Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III surrendered all his
treasures to the Delhi forces.
Malik Kafur then set out for the Tamil
country. Though Kafur’s progress was
obstructed by heavy rains and floods, he
continued his southward journey, plundering
Attack of Mongols and ravaging the temple cities of Chidambaram
and Srirangam as well as the Pandyan capital
Military Campaigns Madurai. Muslims in Tamil provinces fought
The inability of the Sultanate to effectively on the side of the Pandyas against Malik
harness the agrarian resources of its North Indian Kafur. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with an
territories to sustain its political ambitions was enormous booty in 1311.
evident in its relentless military campaigns Ala-ud-din’s Internal Reforms
in search of loot and plunder. Ala-ud-din’s
The vast annexation of territories was
campaigns into Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314),
followed by extensive administrative reforms
Gujarat (1299–1300), Ranthambhor (1301), aimed at stabilising the government. Ala-ud-
Chittor (1303) and Malwa (1305) were meant to din’s first measure was to deprive the nobles of
proclaim his political and military power as well the wealth they had accumulated. It had provided
as to collect loot from the defeated kingdoms. them the leisure and means to hatch conspiracies
It was with the same plan that he unleashed his against the Sultan. Marriage alliances between
forces into the Deccan. The first target in the families of noble men were permitted only with
peninsula was Devagiri in the western Deccan. the consent of the Sultan. The Sultan ordered
Ala-ud-din sent a large army commanded by that villages held by proprietary right, as free

The Forty System (Chahalgani)

The nobles occupied a position next only to the king in status and rank. Enjoying high social
status and commanding vast resources they at times became strong enough to challenge the king.
In the Delhi Sultanate, nobles were drawn from different tribes and nationalities like the Turkish,
Persian, Arabic, Egyptian and Indian Muslims. Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, all drawn
from Turkish nobility and selected persons from this Forty for appointments in military and civil
administration. The Corps of Forty became so powerful to the extent of disregarding the wishes
of Iltutmish, and after his death, to place Rukn-ud-Din Firoz on the throne. Razziya sought to
counter the influence of Turkish nobles and defend her interest by organizing a group of non-
Turkish and Indian Muslim nobles under the leadership of Yakut, the Abyssinian slave. This was
naturally resented by the Turkish nobles, who got both of them murdered. Thus in the absence of
rule of primogeniture, the nobles sided with any claimants to the throne and either helped in the
choice of the Sultan or contributed to the de-stabilization of the regime. The nobles were organized
into several factions and were constantly engaged in conspiracies. Balban therefore abolished the
Corps of Forty and thereby put an end to the domination of “Turkish nobles”. Alauddin Khalji also
took stern measures against the “Turkish nobles” by employing spies to report to him directly on
their clandestine and perfidious activities.

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gift, or as a religious endowment be brought Ala-ud-din’s Successors

back under the royal authority and control.
Ala-ud-din nominated his eldest son Khizr
He curbed the powers of the traditional village
Khan, as his successor. However, Ala-ud-din’s
officers by depriving them of their traditional
confidant at that time was Malik Kafur. So Malik
privileges. Corrupt royal officials were dealt
Kafur himself assumed the authority of the
with sternly. The Sultan prohibited liquor and
banned the use of intoxicating drugs. Gambling government. But Kafur’s rule lasted only thirty-
was forbidden and gamblers were driven out of five days as he was assassinated by hostile nobles.
the city. However, the widespread violations of Thereafter there were a series of murders which
prohibition rules eventually forced the Sultan to culminated in Ghazi Malik, a veteran of several
relax the restrictions. campaigns against the Mongols, ascending
the throne of Delhi in 1320 as Ghiyas-ud-din
Tughlaq. He murdered the incumbent Khalji
ruler Khusrau and thereby prevented anyone
from Khalji dynasty claiming the throne. Thus
began the rule of the Tughlaq Dynasty, which
lasted until 1414.

Copper coin of Ala-ud-din Khalji

Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly

from the cultivators. The village headman who
traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them
was now deprived of it. The tax pressure of Ala-
ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in
touch with all parts of his sprawling empire. Ala-ud-din’s Tomb (New Delhi)
Sultan’s Market Reforms
10.4 The Tughlaq Dynasty
Ala-ud-din was the first Sultan to pay his
soldiers in cash rather than give them a share of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
booty. As the soldiers were paid less, the prices
(1320–1325)
had to be monitored and controlled. Moreover,
Ala-ud-din had to maintain a huge standing Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq followed a policy
army. In order to restrict prices of essential of reconciliation with the nobles. But in the fifth
commodities, Ala-ud-din set up an elaborate year of his reign (1325) Ghiyas-ud-din died.
intelligence network to collect information on Three days later Jauna Khan ascended the throne
black-marketing and hoarding. The transactions and took the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
in the bazaars, the buying and selling and the
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
bargains made were all reported to the Sultan
by his spies. Market superintendents, reporters (1325-1351)
and spies had to send daily reports on the Muhammad Tughlaq was a learned,
prices of essential commodities. Violators of cultured and talented prince but gained a
the price regulations were severely punished. reputation of being merciless, cruel and unjust.
If any deficiency in weight was found, an equal Muhammad Tughlaq effectively repulsed the
weight of flesh was cut from the seller’s body Mongol army that had marched up to Meerut
and thrown down before his eyes! near Delhi. Muhammad was an innovator. But
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he, unlike Ala-ud-din, lacked the will to execute Token Currency

his plans successfully.

Transfer of Capital
Muhammad Tughlaq’s attempt to
shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in
Maharashtra, which he named Daulatabad,
was a bold initiative. This was after his
realization that it was difficult to rule south Tughlaq’s Coins
India form Delhi. Centrally located, Devagiri The next important experiment of
also had the advantage of possessing a strong Muhammad was the introduction of token
fort atop a rocky hill. Counting on the military currency. This currency system had already
and political advantages, the Sultan ordered been experimented in China and Iran. For
important officers and leading men including India it was much ahead of its time, given that
many Sufi saints to shift to Devagiri. However, it was a time when coins were based on silver
the plan failed, and soon Muhammad realised content. When Muhammad issued bronze
that it was difficult to rule North India from coins, fake coins were minted which could
Daulatabad. He again ordered transfer of not be prevented by the government. The new
capital back to Delhi. coins were devalued to such an extent that the

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY N

W E
In
du
s S

Taxila
m Tughlaq Dynasty
elu
Jh ab
en Major cities
Ch
Lahore
Rav i

j
tlu
Su
Ga
Delhi ng
a
Ya
m
un

ra
put
a

a
hm
Bra

I N D I A
Ahmedabad
Narmada
nadi
Taptii ha
Ma

Goda
Mumbai vari

BAY
ARABIAN Krishna OF
SEA
BENGAL
Goa

Madras
An
ma n da
Lakshad weep isla

Kaveri
a n d n i co b a r

Tranquebar
(I N D I A )

(I N D I A )

is la
nd
s

nd
s

I N D I A N O C E A N
Map not to scale

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government had to withdraw the bronze coins Muhammad bin Tughlaq died without naming
and replace them with silver coins, which told his successor. The claim made by Muhammad’s
heavily on the resources of the empire. sister to his son was not supported by the nobles.
His son, recommended by Muhammad’s friend
Sultan’s Other Innovative
Khan-i Jahan, was a mere child. Under such
Measures circumstances, Firuz ascended the throne.
Equally innovative was Muhammad
Tughlaq's scheme to expand cultivation. But The vizier of Firuz Tughlaq, the famous
it also failed miserably. It coincided with a Khan-i-Jahan, was a Brahmin convert to
Islam. Originally known as Kannu, he was
prolonged and severe famine in the Doab.
captured during the Sultanate campaigns in
The peasants who rebelled were harshly dealt
Warangal (present-day Telangana).
with. The famine was linked to the oppressive
and arbitrary collection of land revenue. The
Sultan established a separate department Conciliatory Policy towards
(Diwan-i-Amir Kohi) to take care of agriculture. Nobles
Loans were advanced to farmers for purchase Firuz Tughlaq followed a conciliatory
of cattle, seeds and digging of wells but to no policy towards the nobles and theologians.
avail. Officers appointed to monitor the crops Firuz restored the property of the owners
were not efficient; the nobility and important who had been deprived of it during the reign
officials were of diverse background. Besides, of Muhammad Tughlaq. He reintroduced the
the Sultan’s temperament had also earned him system of hereditary appointments to offices,
a lot of enemies. a practice which was not favoured by Ala-ud-
Ala-ud-din Khalji had not annexed distant din Khalji. The Sultan increased the salaries
territories knowing full well that they could not of government officials. While toning up the
be effectively governed. He preferred to establish revenue administration, he reduced several
his suzerainty over them. But Muhammad taxes. He abolished many varieties of torture
annexed all the lands he conquered. Therefore, employed by his predecessor. Firuz had a
at the end of his reign, while he faced a series genuine concern for the slaves and established
of rebellions, his repressive measures further a separate government department to attend to
alienated his subjects. Distant regions like their welfare. The slave department took care
Bengal, Madurai, Warangal, Awadh, Gujarat of the wellbeing of 180,000 slaves. They were
and Sind hoisted the flags of rebellion and the trained in handicrafts and employed in the
Sultan spent his last days fighting rebels. While royal workshops.
he was frantically engaged in pursuing a rebel
Firuz Policy of No Wars
leader in Gujarat, he fell ill, and died at the end
of his 26thregnal year (1351). Firuz waged no wars of annexation,
though he was not averse to putting down
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) rebellions challenging his authority. There were
Firuz’s father, Rajab, was the younger only two Mongol incursions during his times,
brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. Both had and both of them were successfully repulsed.
come from Khurasan during the reign of Ala- His Bengal campaign to put down a rebellion
ud-din Khalji. Rajab who had married a Jat there, however, was an exception. His army
princess had died when Firuz was seven years slew thousands and his entry into Odisha on his
old. When Ghiyas-ud-din ascended the throne, way helped him extract the promise of tribute
he gave Firuz command of a 12,000 strong from the Raja. A major military campaign of his
cavalry force. Later Firuz was made in charge period was against Sind (1362). He succeeded
of one of the four divisions of the Sultanate. in routing the enemies on the way. Yet his
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enemies and a famine that broke out during this

period gave Sultan and his army a trying time.
Firuz's army, however, managed to reach Sind.
The ruler of Sind agreed to surrender and pay
tribute to the Sultan.
Religious Policy
Firuz favoured orthodox Islam. He
proclaimed his state to be an Islamic state Firuz Tughlaq’s Tomb
largely to satisfy the theologians. Heretics Timur’s Invasion
were persecuted, and practices considered un-
Islamic were banned. He imposed jizya, a head The last Tughlaq
tax on non-Muslims, which even the Brahmins ruler was Nasir-ud-
were compelled to pay. Yet Firuz did not din Muhammad Shah
prohibit the building of new Hindu temples and (1394–1412), whose
shrines. His cultural interest led to translation reign witnessed the
of many Sanskrit works relating to religion, invasion of Timur from
medicine and music. As an accomplished Central Asia. Turkish
scholar himself, Firuz was a liberal patron of Timur, who could claim
the learned including non-Islamic scholars. a blood relationship
Fond of music, he is credited with establishing with the 12 thcentury Timur
several educational institutions and a number great Mongol Chengiz
of mosques, palaces and forts. Khan, ransacked Delhi virtually without any
opposition. On hearing the news of arrival
Jizya is a tax levied and collected per head by of Timur, Sultan Nasir-ud-din fled Delhi.
Islamic states on non-Muslim subjects living Timur also took Indian artisans such as
in their land. In India, Qutb-ud-din Aibak masons, stone cutters, carpenters whom he
imposed jizya on non-Muslims for the first engaged for raising buildings in his capital
time. Jizya was abolished by the Mughal ruler Samarkhand. Nasir-ud-din managed to
Akbar in 16th century but was re-introduced rule up to 1412. Then the Sayyid and Lodi
by Aurangzeb in the 17th century. dynasties ruled the declining empire from
Delhi till 1526.
Public Works
Firuz undertook many irrigation projects. 10.5  Sayyid Dynasty
A canal he dug from Sutlej river to Hansi and (1414–1451)
another canal in Jumna indicate his sound
policy of public works development. Timur appointed Khizr Khan as his
deputy to oversee Timurid interests in the
Firuz died in 1388, after making his son
Punjab marches. Khizr Khan (1414-21) went
Fath Khan and grandson Ghiyas-ud-din as joint
on to seize Delhi and establish the Sayyid
rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
dynasty (1414–51).The Sayyid dynasty
The principle of heredity permitted for the established by Khizr Khan had four sultans
nobles and applied to the army weakened the ruling up to 1451. The early Sayyid Sultans
Delhi Sultanate. The nobility that had regained ruled paying tribute to Timur’s son. Their
power got involved in political intrigues which rule is marked for the composing of Tarikh-i-
undermined the stability of the Sultanate. Mubarak Shahi by Yahiya bin Ahmad Sirhindi.
Within six years of Firuz Tughlaq’s death four By the end of their rule the empire was largely
rulers succeeded him. confined to the city of Delhi.
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The Delhi Sultanate deserves to be

In the entire history of the Delhi considered an all-India empire. Virtually all of
Sultanate there was only one Sultan India, except Kashmir and Kerala at the far ends
who voluntarily abdicated his
of the subcontinent, and a few small tracts in
throne and moved to a small town
away from Delhi, where he lived for three between them had come under the direct rule
full decades in contentment and peace. He of Delhi towards the close of Muhammad bin
was Alam Shah of the Sayyid dynasty. – Tughlaq’s rule. There were no well-defined and
Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath. accepted rules of royal succession and therefore
contested succession became the norm during
10.6  Lodi Dynasty the Sultanate. The Sultans required the holders
(1451–1526 ) of iqta’s (called muqtis or walis) to maintain
troops for royal service out of the taxes collected
The Lodi by them. Certain areas were retained by the
D ynasty was Sultans under their direct control (khalisa).
established by It was out of the revenue collected from such
B a h lu l L o di areas that they paid the officers and soldiers of
(1451–1489) whose the sultan’s own troops (hashm-i qalb).
reign witnessed
The territorial expansion was matched by
the conquest of
an expansion of fiscal resources. The tax rent (set
Sharqi Kingdom
at half the value of the produce) was rigorously
(Bengal). It was his
sought to be imposed over a very large area.
son Sikander Lodi
The fiscal claims of hereditary intermediaries
(1489–1517) who Ibrahim Lodi
shifted the capital (modern representation) (now called chaudhuris) and the village
from Delhi to Agra headmen (khots) were drastically curtailed. The
in 1504. The last Lodi ruler Ibrahim Lodi was continuous pressure for larger tax-realization
defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat provoked a severe agrarian uprising, notably
(1526), which resulted in the establishment of in the Doab near Delhi (1332–34). These and
Mughal Dynasty. an ensuing famine persuaded Muhammad
Tughlaq to resort to a scheme of agricultural
10.7  Administration of the development, in the Delhi area and the Doab,
based on the supply of credit to the peasants.
Sultanate
Military campaigns, the dishoarding of
State and Society wealth, the clearing of forests, the vitality of
The Sultanate was formally considered inter-regional trade – all of these developments
to be an Islamic State. Most of the Sultans encouraged a great movement of people,
preferred to call themselves the lieutenant of the created a vast network of intellectuals and the
Caliph. In reality, however, the Sultans were the religious-minded. These factors also made
supreme political heads. As military head, they social hierarchies and settlements in the
wielded the authority of commander-in-chief of Sultanate garrison towns and their strongholds
the armed forces. As judicial head they were the far more complex. Through the fourteenth
highest court of appeal. Balban claimed that he century the Sultanate sought to control its
ruled as the representative of god on earth. Ala- increasingly diverse population through its
ud-din Khalji claimed absolute power saying he provincial governors, muqti, but considerable
did not care for theological prescriptions, but local initiative and resources available to these
did what was essential for the good of the state personnel, and their propensity to ally with
and the benefit of the people. local political groups meant that they could
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often only be controlled fitfully and for a short figures who played a part in transmitting the
period, even by autocratic, aggressive monarchs southern Bhakti and monotheism to Northern
like Muhammad Tughlaq. India were Namdev of Maharashtra, a rigorous
The Turko-Afghan political conquests monotheist who opposed image worship and
were followed by large- scale Muslim social caste distinctions and Ramanand, a follower of
migrations from Central Asia. India was seen as Ramanuja.
a land of opportunity. The society in all stages
was based on privileges with the higher classes An important aspect of Islam in India
enjoying a better socio-economic life with was its early acceptance of a long-term
coexistence with Hinduism, despite all
little regard of one’s religion. The Sultans and
the violence that occurred in military
the nobles were the most important privileged
campaigns, conquests and depredations.
class who enjoyed a lifestyle of high standard The conqueror Mu’izzuddin of Ghor had,
in comparison to their contemporary rulers on some of his gold coins, stamped the
all over the world. The nobility was initially image of the goddess Lakshmi. Muhammad
composed of the Turks. Afghans, Iranians Tughlaq in 1325 issued a farman enjoining
and Indian Muslims were excluded from the that protection be extended by all officers
nobility for a very long time. to Jain priests; he himself played holi and
consorted with yogis.
The personal status of an individual in
Islam depended solely on one’s abilities and The historian Barani noted with some
achievements, not on one’s birth. So, once bitterness how ‘the kings of Islam’ showed
converted to Islam, everyone was treated as respect to ‘Hindus, Mongols, Polytheists
equal to everyone in the society. and infidels’, by making them sit on masnad
(cushions) and by honouring them in other
Religion ways, and how the Hindus upon paying taxes
(jiziya-o-kharaj) were allowed to have their
Unlike Hindus who
temples and celebrations, employ Muslim
worshiped different
servants, and flaunt their titles (Rai, Rana,
deities, these migrants Thakur, Sah, Mahta, Pandit, etc), right in the
followed monotheism. capital seats of Muslim rulers.
They also adhered to
one basic set of beliefs
and practices. Though Economy
a monotheistic trend The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
in Hinduism had long Al-Beruni was, however, accompanied by some important
existed, as, for example in economic changes. One such change was the
the Bhagavad Gita, as noted by Al-Beruni, its payment of land tax to the level of rent in cash.
proximity to Islam did help to move monotheism Because of this, food-grains and other rural
from periphery to the centre. In the thirteenth products were drawn to the towns, thereby
century, the Virashaiva or Lingayat sect of leading to a new phase of urban growth. In
Karnataka founded by Basava believed in one the fourteenth century, Delhi and Daulatabad
God (Parashiva). Caste distinctions were denied, (Devagiri) emerged as great cities of the world.
women given a better status, and Brahmans There were other large towns such as Multan,
could no longer monopolise priesthood. A
Kara, Awadh, Gaur, Cambay (Khambayat) and
parallel, but less significant, movement in
Gulbarga.
Tamil Nadu was in the compositions of the
Siddhars, who sang in Tamil of one God, and The Delhi Sultans began their gold and
criticised caste, Brahmans and the doctrine silver mintage alongside copper from early in
of transmigration of souls. Two little known the thirteenth century and that indicated brisk
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commerce. Despite the Mongol conquests children to read and write. At a higher level,
of the western borderlands, in Irfan Habib’s important texts in various subjects were read
view, India’s external trade, both overland and by individual pupils with particular scholars
oceanic, grew considerably during this period. who gave instruction (dars) in them. A more
institutionalised form of higher education, the
Trade and Urbanization
madrasa, became widely established in Central
The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate Asia and Iran in the eleventh century, and
revived internal trade, stimulated by the from there it spread to other Islamic countries.
insatiable demand for luxury goods by the sultans Usually the madrasa had a building, where
and nobles. Gold coins, rarely issued in India instruction was given by individual teachers.
after the collapse of the Gupta Empire, began Often there was a provision of some cells for
to appear once again, indicating the revival of resident students, a library and a mosque. Firoz
Indian economy. However, there is no evidence Tugluq built a large madrasa at Delhi whose
of the existence of trade guilds, which had played splendid building still stands. From Barani’s
a crucial role in the economy in the classical age. description it would seem that teaching here
The Sultanate was driven by an urban economy was mainly confined to “Quran-commentary,
encompassing many important towns and the Prophet’s sayings and the Muslim Law
cities. Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kara, Lakhnauti, (fiqh).” It is said that Sikander Lodi(1489–1517)
Anhilwara, Cambay and Daulatabad were the appointed teachers in maktabs and madrasas
important cities that thrived on the mercantile in various cities throughout his dominions,
activities of Jain Marwaris, Hindu Multanis presumably making provision for them through
and Muslim Bohras, Khurasanis, Afghans and land or cash grants.
Iranians. The import–export trade flourished
well both through overland and overseas. While Historiography
the Gujaratis and Tamils dominated the sea trade, In addition to secular sciences that came with
the Hindu Multanis and Muslim Khurasanis, Arabic and Persian learning to India, one more
Afghans and Iranians dominated the overland notable addition was systematic historiography.
trade with Central Asia. The collection of witnesses’ narratives and
Industrial Expertise documents that the Chachnama (thirteenth-
Paper-making technology evolved by the century Persian translation of a ninth-century
Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was introduced Arabic original), in its account of the Arab
in India during the rule of the Delhi Sultans. The conquest of Sind, represents advancement in
spinning wheel invented by the Chinese came historical research, notwithstanding the absence
to India through Iran in the fourteenth century of coherence and logical order of latter-day
and enabled the spinner to increase her output historiography like Minhaj Siraj’s Tabaqat-i
some six-fold and enlarged yarn production Nasiri, written at Delhi c. 1260.
greatly. The subsequent introduction of treadles Sufism
in the loom similarly helped speed-up weaving.
Sericulture centre was established in Bengal by In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
the fifteenth century. Building activity attained two most influential orders emerged among
a new scale by the large use of brick and mortar, the sufis: the Suhrawardi, centred at Multan,
and by the adoption of the vaulting techniques. and the Chisti at Delhi and other places. The
most famous Chishti Saint, Shaik Nizamuddin
Education offered a classical exposition of Sufism of pre-
Certain traditions of education were now pantheistic phase in the conversations (1307–
implanted from the Islamic World. At the base 1322).Sufism began to turn pantheistic only
was the maktab, where a schoolmaster taught when the ideas of Ibn al-Arabi (died 1240)
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began to gain influence, first through the Persian Hindu women did not have. In several Hindu
poetry of Jalal-ud-din Rumi(1207–1273) and communities, such as among the Rajputs, the
Abdur Rahman Jami (1414–1492), and, then, birth of a girl child was considered a misfortune.
through the endeavours within India of Ashraf Islam was not against women being taught to
Jahangir Simnani (early fifteenth century). read and write. But it tolerated polygamy.
Significantly this wave of qualified pantheism
began to dominate Indian Islamic thought Sultan Firoz Tughlaq was reputed to possess
about the same time that the pantheism of 180,000 slaves, of which 12,000 worked as
Sankaracharya’s school of thought was attaining artisans. His principal minister, Khan Jahan
Maqbul possessed over 2000 women slaves.
increasing influence within Vedic thought.

Caliph/Caliphate : Considered to Evolution of Syncretic Culture

be the successor of Prophet Muhammad, The interaction of the Turks with the
the Caliph wielded authority over civil and Indians had its influence in architecture, fine
religious affairs of the entire Islamic world. arts and literature.
The Caliph ruled Baghdad until it fell before
Mongols in 1258. The Caliphs then ruled Architecture
in Egypt until the conquest of Ottomans Arch, dome, vaults and use of lime cement,
in 1516-17. Thereupon the title was held the striking Saracenic features, were introduced
by Ottoman Sultans. The office of Caliph
in India. The use of marble, red, grey and yellow
(Caliphate) ended when Ottoman Empire
sandstones added grandeur to the buildings.
was abolished and Turkish Republic
established by Mushtafa Kemal Attaturk in In the beginning the Sultans converted the
the 1920s. existing buildings to suit their needs. Qutb-ud-
din Aibak’s Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque situated
adjacent to Qutb Minar in Delhi and the Adhai
Caste and Women din ka Jhopra in Ajmer illustrate these examples.
The Sultans did not alter many of the social A Hindu temple built over a Jain temple was
institutions inherited from ‘Indian Feudalism’. modified into Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Adhai
din ka Jhopra was earlier a Jain monastery
Slavery, though it had already existed in
before being converted as a mosque.
India, grew substantially in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. Both in war and in the With the arrival of artisans from West
event of default in payment of taxes, people Asia the arch and dome began to show up
could be enslaved. They were put to work as with precision and perfection. Gradually local
domestic servants as well as in crafts. The village artisans also acquired the skill. The tomb of
community and the caste system remained Balban was adorned with the first true arch and
largely unaltered. Gender inequalities remained the Alai Darwaza built by Ala-ud-din Khalji
practically untouched. In upper class Muslim
society, women had to observe purdah and were
secluded in the zenana (the female quarters)
without any contact with any men other than
their immediate family. Affluent women
travelled in closed litters.
However, Muslim women, despite purdah,
enjoyed, in certain respects, higher status and
greater freedom in society than most Hindu
women. They could inherit property from
their parents and obtain divorce, privileges that Alai Darwaza

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Qutb Minar, originally a 72.5 metre tower when completed by Iltutmish, was increased
to 74 metres by the repairs carried out by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. The Minar is facilitated
by 379 steps and it is magnificent for the height, balconies projecting out marking the
storeys, the gradual sloping of the tower and the angular flutings creating a ribbed
effect around the tower.

as a gateway to the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque received an impetus in the official court. Zia-
is adorned with the first true dome. The palace ud-din Barani lists the names of Nusrat Khatun
fortress built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and and Mihr Afroz as musician and dancer
Muhammad bin Tughlaq in Tughlaqabad, their respectively in the court of Jalaluddin Khalji.
capital city in Delhi, is remarkable for creating
an artificial lake around the fortress by blocking Literature
the river Yamuna. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Amir Khusrau
Tughlaq introduced the system of sloping emerged as a major figure
walls bearing the dome on a raised platform. of Persian prose and
The buildings of Firuz Tughlaq, especially his poetry. Amir Khusrau
pleasure resort, Hauz Khas, combined Indian felt elated to call himself
and Saracenic features in alternate storeys, an Indian in his Nu Siphr
displaying a sense of integration. (‘Nine Skies’). In this
Sculpture and Painting work, he praises India’s
climate, its languages
Orthodox Islamic theology considered
– notably Sanskrit – its Amir Khusrau
decorating the buildings with animal and (modern representation)
arts, its music, its people,
human figures as un-Islamic. Hence the plastic
even its animals. The Islamic Sufi saints made
exuberance of well-carved images found in the
a deep literary impact. The Fawai’d-ul-Fawad, a
pre-Islamic buildings was replaced by floral
work containing the conversations of Sufi Saint
and geometrical designs. Arabesque, the art of
Nizam-ud-din Auliya was compiled by Amir
decorating the building with Quranic verses
Hassan. A strong school of historical writing
inscribed with calligraphy, emerged to provide
emerged with the writings of Zia-ud-din Barani,
splendour to the building.
Shams-ud-din Siraj Afif and Abdul Malik Isami.
Music and Dance Zia-ud-din Barani, emerged as a master of
Persian prose. Abdul Malik Isami, in his poetic
Music was an area where the syncretic
composition of Futuh-us-Salatin, records the
tendencies were clearly visible. Muslims
history of Muslim rule from Ghaznavid period
brought their musical instruments like Rabab
to Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.
and Sarangi. Amir Khusrau proclaimed that
Indian music had a pre-eminence over all the Persian literature was enriched by
other music of the world. The Sufi practice the translation of Sanskrit works. Persian
of Sama, recitation of love poetry to the dictionaries with appropriate Hindawi words
accompaniment of music, was instrumental for Persian words were composed, the most
in promotion of music. Pir Bhodan, a Sufi important being Farhang-i-Qawas by Fakhr-
saint, was considered a great musician of the ud-din Qawwas and Miftah-ul-Fuazala by
age. Royal patronage for the growth of music Muhammad Shadiabadi. Tuti Namah, the
was also forthcoming. Firuz Tughlaq evinced Book of Parrots, is a collection of Sanskrit
interest in music leading to synchronisation stories translated into Persian by Zia Nakshabi.
by translating an Indian Sanskrit musical Mahabharata and Rajatarangini were also
work Rag Darpan into Persian. Dancing also translated into Persian.
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Delhi Sultanate did not hamper the progress

of Sanskrit Literature. Sanskrit continued to be EXERCISE
the language of high intellectual thought. The
Sanskrit schools and academies established in Q.R.Code
I. C  hoose the
different parts of the empire continued to flourish.
The classical Sanskrit inscription (Palam Baoli) of Correct Answer
1276 in Delhi claims that due to the benign rule of 1. _________ was the ruler
Sultan Balban god Vishnu sleeps in peace in the of Sind when the Arabs invaded it in the 8th
ocean of milk without any worries. The influence century.
of Arabic and Persian on Sanskrit literature was (a) Hajjaj
felt in the form of translations. Shrivara in his (b) Muhammad-Bin-Qasim
Sanskrit work Kathakautuka included the story (c) Jaya Simha
of Yusuf and Zulaika as a Sanskrit love lyric.
(d) Dahar
Bhattavatara took Firdausi’s Shah Namah as a
model for composing Zainavilas, a history of the 2. Mahmud of Ghazni conducted as many
rulers of Kashmir. as__________ military campaigns into India.
(a) 15 (b) 17 (c) 18 (d) 19
   SUMMARY 3. The Palam Baoli inscription is in __________
„„Muhammad Bin Qasim’s expedition against language
Sind in 712. (a) Sanskrit (b) Persian
„„The first three decades of the 11thcentury (c) Arabic (d) Urdu
witnessed the military raids of Mahmud 4. The world famous Khajuraho temple was
of Ghazni whose intention was to loot and built by __________.
plunder. (a) Rashtrakutas (b) Tomaras
„„Muhammad Ghori’s invasion by the end (c) Chandelas (d) Paramaras
of 12th century led to the establishment of 5. Mamluk is the term for the Arabic designation
Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb-ud-din of a __________.
Aibak. (a) Slave (b) King
„„Rajput rulers lost their supremacy in the (c) Queen (d) Soldier
beginning of 13thcentury in the face of
6. Ibn Batuta was a traveller from __________.
superior military tactics.
(a) Morocco (b) Persia
„„The contributions of five dynasties that
constituted the Delhi Sultanate focusing (c) Turkey (d) China
on important rulers of Slave, Khalji and 7. __________ was the only Sultan who resigned
Tughlaq dynasties. kingship and lived away from Delhi for three
„„Ala-ud-din Khalji’s several radical military decades in peace.
and market reforms (a) Mubarak Shah (b) Alam Shah
„„Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s innovative (c) Kizr Khan (d) Tugril Khan
measures that were far ahead of his time 8. Match and choose the correct answer
and their fallout. (A) Ramachandra 1. Kakatiya
„„Firuz Tughlaq’s reforms and measures which (B) Khan-i-Jahan 2. Padmavat
earned him the goodwill of the people. (C) Malik Muhamad Jaisi 3. Man Singh
„„A cultural syncretism and reciprocal (D) Man Mandir 4. Devagiri
influence in the fields of literature, art, (a) 2, 1, 4, 3 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4
music and architecture. (c) 4, 1, 2, 3 (d) 3, 1, 2, 4
Advent of Arabs and Turks 153

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 www.tntextbooks.in

II. Write brief answers 3. Compare and contrast Mahmud Ghazni and
Muhammad of Ghor.
1. Mahmud becoming the ruler of Ghazni.
4. Discuss the economic reforms of Ala-ud-din
2. Scholars patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Khalji.
3. Important ruling Rajput dynasties of
Northern India during the Turkish invasion. 5. Estimate the rule of Firuz Tughlaq.
4. Forty System. 6. Give an account of the administrative system
of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Musical instruments brought by Muslim
musicians.
Activity
III. Write short answers 1. Preparing an album with pictures and images
1. Describe the immediate cause for the military of Sultans and the monuments they left
expeditions of Muhammad-bin-Qasim? behind.
2. What were the reasons for the military raids 2. 
Enact a drama on Pirithiviraj, Samyukta
of Mahmud of Ghazni in India? episode.
3. Why was Razia Sultana thrown out of power?
4. Write briefly about the south Indian REFERENCE BOOKS
campaigns of Malik Kafur.
1. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, Orient
5. What were the causes for the failure of the BlackSwan, 2009.
experiments of Muhammad Tughlaq?
2. Irfan Habib, Medieval India I: Essays in the History
IV. Answer the following in detail of India, Oxford University Press, 1999.
3. Irfan Habib, Medieval India: The Study of Indian
1. M
 ahmud Ghazni’s plundering raids were more
of political and economic character than of Civilization, National Book Trust, (2008).
religious chauvinism. Elaborate 4. Sunil Kumar, The Emergence of Delhi Sultanate,
2. How did the Second Battle of Tarain prove to Permanent Black, 2010.
be a turning point in Indian History? 5. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, Penguin, 2014.

GLOSSARY
aggressive support to one’s own group or குறுகிய ந�ோக்குடைய
chauvinism
creed தேசியவாதம்
ceremony to install someone in authority சடங்குகள் செய்து பதவியில்
investiture
or office அமர்த்துதல்
magnum
a great work of literature, history or art தலைசிறந்த கலைப் படைப்பு
opus
treacherous unreliable, betraying துர�ோக
plotting to do something illegal or
intrigue சதி
harmful
conciliatory willing to accept mediation in a dispute இணக்கத்தை ஏற்கும்
exuberance liveliness உயிர்ப்பு மிக்க
punitive punishing தண்டிக்கிற
garrison troops stationed in a fortress க�ோட்டைக் காவற்படை
collision clash or conflict ம�ோதல்
incursion invasion திடீர் படையெடுப்பு

154 Advent of Arabs and Turks

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