STUDY MATERIAL

Course : BREAD MAKING

Baking Technology Course

Polytechnic in Food Science and HE
Anand Agricultural University, Anand

: Compiled By:
Dr. Keshav B. Kamaliya
Professor (Foods and Nutrition)
Polytechnic in Food Science and HE
Anand Agricultural University, Anand

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 CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

1 Flour 3

2 Bread Processing 6

3 Bread Making Methods 22

4 Bread Characteristics 26

5 Bread Faults 33

6 Bread Diseases 36

7 Staleness In Bread 41

8 Variety Breads 45

9 Other Fermented Products 48

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 1 : FLOUR
1.1 Introduction . . . .
1.2 Flour . . . . .
• Colour • Strength • Tolerance • Water Absorption Power • Uniformity
• Diastetic Activity

1.1 INTRODUCTION : Raw materials used for the bread preparation are divided into two parts, i.e.
essential and optional. Without essential raw material bread cannot be made. Even though, if
the bread is made without essential raw material, it will have major qualitative deterioration. The
optional ingredients are added to formula to improve the quality of the flour.
Raw Material

Essential Optional
• Flour • Fat
• Yeast • Sugar
• Salt • Milk
• Water • Water

1.2 FLOUR : A baker prefers the flour having the following characteristics :
1.2.1 Colour : The flour colour directly affects the crumb colour and bloom. Baker prefers white
colour flour having a creamy tinge. Normally, high grade flour is whiter in colour as compared to
low grade flour, because while preparing high grade flour much of the testa (the part of bran
having colouring pigment) is removed. Flour colour is also affected by the wheat colour, hence it
should be chosen carefully while preparing flour. Only the endosperm portion of the wheat is
used for the milling purpose. The flour should be bleached adequately after milling, as bleaching
makes the flour whiter.
1.2.2 Strength : Strength in a flour means the ability of the flour for gaining large volumed well risen
loaves, provided any deficiency in the rate of gas production in the dough is adjusted in a suitable
manner. The conditions required for large volume are :
Sufficient quantity and quality of protein to retain gas produced during fermentation or other
process of bread preparation.
Sufficient sugar and sufficient diastetic activity to produce enough and uniform gas.
Sufficient alpha-amylase to properly condition starch.
Generally, strong flour, having extensible gluten, possesses all the above characteristics,
hence it is desirable for bread production. However, strong flour having hard and tough gluten
requires longer fermentation time to mellow properly.
1.2.3 Tolerance : If the better quality bread is made even in the over fermentation condition then the
flour is said to have tolerance. It is directly related to gluten i.e. tolerance of flour is its ability to
withstand the fermentation process in excess of what is normally required to mature its gluten
property.
1.2.4 Water Absorption Power : Water Absorption Power (WAP) means the quantity of water
required to prepare a dough having similar consistency of the bread dough. Generally, the WAP
is around 60%. However, if a good quality bread is prepared, even if flour has absorbed more
water, the flour is said to have high WAP.

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1.2.5 Uniformity : To maintain uniform quality of bread, it is necessary to obtain uniform quality flour
from one flour mill throughout the year. If the quality of flour varies the baker will need to adjust
the formula, processing schedule etc. If such adjustments are necessary off and on then it is very
difficult for baker to produce uniform quality products.
1.2.6 Diastetic Activity : Diastetic activity means the effect of diastase enzyme (or activity of alpha
and beta-amylase) present in the flour. The enzyme beta-amylase acts on damaged starch cells
present in the flour and converts into maltose sugar, which further breaks down to carbon dioxide
and alcohol. The alpha amylase partly breaks down the sound starch cells to form dextrins, which
in limited amount gives sheen to the bread and improves its eye appeal.
(i) Effect of Low and High Diastetic Activity on Bread :
If the diastatic activity is less :

the less starch converted into sugar

hence
there will be no sufficient sugar present during the final proof
hence
sufficient carbon dioxide cannot be produced
hence
• the volume of the resultant bread will be low
• simultaneously, insufficient sugar results in less caramalization and less bloom of the
bread.
Much diastase produce more sugar and results in a dark crust colour. Because :
• High activity of beta-amylase (generally, taking place in the case of presence of excessive
damaged starch cells) will cause undesirable amount of maltose sugar, only a part of
which will be needed by yeast. In such cases, doughs become slack, sticky and difficult
to handle. The bread produced from such dough will have dark crust and crumb colour
and will be poor in volume and texture.
• High activity of alpha-amylase (generally in case of doughs made from flours obtained
from sprouted wheat or wet wheat or use of excessive diastetic malt in the formula)
converts more starch into dextrin, which is sticky in nature hence the bread crumb, too,
will be sticky. Such bread will be difficult to slice and slices will stick together and will
break when separated.
(ii) Preventive Measures : When flour lacks in diastetic action, it can be supplemented by using
diastetic malt in the formula.
If the flour has excessive diastetic activity, it is useful to take the following precautions :
Use plenty of yeast for vigorous fermentation of dough as overall reduction in production
time will give less opportunity to enzymes to remain active.
Use emulsifiers liberally to prevent stickiness in the crumb. Use of soya flour could also be
helpful in this regard.
Keep the doughs cool, as high temperature will promote the amylase activity.
Keep strict control on over fermentation and prevent the doughs from becoming acidic.
Enzymes are more active in acidic medium.
Bake the bread thoroughly so that it has even golden brown colour all around.
Slice the bread only when it is thoroughly cooled.
Potassium aluminium sulphate has retarding effect on diastetic action. A small lump of
potassium aluminum sulphate rotated three to four times in doughing water will give enough

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 of this chemical to control the diastetic action at least to some extent. After turning the lump
of potassium aluminium sulphate the water should be used the next day. As this chemical is
banned in some countries, it will be appropriate to ascertain the legal position in this matter.
To decide the quality of the flour having above mentioned properties, gluten quality and
quantity, pelshunk value, quantity of moisture, ash quantity, experimental baking etc. practicals
can be carried out.
However other raw materials are discussed elsewhere in this book.

==========================

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 2 : BREAD PROCESSING

2.1 Introduction . . .
2.2 Ingredient Selection and Formula
Balancing . . . .
2.3 Mixing / Kneading . . .
• Purpose • Flying Ferment • Other Preparation • Mixing Process • Mixing Time • Over
or Under Mixed Dough • Physical and Chemical Changes
2.4 Bulk Fermentation . . .
• Physico-chemical Reactions • Over or Under Ferment Dough
2.5 Knock Back
2.6 Dough Makeup
• Scaling • Rounding • Intermediate Proofing • Moulding • Panning
2.7 Proofing
• Factors Affecting the Final Proof • Under or Over Proofing
2.8 Baking
• Time and Temperature • Physico Chemical Changes • Oven Problems
2.9 Depanning . . . .
2.10 Cooling . . . .
2.11 Slicing . . . . .
2.12 Packing . . . .

2.1 INTRODUCTION : Bread processing method is too long and continuous which involves
following successive steps :
Selection of ingredients and balancing the formula
Mixing
Bulk fermentation
Knock back
Dough make-up
• Dividing • Rounding • Intermediate proofing • Moulding • Panning
Proofing
Baking
Depanning
Cooling
Slicing
Packing
2.2 INGREDIENT SELECTION AND FORMULA BALANCING : The first and the most
important step to obtain uniform products is the selection of proper quality raw material and its
adjustment according to a formula. The raw material should be weighed accurately after deciding
its quantity. Many factors affect the selection of raw material. The important ones are :
Method of bread processing : Sponge and dough method of bread preparation requires less
yeast as compared to straight dough method.
Types of bread : White bread requires 100 % flour, brown bread requires 50% flour and 50
% wheat flour while whole mill bread requires 100 % wheat flour. Milk bread requires milk
powder, more fat and sugar.
Type of flour : Strong flour requires more water and yeast than weak flour.
Fermentation time : Less fermentation time requires more yeast.
Atmosphere : Cold atmosphere requires more yeast and hot water.

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 Consumer choice : Rich people prefer high quality bread while the poor prefer cheap bread.
2.3 MIXING / KNEADING : Mixing is an important step involved in bread preparation for the
production of better quality bread, provided that, the raw material selected are of proper quality
and weighed in specified quantity.
2.3.1 Purpose : Mixing has two purposes :
Each raw material gets dispersed evenly in the dough, which results in uniform dough.
It develops the gluten and thereby produces dough with uniform characteristics like
smoothness, extensibility, viscous flow etc.
2.3.2 Flying Ferment : Preparation of flying ferment is the first step involved in mixing process of
straight dough method. It can be prepared by :
(i) Process :
(ii) Importance :
If the paste is not rise, the yeast is not capable to carry out the fermentation. Hence, it should
not be used for the bread preparation. Which saves bakers from economical loss due to
preparation of inferior quality bread.
The rate of rising in the paste also indicates the rough idea about the quality of the yeast.
Flying ferment is thinner compare to dough, hence yeast activity is faster, which helps in
vigorous fermentation.
2.3.3 Other Preparation : When flying ferment preparation is going on, the following preparations are
carried out :
Flour is sieved to remove the impurities.
Salt and remaining sugar are dissolved in the remaining water and strained, hence sugar and
salt can be evenly dispersed in the dough and any impurities present in water can be removed.
Calculate the desired water temperature (DWT). Obtain the DWT either by heating the water
or adding the ice and thereby maintain the desired dough temperature (DDT). It is necessary
because the yeast activity is at its best at 25.5° to 28°C (78° to 82°F) temperature and water is
the best media to change the dough temperature.
(i) Dough Temperature : It is necessary to maintain the dough temperature to obtain good quality
bread. Low dough temperature requires much time for fermentation, intermediate proofing and
other processing. However, the bread made from such dough will be of the best quality. On the
other hand, high dough temperature decreases water absorption and water retention power of the
bread, hence less bread will be produced and it would stale quickly. Due to high dough
temperature, the crust formation will be faster hence more proofing time is required. Breads
produced from such dough will have less oven spring, which results into less volume, cave-in
side from bottom and side. Other yeast present in the atmosphere may grow in the dough, which
may produce acidic taste in the bread. Hence the dough temperature should be adequate. Bakers
should calculate the dough temperature by using the following formula:
For straight dough method :
DWT = (DDT x 3) – (FT + RT + FF)
For sponge and dough method :
DWT = (DDT x 4) – (FT + RT + FF + SPT)
Where, DWT : Desired water temperature
FT : Floor temperature
RT : Room temperature
FF : Friction factor
SPT : Sponge temperature

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 Example:
If, desired dough temperature is 27°C(80.6°F)
‹ Let us assume that FT is 30°C (86°F)
RT is 29°C (84.2°F)
FF is 4°C (39.2°F)
Hence, as per our formula:
DWT = (DDT x 3) – (FT + RT + FF)
= (27 x 3) – (30 + 29 + 4)
= 81 – 63
= 18°C (64.4°F)
If the desired water temperature is more than the tap water temperature, than heat the
water. But if desired water temperature is less then required, it can be obtained by keeping water
in a freeze. As it consumes a lot of time, ice can be added to shorten the process. The quantity of
ice to be added can be calculated by the following formula :
Note : If the temperatures are in °F instead of °C, replace 80 by 112.

If we refer to the above example, the temperature of water required is 18°C. But, the
actual water temperature (i.e. tap water temperature – TWT) would be near to RT (i.e. around
29°C) hence ice is to be added to bring down the water temperature. So, the quantity of ice
required can be obtained by the following method :
‹ Assume that weight of the water required is 60 kg and Tap water temperature is 28°C
Hence, as per the formula :
Hence, Total 60 kg of water requires - 5.5 kg ice calculated
= 54.5 kg water required
‹ 54.5 kg water + 5.5 kg ice is to be used.
However, in case of sponge and dough method of bread preparation the next formula can
be used and find out the results as per the method given above.
Friction factor can also be calculated using the above mentioned formula. In that case,
actually running trial dough where temperature of water used for dough making and the
temperature of the finished dough is recorded.
Hence, the formula DWT=(DDTx3)-(FT+RT+FF) is changed to FF = (DDTx3) -
(FT+RT+TWT).
For example :
Suppose TWT is 70°F
FT is 69°F
RT is 71°F
DDT is 82°F
As per our formula : FF = (DDTx3) - (FT + RT + TWT)
FF = (82 x 3) - (69 + 71 + 70)
= 246 - 210 = 36°F
2.3.4 Mixing Process : Dough can be mixed either with hand or machines, which is termed as hand
mixing and machine mixing respectively.
(i) Hand Mixing : Dough can be mixed properly by hand. In this method dough sticks with table
and hand at the initial stage, which has to be stuck-off with dough cutter and mix properly.
At the initial stage mix the
dough with gentle pressing

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 As mixing proceeds, the dough become non-sticky
and cohesive mass but its surface remains rough

Now, mix the dough with pressure so its

surface become smooth
(ii) Machine Mixing : Mixer machine is used to mix large quantity of dough in a short time with
better quality.
The machines are available with :
high and low speed
horizontal and vertical arrangement
single and double arm
steady and moving bowl
different capacity
Baker has to choose the machine according to his situation.
The machine mixing can be divided into three parts : Slow speed, high speed and spiral
mixing.
SLOW SPEED MIXING :
HIGH SPEED MIXING : Mixing is finished within 2 to 5 minutes (normally 2½ to 3
minutes).
Mix all the dry ingredients

Add flying ferment

Mixing is continued with gradual addition

of water

Add shortening / fat when mixing reaches

half the way

Add salt at the last stage of mixing (it saves time)

SPIRAL MIXING : It is a combination of high speed and slow speed mixing. In this process
spiral shaped mixing arm is used which provides much better mixing, ensures even crumb
structure resulting into whiter crumb colour. In this process:

Add all the ingredients in a bowl

Mix at slow speed for 2 ½ to 3 min.

Mix at high speed for 9 to 10 min.

(The speed is slower compare to high
speed mixer)

(iii) Mixing Stages : Dough passes through different stages while mixing, that are:
2.3.5 Mixing Time : The dough is considered as properly mixed when it reaches the development
stage. Hence, many factors affect the mixing time :

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 (i) Flour Quality :
The quality as well as quantity of the gluten affects the mixing time, i.e. the strong flour
requires much time compare to soft flour.
Mature flour requires more time as compared to green flour.
When flour requires less mixing time, the quantity of yeast and salt should be increased and
v/s.
(ii) Bread Making Method :
In sponge and dough method of bread making, sponge requires less mixing (i.e. not even
upto the clean-up stage).
(iii) Dough Temperature and Consistency :
If the actual dough temperature is more or less than desired dough temperature, it requires
less or more time, respectively.
It is noticed that changes of even 2°F temperature may cause considerable changes in the
mixing time.
Tight dough requires more while slack dough requires less mixing time.
(iv) Fat and Salt Quantity and Stage of its Addition :
Excessive salt and fat increases mixing time.
Addition of both (salt and fat) at the beginning of mixing also increases the mixing time.
2.3.6 Over Or Under Mixed Dough : The dough that have undergone more mixing and less mixing
are known as over mixed and under mixed dough, respectively. The characteristics of such dough
are :
(i) Over Mixed Dough :
Its gluten structure will result in less elasticity and gas holding capacity
hence
the dough will stretch easily and will slow
down the fermentation speed.
The dough will be too soft, slack and sticky
hence
it will be difficult to handle and may flatten
out during intermediate or final proofing
which
would result in lack of volume and
crumb structure in the resultant bread.
(ii) Under Mixed Dough :
It will be sticky and lumpy.
Its gluten is not sufficiently developed
hence
it will be less elastic
hence
it would not extend with the expanding gases
produced during proofing or baking
hence
bread will collapse at any stage of preparation

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 leading to
• low volume • rough surface • walls cave inside • streaks
• lumps • poor texture in the finished bread.
2.3.7 Physical and Chemical Changes During Mixing :
(i) Physical Changes :
All the ingredients spread evenly throughout the dough
The temperature of the ingredients used gets equal
Heat produced during mixing raises the dough temperature
Decreases the moisture content due to water evaporation
Water-soluble ingredients dissolve in water
Water insoluble ingredients get dispersed in the dough
(ii) Chemical Changes :
Water insoluble protein hydrate and form the gluten
Damaged starch cells absorb more water and swell much
Oxygen of the air gets incorporated in the dough. So yeast cells, start reproduction which
help in fermentation
Yeast starts producing carbon dioxide by utilizing sugar and water-soluble protein i.e.
beginning of fermentation
Air provides center for cell, which produces cellular structure to the bread
2.4 BULK FERMENTATION : Dough is allowed to rest for the predecided time limit (after mixing
to the beginning of dividing), which is termed as bulk fermentation.
Dough mixed in the mixture is transferred into big vessels, which are known as dough
troughs where yeast ferments the dough. If baker has extra mixing bowls, the dough can be
allowed to ferment in the bowl itself. The best condition for fermentation is 26.6°C (80°F)
temperature and 75 % rh.
2.4.1 Physico-chemical Reactions :
Dough gets ripened.
As the fermentation proceeds, the dough volume increases steadily till it acquires three times
that of the original volume.
The heat generated during the fermentation increases the dough temperature. No doubt this
rise is concentrated at the bottom.
Starch present in the flour gets converted into maltose and dextrin by diastase enzyme with
water hydrolysis. The produced maltose is again converted into glucose by maltase enzyme
present in the yeast. This glucose and other simple sugars like fructose get converted finally
into alcohol and carbon dioxide by the zymase enzyme present in the yeast.

Starch + Water = Diastase Dextrin + Maltose

Maltose + Water = Maltase Glucose + Glucose
Glucose/Fructose +Water =Zymase Carbon dioxide (simple sugar) + Alcohol

• Out of the total alcohol produced :

Some part gets evaporated.
Some part is converted into acetic acid.
The remaining part contributes flavour to the bread and also influences the colloidal
nature of the protein.
• Out of the total carbon dioxide produced :
some part gets combined with water and forms carbonic acid.

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 the rest raises the dough volume by aerating action.
• Thus, there are three sources of sugar in the fermenting dough :
Natural sugar present in the dough
Formula sugar added in the mixer
Sugar produced by the enzymatic action
Proteolytic enzymes act on soluble protein and convert them into peptones and polypeptides,
which further breakdown to peptides and amino acids. These simple products are assimilated
by yeast for its growth and development.
Proteolytic enzymes also assist in the mellowing of the gluten and softening of the dough.
As the fermentation proceeds the dough pH is successively decreases as a result of the
following processes :
• Part of the carbon dioxide generated by yeast combines with water and forms carbonic
acid which being weak, unstable and slightly ionizable contributes only little in lowering
the dough pH.
• Lactic acid bacteria present in the flour ferment dextrose into lactic acid which being
fairly strong acid and produced in sufficiently large quantity, exerts measurable reduction
in the dough pH.
• Acetic acid bacteria present in the flour converts alcohol into acetic acid. It exerts in a
small quantity and being weak and slightly ionizable its effect on pH is less pronounced.

• Yeast food contains ammonium salt, which produces completely ionisable strong acids
during yeast assimilation, hence their lowering effect in the dough pH is quiet
pronounced, even though these acids are present in very small quantity.
The gluten is subjected to following changes :
• Proteolytic enzymes gradually mellow.
• The salt strengthens the gluten and increases its stability.
• The gas produced within the dough stretches gluten.
• By manipulation and enzymatic action, gluten finally acquires web like structure.
The balance between elasticity and extensibility of gluten in a properly conditioned
dough should be such that the gluten should remain strong enough (elastic nature) to hold the
gases and still mellow enough (extensibility) to expand with the expanding gases.
As fermentation proceed, the dough assumes somewhat drier feeling, which results in sheen
surface. Such dough is less extensible and breaks cleanly when stretched.

Later on, when the dough ripens completely it is known as mature dough. It assumes a very
smooth as well as spongy appearance and acquires maximum volume. It breaks quickly with
short clean fractures when pulled. Bread made from this dough exerts better characteristics.

If the dough is allowed to ferment beyond this point, its volume starts decreasing, which is
known as drop or brack. It turns dough wet and sticky with bucky characteristics. The exact
time when dough starts dropping in known as break point.
2.4.2 Under or Over Ferment Dough :

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 (i) Under Ferment Dough : If the dough receives less fermentation time (than the required time), it
is termed as under ferment dough. It is also sometimes referred to as young or bucky dough. The
under fermented dough will produce bread with :
less volume
harsh and reddish brown crust colour
dull and dark crumb
close and compact texture having big round cells with thick cell wall
tendency to be crumbel due to insufficient conditioning of the gluten
tendency to dry out faster
flat taste and aroma.
(ii) Over Ferment Dough : If the dough receives more fermentation time (than the required time ) it
is known as over ferment dough.
Such dough becomes soft, wet and sticky due to over action of proteolytic enzyme and low
pH.
Structure forming capacity of gluten weakens and depending on the degree of over
fermentation, the bread may have an excessive volume with very open texture or it may
collapse during proofing or baking.
In any case, the water binding capacity of the bread gets reduced resulting in crumblyness
and quick staling of bread.
The resultant bread will have :
• irregular appearance with rough top and/or caved insides the bottom.
• open, irregular, thick and crumbly texture
• light crust and crumb colour due to more utilization of sugar during fermentation
• sour taste and aroma.
2.5 KNOCK BACK : In the straight dough method of bread processing, dough is usually knocked
back after 2/3 of its estimated fermentation time. In case of long fermentation time, the dough
may be knocked-back twice or thrice. This device may be useful when oven is not ready to bake
and dough is already fermented. The process of knocking back usually done by hand. In this
process :
Dough is pressed hence gas surrounded by the yeast cell (which is produced during
fermentation) is expelled out, hence the yeast cell is again in the
position to carry out its function efficiently. Because when yeast cell
is surrounded by the gas its activity is slow down, as it is drawn away
from its food
Sides of the dough are During this step the maximum
stretched and folded dough surface is exposed to
well into the center atmospheric oxygen, which helps in yeast growth. Simultaneously
the stretching and folding process aids in the development of the
gluten and thereby improves the characteristics of the resultant bread
Made up side down It equalizes the dough temperature and thereby equalizes the
fermentation speed through out the dough, otherwise the temperature
of the upper surface increases at lower speed than the lower surface

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 hence there will be uneven dough temperature which might make
variations in the fermentation speed
The knocking back process may be done by machine, which is known as punching
machine. After knocking back, the dough is allowed to ferment for the remaining 1/3 time,
during which, the dough is filled with gases and gluten becomes pliable and ready for further
processing.
2.6 DOUGH MAKE-UP : The basic function of dough make-up is to transfer the fermented bulk
dough into properly scaled and moulded or formed dough pieces, which after proofing and
baking, yield the desired finished products. It involves five short processes namely scaling,
rounding, intermediate proofing, moulding and panning.
2.6.1 Scaling : Scaling is also termed as dividing or cutting. During this process, the bulk of
fermented dough is divided into individual pieces of predetermined uniform weight and size. The
weight of dough-pieces depends on the desired weight of the finished bread. Normally 12%
additional dough is taken than the desired weight of the finished bread so that the accurate weight
of the bread could be obtained after baking and cooling lose. The accuracy in weight should be
strictly followed because of Government laws.
In small and medium scale bakery units, the scaling is normally carried out by hand. It is
desirable to cut the dough with a regular dough cutter. Pulling and breaking the dough with hand
should be avoided as it disturbs the trend of the gluten strands, which adversely affects the final
texture.
Dividing can also be carried out with machine, which is termed as divider. It divides the
dough by volume and not by weight. Therefore it is very necessary that the dough is correctly
fermented, otherwise in case of over ferment dough a particular volume of dough will weigh less
due to excessive gas in it and the same volume of under fermented dough would weigh more due
to lack of gas in it.
The divider available in the market is single pocket divider, double pocket divider,
multiple pocket divider etc. In which, the dough is transferred to the hopper of the machine that
feeds dough in to the divider’s compression chamber. A horizontal plate or dough knife at the
bottom of the hopper cuts the dough that fills the chamber from the rest of the bulk dough. The
dough pieces are then forced out by the piston.
2.6.2 Rounding : When the dough is cut (during scaling) some of the gas escapes from the cut surface
partly through compression and partly as a result of shaving and cutting action. This process of
gas escaping is technically known as bleeding. While cutting, the dough pieces become uneven
and the cut surface may become sturdy. If such pieces are moulded in this stage, the texture of
bread will be uneven. Therefore the dough pieces are rounded in such a way that its cut surfaces
become uniform by pressing the dough towards bottom. That is known as rounding or handing
up.
During rounding the dough pieces acquire a sufficient thick and continuous skin that
retains the freshly produced gas, which aid in the expansion of the dough.
This process may be carried out by machine known as rounder. Normally conical or
cylindrical type rounder is used for this process. The dough pieces conveyed from the dividers
enter in the rounder generally at the bottom from where it is forced upward along a stationery
spiral shaped dough track by a revolving drum or cone shaped surface. In its upward travel, the
dough pieces are continuously rolled and turned in such a manner that it emerges from the
rounder as a uniform ball completely employed by a continuous skin.

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 An excessive use of dusting flour at this stage will results in streaks in the bread loaves.
In order to prevent this, use of starch for dusting purpose has been found more advantageous.
The starch is pneumatically dusted on the dough pieces.
2.6.3 Intermediate Proofing : During dividing and rounding operation, the dough pieces lose a little
of their gas & majority of their pliability, gluten strands collapse and become difficult to mould.
In order to enable them to withstand the further stresses of moulding without having their skin
turn and their cell structure disrupted, the dough given relaxation period, during which the dough
pieces get (again) filled with gas and regain pliability. The dough is relaxed for 2 to 20 minutes
(normally 10 minutes) at 27° to 29°C (80° to 85°F) temperature and 75% rh, which are known as
intermediate proofing.
2.6.4 Moulding : The dough is soft and pliable after intermediate proof, is moulded into cylindrical
shape before keeping in bread-pan for baking, is known as moulding. Moulding is carried out in
such a way that it improves the grain and texture of the finished bread. It is an important step in
the dough make up process hence it should be carried out properly, otherwise the finished bread
may have faults like streaks, core, thick grain, holes etc. Moulding could be carried out by hand
or machine.
(i) Hand Moulding :
Press the dough
(to expel out the gas produced during fermentation)

The upper and lower ends fix together

Stretch both the end turn in the center

(to make a rectangular shape)

Start making turn round from one end

(to make a cylindrical shape)

(ii) Machine Moulding : The moulding machine is known as moulder. The moulding operation
involves three steps :
SHEETING : The round dough ball is rolled through three sets of rollers. The first pair of the
rolls called head rolls are normally spaced about 0.64 cm (¼”) apart and serve the primary
purpose of degassing the dough and flatten the dough. The dough is then passed through
second and third roller sets. The distance between two rollers is adjusted to 0.32 cm ( 1/8”)
and 0.16 cm (1/16”) respectively, where the dough sheet becomes thinner and oblong in
shape. This helps to obtain optimum grain and texture development in the finished loaf. The
rolls are made of steel and are generally covered with Teflon to reduce sticking of the dough.
CURLING : Sheeted dough is carried by a conveyer belt under a flexible woven mesh chain,
which rolls the sheeted dough into a cylindrical form. This rolling operation should produce
a relatively tight curl that will avoid air entrapment within the loaf.
SEALING : The curled dough pieces finally pass under a pressure board, which eliminates
gas pockets within the dough and also seals the seams of the loaves. The pressure exerted by
this board should be adequate to accomplish this purpose.
While moulding it should be remembered that :

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 The moulding pressure is even throughout the dough piece. Uneven pressure will leave gas
pockets of uneven size in the dough piece, which will eventually results in uneven texture of
the resultant bread.
The dough pieces should not be moulded too tight or too loose. Too tight moulding may tear
off the surface, which should remain smooth and may also increase the proofing time. Too
loose moulding will open up the texture to an undesirable extent and the shape of the bread
may get disturbed.
2.6.5 Panning : The moulded dough pieces are immediately placed into clean and well greased baking
pan of appropriate size is known as panning. It should be carried out in such a way that, the
seams of the dough must be situated at the bottom of the pan. This will prevent subsequent
opening of the seam during proofing and baking otherwise it results in rough and irregular crust
surface.
Before panning the loaf, the pan must be brought down to appropriate conditions that are
:
(i) Tempering the Pan : The pan must be at 32°C (90°F) while panning. However, some bakeries
have standardized on higher pan temperature, up to 49°C (120°F), in the interest of somewhat
shorter final proof times. This may require pre-warming the pans at the start of day’s operation or
cooling down the pans by forced air circulation in next successive operation.
(ii) Greasing / Glazing the Pan : For easy removal of the bread, the interior surface of the bread pan
is either applied with greasy material like ghee/oil/special oils at each panning or with silicon
resin layer for several hundred panning operations, which is known as greasing and glazing,
respectively.
PAN GREASING : Now-a-days, the ghee/fat is replaced by pan release oil/agent or
depanning oil. The pan release agent is the mixture of food grade oils (like cottonseed oil,
soybean oil or other food oil which have high smoaking point), white mineral oils, surfactants
and antioxidants. Smoke point represents the temperature at which oil decomposes rapidly
enough to produce visible smoke. Hence, the high smoke point prevents early production of
smoke from fat and that way diminishes the formation of undesirable off-odours that may be
absorbed by the bread. The use of correct quantity of appropriate oil plays a significant role
in the ultimate quality of the bread as the pan oil is absorbed by the baked product.
Depending on its physical quality, the oil contributes either favourably or unfavourably
flavour and crust characteristics of the baked product. Rancid pan oils tend to impart
unpleasant off-flavours to bakery foods. The excessive amounts of pan oils may result in :
economic waste
darkening lower side crusts
thickening of the bottom crust
weakening of the side walls which may collapse while slicing
the crust produced has fried rather than baked character.
The generally accepted quantity of pan oil is 0.1 to 0.2% of the dough (i.e. maximum 1
gm for 440 gm dough).
PAN GLAZING : Application of special silicon resin layer at the interior surface of the
bread-tin is known as Glazing. Silicon is a synthetic material and has :
excellent heat stability
inertness
electric resistance
waterproofness

Page 16 of 52
 water repellency and easy handling of bread tin.

PROCESS :
Spraying or in silicon solution made with
deeping the pan appropriate solvent

Air drying until coating lost its tacking

Curing in an oven at temperature ranging from 205° to 220°C (400° to

425°F) for about 4 to 6 hours.
Note : The care must be taken that the curing temperature of the tinned pans should not
exceed 220°C (425°F) as the melting point of the tin is 231.7°C (449°F)
BENEFITS :
The walls and slicing ability of the bread made in glazed bread tin is better.
No chance of off-flavour, which are caused in the case of rancid fat or burning of fat
when pans are greased.
The floor, equipments, racks etc. remain clean as there is no scope of fat deposition, as in
the case of greasing the pan with fat.
It is also economical because properly glazed pan can be expected to give effective
service up to 400 bakes.
One should be careful that vapour condensation in the pan is limited during proofing or
baking as it makes silicon soft.
(iii) Bread Pan : Bread pan can be made from, tin plate, black iron, aluminium or aluminium steel.
There is No doubt that the tin plate is the best metal for the purpose. The thickness of the metal
should be 0.05 cm (0.02”). Bread quality is markedly influenced by the relationship between pan
size and the amount of dough deposited in the pan. Pans which are either too large or too small
for the amount of dough used will produce bread with various defects such as coarse uneven
grain, small volume, unsatisfactory break and shred etc.
The total volume of a bread pan is obtained by multiplying the width of the pan bottom
by its length and depth as measured vertically at the center of the pan. As the bread pans have
outward flares of 0.63 to 0.95 cm. (0.25 to 0.375”), the actual pan volume is more than the
volume obtained by the above calculation because we have measured the bottom width and
length, which is lesser as compared to the top portion. This is corrected by dividing the
calculated volume by the factor 0.87.
Note : In case of non-flare-pans, no need to divide by factor 0.87.
The flare of pan is useful :
For minimizing cave-ins of the side walls of the bread loaf as it shrinks during cooling
Ease in depanning the bread
To facilitate the nesting of pans in one another.
In addition to that the height of bread-tin should not be more than its top width.
Sometimes :
for the easy removal of bread from pan
easy placing of bread tin into oven
better baking of the bread

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 3 or 4 pans are joined together which are known as three-step or four-step pan. In between such
bread pans, 2.0 cm (0.75”) and 2.5 cm (1”) space should be provided incase of open top and
sandwich type bread respectively for easy circulation of the heat which helps in proper heating of
the bread pan.
The new bread pans are whipped off with the cloth and heat at 227°C (440°F)
temperature for 8 to 12 hrs. before using first time.
2.7 PROOFING : After panning, the bread loaf is relaxed under suitable conditions [35° to 36°C
(95° to 98°F) temperature and 80 to 85 % rh]. This is known as proofing. It is carried out in pan
itself hence also known as pan proof and being last proof it is also termed as final proof.
While proofing :
Dough relaxes from the physical punishment received during moulding
Acquires gas that is lost during moulding, as it aerated again
Gluten is matured to such extent that it expands with the expanding gas and still retains
sufficient strength to hold the gas.
2.7.1 Factor Affecting the Final Proof : The normal proofing time is 55 to 65 minutes. But the more
common practice is to proof the dough up to the predetermined height [normally 1 cm (0.5”) less
than the height of the bread pan)] rather than for a fixed time. Hence the final proof time will
vary somewhat with the following factors. However, the actual proof time can be determined
only through practical experimentation.
(i) Temperature : If the panned dough temperature is lower than the proofing temperature,
fermentation will proceed at a higher rate in the warmer outer zone of the dough than in its
interiors, giving rise in the finished loaf to a fine texture at the outer rim and dense at the center.
On the other hand, if the proof box temperature is maintained too low, proof time is extended
which results in coarse texture.
(ii) Relative Humidity : Low humidity tends to promote the formation of a dry crust, which interferes
with loaf expansion in the oven and results in low volume & adverse effect on the crust colour.
Excessive humidity causes moisture condensation on the loaf which gives rise to tough crust
and/or the formation of blisters in the finished product.
(iii) Diastetic Activity of the Flour : During critical stage of proofing operation, the yeast should have
sufficient food (in the form of fermentable sugar) to carry out its function (fermentation)
efficiently, which may be the result of optimum diastetic activity of the flour. If the flour has
insufficient diastetic capacity, the proofing period is unduly prolonged affecting the texture
adversely. Excessive diastetic action will also adversely affect the texture as there will be
excessive gas production and gluten will also be excessively mellowed causing collapse of the
dough.
(iv) Fermentation : If the dough is under fermented, the gluten will have less stretcheability and more
resistance, which may results in excessively long proofing time.
2.7.2 Under or Over Proofing :
(i) Over Proofing : The dough acquires more proofing is known as over proof dough. Over
proofing results in loaves with pale crust colour, coarse grain, poor texture, low volume, irregular
shape, impaired keeping quality and a flavour with acid over stones due to over fermentation.
(ii) Under Proofing : The dough, which acquires less proof, is known as under proof dough. It
produces bread similar to less fermentation, like small loaf volume, shell top, foxy red crust
colour and occasional bursting at the sides.

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2.8 BAKING : Baking is the final and most important step in bread processing. During baking
process the raw dough pieces, under the influence of heat are transferred into a light, porous,
readily digestible and flavoured product, due to many physio-chemical changes.
2.8.1 Time and Temperature : Normally, the breads are baked inbetween 220° to 245°C (430°to
470°F) temperature for about 20 to 30 minutes. However the good average temperature is 232°C
(450°F) and time is 25 minutes. The main factors influence on time and temperature are :
If a formulation contains more than 6 % sugar or any amount of milk solids (i.e. milk bread,
french loaf) the product should be baked at lesser temperature for longer time as the higher
temperature may cause more caramelization and may result into dark crust colour.
The sandwich bread should be baked at low temperature for a longer time as compared to
open top bread.
Large size products are baked at low temperature for a longer time than small size products.
When the oven is over loaded, the baking time should be increased and the temperature
should decreased and v/s.
2.8.2 Physico-chemical Changes :
(i) Oven Rise and Oven Spring : When the bread pan is kept inside the oven, for the first few
minutes, the dough pieces may increase volume gradually, known as oven rise. But after
sometime the sudden expansion in bread loaf by about 1/5 of its original volume is take place due
to following reactions, which is known as oven spring :
Dough contains millions of minute air cells, which expand due to heat that increase the bread
volume.
Carbon dioxide produced during fermentation is dissolved in the aqueous phase of dough,
which is released from the dough when temperature reaches 49°C (120°F) and migrates into
existing cells, thereby adding to their internal pressure and ultimately to their size.
Alcohol and many other organic acids, esters, aldehydes and ketons (produced during
fermentation) are in liquid state changed into gaseous state at 80°C (175°F). The production
of vapour contributes to the gas pressure within the cells and their expansion.
Water also converts into vapour just like alcohol and similarly expands the volume.
In the first few minutes of baking stage, the fermentation speed increases, which produces
more carbon dioxide suddenly and expands the volume.
In addition to these, one physical law also contributes to expand the volume, i.e. small gas
cells require considerably greater pressures to expand than large gas cells. Hence, once the
pressure in the minute gas cells of the dough exceeds due to the above mentioned processes
up to a certain limit, the restrictive forces of the cell walls suddenly give way and the cells
undergo an abrupt expansion.
(ii) Yeast Activity : Yeast starts functioning vigorously due to increase in temperature but it gets
inactivated at 60°C (140°F) temperature during the last stage.
(iii) Enzyme Activity : The enzymes still remain active up to 76°C (170°F) producing sugar from
starch. This activity is enhanced due to the fact that the starch is partially gelatinized making it
more susceptible to enzymatic action. As the yeast, which had been consuming sugar is already
inactivated, this sugar remains in bread and performs its usual functions of retaining moisture,
imparting colour to the crust and improving flavour & taste.
(iv) Starch Gelatinization : During baking, the starch granules begin to absorb water and swell at
about 40°C (104°F) temperature. This is known as gelatinization. It protects the oven spring.
Gelatinization would not complete due to lack of water, time and temperature.

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 (v) Protein Denaturation : The water absorbed by starch during gelatinization generally comes out
from gluten due to its denaturation. During this process, the gluten film surrounding the
individual gas vacuoles, gets transferred into a semi-rigid structure by interaction with the
swollen starch. As the gas cells expand, the flexible starch granules within the cell wall are
elongated, enabling the gluten film to become thinner and ultimately to rupture. During this time,
starch swelling has advanced sufficiently to prevent a collapse of the dough structure.
(vi) Protein Coagulation : As baking proceeds further, the proteins are coagulated at 74°C (165°F),
setting the structure of the product, afterward there will no further rise in the bread volume. Once
the structure of protein is set, it starts to gain temperature, so that the weight is lost due to the
evaporation of the moisture from the product and the crust starts acquiring golden brown colour.
The protein coagulation continues till the end of baking.
(vii) Browning Reaction : Browning reaction in oven is caused due to caramelization and maillard
reaction. It makes the crust brown.
CARAMELIZATION : At about 170°C (340°F) temperature, sugar is hydrolyzed initially
into monosaccharides followed by polymerization which makes the product brown. This
reaction is taken place into the crust only, because the internal temperature of the bread never
exceeds 100°C (212°F), hence the crust is always darker than crumb.
MAILLARD REACTION : It starts at 160°C (320°F). This involves the reaction between
free reducing sugar and free amino groups of amino acids / peptides / protein and produces
successively melanoidin which provides brown colour as well as specific smell and taste to
crust.
2.8.3 Oven Problems :
(i) Insufficient Oven Heat : If the oven is too cold, the dough temperature rises steadily, which leads
to delayed protein coagulation resulting in late setting of crust and crumb. Simultaneously, yeast
remains active for longer period will increase the fermentation, ultimately results in the excessive
volume and light crust colour. Due to the lack of sufficient temperature, bread requires longer
baking time resulting in more evaporation of moisture. Hence, the resultant bread is short-
weighed, dry, crumbly and stales faster. This condition is useful when the bread is to be made
from green flour, weak flour or young dough.
(ii) Excessive Oven Heat : This may be due to excessive heating or inadequate loading of the oven.
If the oven is very hot, the coagulation of protein on the outer surface (i.e. forming of crust) will
take place very soon. That will block the easy transmission of heat inside. As a result when gas
expands in the inner portion and crust being non-stretchable, there will be exaggerated break, low
volume, poor shape and uneven grain with large flat holes (due to collection of air cell). The
crust will be too dark and bread will not be baked properly from the inside. The excessive oven
heat is useful when the bread is to be made from old flour or lean formula (having low sugar).
(iii) Excess Steam : When the dough piece emerges from the final proofer, its surface temperature is
generally within a range of about 35° to 40°C (95° to 105°F). If such dough is placed in a steam-
saturated oven, moisture will condense on its cool surface. This would results in tough &
leathery crust and surface blisters. The adequate amount of moisture may not be baked off from
the bread may make the crumb over moist and vulnerable to mould infection. This situation may
favour good oven spring and volume.
(iv) Insufficient Steam : Lack of humidity in the oven will cause faster evaporation of moisture from
the external surface of the bread. As a result, there will be premature formation of crust. Hence,
the gas produced in the crumb after crust formation will exert pressure and finally erupt through
crumb just below the crust causing separation of crust from crumb in the form of a shell. It is

Page 20 of 52
 referred to as a shell top. It can be markedly detected in case of open top bread. The same
situation may arise in case of insufficient humidity during proofing, young dough or dough made
from strong flour. If the shell top is not formed the hard crust may prevent the expansion of the
loaf resulting in low volume and poor shape.
(v) Improper Heat Distribution : For the most part, faulty heat distribution in oven manifests itself
in insufficient bottom heat, i.e. the heat conducted through the hearth. Such maldistribution of
heat produces loaves possessing a well-baked top crust but an under baked bottom crust and side
walls. Hence, the sides of the resultant bread cave-in during cooling and collapse on slicing &
stacking on retail shelves.
(vi) Incorrect Pan Spacing : Bread moulds having 400 gm dough, should always be placed in oven at
a distance of about 1 cm (1/2”) and parallel to each other which will ensure proper circulation
of heat results in to evenly baked products. If moulds are loaded too close to each other, the sides
of the bread, which are in close contact, will be insufficiently baked. Hence, the possibility of
causing rope/mould disease is increased. So, it is beneficial to use three step or four step pans to
keep proper distance between pans.
2.9 DEPANNING : Bread should be released from the mould immediately after baking otherwise
the moisture trapped between the bread and the interior surface of the mould will make the
product soggy, technically known as sweating. In such cases the possibility of fungal infection
increases.
2.10 COOLING : The bread should be allowed to cool after releasing from the bread pan. There are
no fixed criteria for cooling the bread but the general concept is that the interior (middle part)
crumb temperature should be reduced within a range of 35° to 40°C (95° to 105°F). The cooling
operation should be accomplished within the shortest possible time and without excessive
evaporative moisture lose. While cooling the bread, its surfaces should be kept open as much as
possible and the bread should not be in contact with each other otherwise there might be moisture
condensation.
2.11 SLICING : When the bread is hot, starch granules are in a swollen state and are held unstably in
gluten framework. If the bread is sliced in this condition, the unstable starch granules will lump-
up together giving a poor appearance to the slice. In addition to that, if such hot bread is sliced in
a slicer, the crumb pieces may stick with slicing knives that may affect by fungal infection. If the
fresh bread is sliced in this condition, the microorganisms stuck with the slicing knives will stick
into the crumb of the fresh bread and infect it. Hence, it is very essential that the slicing knives
should be properly cleaned before use. After the bread is brought down to room temperature, the
starch granules will shrink and stabilize in gluten framework. Hence, bread could be sliced neatly.
2.12 PACKING/WRAPPING : Bread is packed in order to preserve freshness and protect from the
hazards of external contamination. Airtight packing is not advisable in tropical countries like
India. Hence, use the packing material, which permit the bread to breath and not expose the
bread unduly. The airtight packing material may condense the moisture while the highly porous
material may increase the drying rate. Previously, wax coated papers were used to pack the bread
for this reason but now indented polypropylene (plastic bags) is widely used. For attracting the
consumer and to catch the eyes of the people the packing material is always printed .
When the bread is withdrawn from the oven after baking, the process of moisture
evaporation continues as long as it is warm. If the bread is wrapped during this stage, then some
of the water vapour will absorbed by the bread (specially crust) while some part will remain as
free moisture. The free moisture part will be conducive to fungus infection. Therefore, bread
should be packed only when it is thoroughly cooled. ===================

Page 21 of 52
 3 : BREAD MAKING METHODS

3.1 Introduction . . . .
3.2 Conventional Methods . .
• Straight Dough Method • Sponge and Dough Method • Salt Delayed Method
• No Dough Time Method • Ferment and Dough Process
3.3 Mechanical Dough Development Method . . . .

3.1 INTRODUCTION : Various methods of bread preparation have been introduced during the past
several decades. Each baker has to select his own method after careful consideration of a
prevailing situation. The different bread making methods are divided basically in two groups, i.e.
conventional and mechanical.
3.2 CONVENTIONAL METHODS : This group includes straight dough method, sponge & dough
method, salt delayed method and ferment & dough method.
3.2.1 Straight Dough Method : In this method, all the ingredients are mixed in one stage of mixing
and the dough is allowed to ferment for a predetermined time. Fermentation period may range
between 30 minutes to 16 hours depending on the quantity and quality of yeast, water, salt, flour,
temperature etc. If the fermentation time is upto 5 hours, the method is termed as short process
while if the fermentation is more than 5 hours it is termed as long process . During long process,
it is difficult to control the rise in dough temperature, which invariably increases the fermentation
speed, causing more production of acid, which makes the taste and flavour of the bread acidic and
also makes the gluten soft and sticky. Hence, it is advisable to use short process instead of long
process. In the short process, it is advisable to adopt the process having 3 to 4 hours fermentation
period. While using long process the temperature, yeast quantity should be decreased whereas
the sugar and salt quantity should be increased (which make the gluten stronger and control over
fermentation). The dough should be knock back after 2/3 times of total bulk fermentation period.

(i) Advantages and Disadvantages :

All the ingredients are mixed together at once in this method, hence it requires : • less time •
equipments • place • labours • electricity as compared to sponge and dough process which
requires twice the mixing and weighing etc.
All the ingredients are added together hence sugar, salt etc. increase the osmotic pressure,
which results in decreased yeast activity. In order to compensate with that more yeast is
required that results in poor control over fermentation.
There is no chance to improve any mistakes in this method.
3.2.2 Sponge and Dough Method : The ingredients are mixed in two stages i.e. sponge and dough.
The sponge usually contains 50 to 75 % (½ to ¾) of the total flour, all the yeast & yeast food and
malt together with enough water to make slack dough. Addition of all or part of shortening may
also be made at this stage (although it is more common to add it later). 50 to 75 % of total salt
may also be added to control the fermentation. All these ingredients are mixed just sufficiently to
incorporate them evenly. Yeast starts its function immediately after mixing, as it is capable to
ferment the dough speedily at the sponge stage due to slack dough. Simultaneously, the gas
produced during fermentation increases the volume of the dough, but the quantity of yeast is
proportionately more as compared with flour. Hence, the resultant dough is not capable to retain
the produced gas hence after sometimes gas breaks the dough and comes out, so the dough begins
to decline in volume, is called the drop or break. And the point at which the dough starts to
collapse is known as drop stage. The time required for drop to occur depends on many factors

Page 22 of 52
 like temperature, type of the flour, amount of yeast, type of malt etc. Mostly, the dough
temperature is maintained between 24° to 29°C (72° to 78° F) and all other variables are adjusted
in such a way that, the dough drops or breaks within 3 to 5 hours.
The second stage in sponge and dough method is dough stage. In this stage, the sponge is
return to the mixer and mixed with all the remaining ingredients. It is advisable to test the sponge
physically for its readiness before mixing the dough. The dough can be tested by :
Take a small piece of sponge and try to break it with both the hands. If the piece breaks with
a clean fracture, the sponge is ready for mixing. If the sponge is not ready, the piece will
stretch to some extent and will break in unevenly stretched shreds. In such a case the sponge
should be allowed more fermentation time.
Tear the sponge apart from the center with both hands and examine the web structure. If the
web structure is very fine the sponge is ready.
An adequately fermented sponge feels dry to touch without any stickiness present.
When the sponge is ready, it should be break down properly in the water so that its even
mixing in the dough is ensured. Broken down sponge is mixed with remaining flour, sugar, salt,
fat, milk powder etc. ingredients remaining for a complete formula. The dough after proper
mixing is returned to the fermentation room, where it is relaxed for 15 to 60 minutes, that is
known as flour time.
Out of the total flour required, the part of it is added at sponge stage and the remaining
part is added at dough stage, i.e. if 60% of the total flour is added in sponge stage then 40% is
added in dough stage. This method is known as 60:40 sponge and dough method. If the sponge
time is less then 2 hours, it is termed as flying sponge. However, in such cases the quantity of
yeast and water should be increased.
(i) Advantages and Disadvantages :
The fermentation is to be carried out in two stages. Hence, it may be useful to adjust the total
fermentation time by adjusting at any stage of fermentation.
The quantity of yeast required is less due to long fermentation time. It is estimated that about
20% of the yeast could be saved as compared to straight dough method.
All the formula yeast works only on a part (usually ½ to ¾ of total requirements) of the flour,
effecting better maturing of gluten. Therefore, the resultant bread will have greater volume,
more desirable texture & grain, better water retention capacity (which prevents quick drying
of the bread) and a pleasant flavour.
Weak flour could be used in this method. Which is not possible to use in the case of straight
dough method. However, the weak flour should be used at dough stage only, because in
sponge stage much fermentation is carried out leading to more gas production which would
not be retain by the weak flour, while in dough stage less fermentation is carried out which
produces less gas, that could be retain by the weak flour.
Baker can ward off a number of minor irritants like temperature variations due to weather
conditions, lack of diastetic capacity in flour, too high gluten in the flour, low dough rising
capacity of the yeast etc. by using this method.
In this method, each batch is to be mixed twice, ingredients are weighed in two lots and
dough is to be handled several times. Hence, labour, equipments, floor space, time,
electricity etc. are required more than straight dough method.
The mixing and fermentation loss of the dough (due to twice mixing and fermentation) leads
to less production.
However those small disadvantages are far outweighed by better quality of products,
hence it is advisable to use this method for big plant.

Page 23 of 52
3.2.3 Salt Delayed Method : This method is similar to straight dough method except the salt is added
at a later stage of fermentation. As the salt has a controlling effect on enzymatic action of yeast,
the speed of fermentation of salt less dough will be faster that leads to reduction in total
fermentation time. The salt is added at the knock back stage (i.e. after 2/3 part of the total bulk
fermentation time). The method of salt addition is applied as per the convenience of individual
baker, like :
It may be sifted (dry) on the dough.
It is made into salt solution by diluting in water and the solution is mixed along with flour.
Both water and flour are saved previously from the total quantity required. Flour is added to
prevent slipperiness caused by addition of salt solution.
Some baker creams the salt with fat and mixed with the total dough.
The dough is then remixed for ¼ part of the total mixing time because initially it was
mixed only for ¾ part of total mixing time.
(i) Advantages and Disadvantages : Due to absence of salt the fermentation speed is enhanced and
gluten does not became hard (as salt provides hardness to the gluten) hence, gluten is matured in a
reasonably shorter time. So, this method is specially suitable for hard flour and method with
shorter fermentation time.
3.2.4 No Dough Time Method : Dough is not fermented in this method but, it is just allowed to rest
for a brief period (about 30 minutes). So, it recovers from the strain of mixing. Since dough is
not fermented, the twin function of fermentation (i.e. production of gas and conditioning of
gluten) is achieved to some extent by increasing the quantity of yeast (2 to 3 times of original
quantity) and by making the dough little slacker and warmer. Now-a-days, the small scale bakers
widely use this method due to high speed.
(i) Advantages and Disadvantages : The bread made by this method has • lack of aroma • poor
keeping quality • low moisture retention power • strong yeast flavour
To improve the quality of such bread • acetic acid • calcium propionate • potassium
bromate • potassium iodate etc. chemicals / bread improvers are to be used, even though
only fairly good bread could be made.
3.2.5 Ferment and Dough Process : This method is similar to sponge and dough method except a few
variations. Very often a bread formula contains milk powder, egg, substantial quantity of fat and
sugar (i.e. milk bread, special toast, sweet dough, danish pastry etc.). All these formula
ingredients will have retarding effect on yeast activity. If all the formula yeast, part of flour, yeast
food and sufficient water are mixed together just like flying ferment, the yeast gets initially an
environment which is conductive to vigorous activity and at the end of fermentation time (of
ferment) it is in a fit condition to take the extra load of fermentation. Ability of ferment for
fermentation depends on the product desired, that is decided by the individual baker differently :
Some bakers consider the ferment ready for mixing when it drop by itself
While others may consider just prior to its dropping
Some bakers may consider sometime after dropping off the dough.
Once the ferment is ready, it is mixed into dough, along with the remaining ingredients
and allowed to ferment for the second stage. Then it is processed similar to other methods.
3.3 MECHANICAL DOUGH DEVELOPMENT METHOD : During the past several years
various methods of bread making have been developed to accelerate the speed and improve
quality. The mechanical method is one of them. In this method dough development process is
carried out by mechanical energy instead of bulk fermentation. Due to absence of fermentation,
its main function of gas and alcohol production cannot take place, which leads to absence of

Page 24 of 52
pleasant characteristics (i.e. sour taste and smell) in the bread. Such bread losses its palatability
hence it is not accepted by people. Hence, liquid brew (or broth) is added to provide taste and
smell. Liquid brew is prepared by mixing of water, yeast, milk powder, MYF, salt, liquid sugar
and part of flour in a steel tank and by stirring it for about 6 hours at 30° to 38°C (86° to 100°F).
Mechanical method is divided in two parts : batch process and continuous process. The
batch process includes Chorleywood process and Sheeting process whereas continuous process
includes Do-Maker process, Amflow method, Strahmann method, Ivarsson method, Konpetua
method, Buss method, Rabinovich method etc. All these methods are more or less basically
similar except minor differences particularly with type of mixer machine. Moreover these
methods are not popular in India hence a general flow sheet is explained here in short.

===================

Page 25 of 52
 4 : BREAD CHARACTERISTICS

4.1 Introduction . . . .
4.2 External Characteristics .
• Volume • Shape • Bloom • Crust Colour • Evenness of Bake • Oven Break
4.3 Internal Characteristics . .
• Crumb Colour • Crumb Structure • Crumb Clarity & Elasticity • Sheen & Texture •
Taste & Aroma • Moistness • Cleanliness
4.1 INTRODUCTION : Before judging the good or bad quality of the bread it is desirable to know
the characteristics properly. The desirable characteristics depend on individual preferences, i.e.
a person who is fond of sweetness, prefers bread with much sugar. Hence the perfect desirable
universal characteristics cannot be decided exactly.
Most of the commercial breads produced in our country are sandwich type due to
consumer preference and convenience in production, storage & transportation as compared to
open top bread. However, for judging the various characteristics, an open top bread should be
tested as it may not be possible to notice some of the fine points of distinction in case of sandwich
bread because lid obstructs development of the bread which will markedly affect the texture and
other characteristics. However, it may not occur in the case of open top bread.
Since quality assessment is largely based on personal judgement and subjective
qualitative evaluation, the results cannot be absolute but will reflect in varying degrees by the
influence of consumer preferences within the given market area. And that way, once the good
bread is decided, the same type of bread (having similar characteristics) is to be produced and
checked for its similarity.
To make a complete assessment of the bread quality, it should be examined both for
external as well as internal characteristics of the bread.

External Internal
Characteristics Characteristics
• Volume • Crumb colour
• Shape • Crumb structure
• Bloom • Crumb clarity and elasticity
• Crust colour • Sheen and texture
• Evenness of bake • Taste and aroma
• Oven break • Moistness
• Cleanliness

The following table shows the maximum point values, which are commonly assigned to
various bread properties normally included in a typical scoring card for conventional bread.
Usually, the score distribution is held to 30 points for external, 35 for internal and 35 points for
taste and aroma properties.
Characteristics Point
• Volume 15 External
• Colour & nature of crust 05 properties
• Symetry of form 05 (30)
• Uniformity of bake 05

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 • Texture 15 Internal
• Colour of the crumb 10 properties
• Grain 10 (35)
• Aroma 15 Taste
• Taste 20 properties (35)
• Total 100

4.2 EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC :

4.2.1 Volume : When the customer looks at the bread the first characteristic to catch his eyes is its
volume, hence it is an important characteristic for selling the bread. Customer always prefers
bread with large volume because it feels soft while pressing. However, there should be an ideal
relation between loaf volume and dough weight (which can be judged by measuring specific
gravity of the bread), because it yields bread with the most desirable texture and grain.
(i) Factors Affecting the Volume :
Quality of raw materials Markedly affect the
Bread processing conditions volume
Flour quality
Adequacy of fermentation Major factors
Gluten ripeness responsible
Mixing, proofing, baking conditions for volume
Diastetic acitvity of the flour

4.2.2 Shape : Shape is another characteristic (just like volume) which catches the consumers attention
and could be well judged in the case of open top bread. The lower part and sides of the bread are
guided by the bottom and walls of the mould respectively the upper part has free expansion.
There should be such a harmony between these two parts of the bread that it present a pleasing
appearance i.e. if a piece of dough having more weight is placed in a mould, the lower part will
be guided by the walls of the mould and will remain usual but the expansion of the top part will
be exaggerated so as to present a non-symmetrical shape.
(i) Factors Affecting Shape :
High maltose figure flour Result into
Excess use of bread improvers under or over
Too much under or over fermentation ripening
of the gluten
Loose or improper moulding
Unusual shaped bread tin
Improper panning (seal of the dough is not placed at the bottom)
Improper proofing (skinning during proofing)
Improper baking condition
These are some of the factors, which are responsible for imparting :
Round or sharp edge shouldering
Cave inside or bottom
and thereby spoil the symmetry of shape.
4.2.3 Bloom : This is such a delicate characteristic of bread that requires a very fine judgement to
differentiate it from crust colour. The bloom on bread should be just like the bloom on the face

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 of a healthy person as compared to on unhealthy person. Similarly, it can be differentiate only
when two breads are kept close to each other. Bloom is that natural flush which can be acquired
in bread only by the use of good quality raw material and proper care at each and every stage of
processing.
4.2.4 Crust Colour : Now-a-days, average customer prefers lighter crust colour. However, it should be
pleasing golden brown. But in market it could be from dark brown to golden brown. The crust
colour is largely affected by quantity of residual sugar as it is responsible for caramelization
during baking and finally to browning of the crust. The residual sugar is largely affected by
fermentation i.e. :

(i) Factors Affecting the Crust Colour :

Excessive fermentation

more sugar is utilized

hence
residual sugar will be less
resulting in
pale crust colour
and vis-a-versa
As the fermentation largely affects the crust colour, the factors which can affect on
fermentation, are also indirectly responsible for crust colour. Such factors are :
• Quality and quantity of the yeast.
• Fermentation temperature
• Dough pH
• Quantity of sugar and salt
• Quantity and quality of water
• Flour quality etc.
During proofing, actual fermentation process takes place, hence excess or less proofing
ultimately affects similar to fermentation on crust colour.
In addition to these factors :
• Maltose figure of the flour
• Baking conditions
• Use of milk powder etc.
are also responsible for crust colour.
4.2.5 Evenness of Bake : The bread should have even colour at each and every corner. Since top crust
remains in direct contact with hot air, it will naturally acquire slightly darker colour. But this
darkness of the top crust should be in consonance with the colour of remaining crust, it is only
possible when the bread is baked evenly.
(i) Factors Affecting Evenness of Bake :
Proper baking is main responsible factor for evenness of baking. It is widely acceptable that :
• Proper oven loading
• Maintaining proper distance between bread tin
• Proper firing and handling of the oven
are some of the factors responsible for proper baking.

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 Over fermentation or over proofing will create a condition where large gas pockets will
remain entrapped between walls of the mould and body of the bread. In that case, the whole
body of the bread will not remain in contact with the mould hence heat absorption will be
uneven (faster where the body is in contact with mould) resulting in uneven baking.
4.2.6 Oven Break : When an open top loaf is being baked, crust formation on the side and top takes
place earlier while there is still no crust formation on the portion nearest (and parallel) to the
upper edge of the mould. When the expansion takes place in the inner part of the bread, the gas
stretches the weaker part (where there had been no crust formation) and escapes through the
opening thus created, which is called break. The characteristics of the bread (i.e. smooth, rough,
exaggerated) are known as shred. If the flour is of good strength, dough is correctly fermented,
proofing and baking conditions are proper, then the break must be smooth which is invariably a
sign of good bread. It had been discussed earlier that, the gluten of dough should be so
conditioned during fermentation that, during baking, it could stretch with the expanding gas and
still have sufficient resistance to retain gas, in such condition smooth break arises. If the dough is
under fermented, the gluten will have more resistance and it may tear apart under pressure of
expanding gas giving an exaggerated break or even a shell top. Conversely, if the dough is over
fermented, there will be no resistance left in the dough hence gas escapes easily and there will no
break.
(i) Factors Affecting Oven Break : Apart from proper fermentation, break is also affected by :
Proper moulding
Adequate proofing
Sufficient humidity during proofing and baking etc.
4.3 INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS :
4.3.1 Crumb Colour : Crumb colour can be judged observing the internal colour of the slice. It should
be soft, creamy white and free from streaks or off-colour spots.
(i) Factors Affecting Crumb Colour :
Crumb colour is the end result of the contributions of all ingredients used in the bread
formula, with flour being the main determining factor. Hence :
• Flour colour, in turn, is influenced principally by its relative freedom from bran particles
and thus in large measure, an index of flour grade and milling efficiency. Hence, a loaf
of bread made from maida will normally have a brighter crumb colour compared to the
bread made from the Atta.
• Flour fineness also has its effect on crumb colour. Finer the particle size, whiter the
bread.
A crumb structure, made up of small, even sized, oblong and shallow gas cells, will reflect
more light in comparison to the crumb which has a structure made up of uneven sized, deep
and round shaped cells. In the later case, more light will be absorbed by the crumb hence
reflection will be very poor.
If the cell walls are thin, a part of the light falling on a cell will pass through into the
neighbouring cell and the sum total of reflected light increases, thereby enhancing the visual
effect of whiteness of the crumb. Bread having thick cell wall will not allow this reflection of
light into the neighbouring cells and the crumb will appear to be comparatively darker.
The crumb structure is influenced by :
• Quality of flour and other ingredients
• Adequacy of fermentation and all other stages of bread processing
• Maltose figure of the flour
• Quantity of salt and sugar etc.
Which ultimately also affect the crumb colour.

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 When crumb colour is to be judged, be careful that :
The same portion of the each loaves should be taken for comparing the loaves. Because,
usually the texture of the end portion of the slice is more uniform as compared to middle
portion of the slice.
Judge the colour of the freshly cut surface of the bread because the crumb tends to darken
somewhat on extended exposure of its cut surface in atmosphere.
4.3.2 Crumb Structure : Crumb structure includes crumb cell arrangement, shape, volume etc.
Different kinds of bread (i.e. milk bread, plain white bread, french bread etc.) have different
crumb structures, which depend on bread processing and baking conditions. The same type of
products, also having different crumb structures, depending on quality of raw material, adequacy
of fermentation, dough manipulation, proofing and baking etc.
(i) Factors Affecting Crumb Structure :
Slack dough usually produces open grain structure, which consists of rather a large individual
cell, whereas stiff dough produces close grain structure, which consists of minute cells. A
bread slice may have uniformly open or close grain or a range of various size cells.
Cell shape also affects grain characteristics. Oval or elongated cells are preferred over round
shaped cells. Generally, plain white bread consists of elongated cell shape while rich formula
bread consists of round shape cell.
The thickness of the cell wall also affects the grain characteristics. Thin cell wall is prevalent
in fine-grained, fine-textured crumbs while thick cell walls are found in characteristically
coarse-grained crumbs.
4.3.3 Crumb Clarity and Elasticity :
(i) Crumb Clarity : When a bread slice is held against sunlight or other bright light, the whole
surface should appear translucent and there should be no dense portion, dark spots or much
translucent portion.
FACTORS AFFECTING CRUMB CLARITY :
Fault at any stage of bread processing
Skinning during fermentation or proofing
Bread crash before setting
Improper mixing
Mixing of the dough scrape (collected from mixing bowl or table or hand) with dough
etc.
are the main causes of improper crumb clarity. Among these the last two are principal causes.
(ii) Crumb Elasticity : It can be measured roughly by following methods :
Press the bread crumb gently and release : it should come back to its original shape
without breaking.
Bend the ends of the slice together and release : it should come back to its original shape.
Roll the bread slice (after removing crust) together just like swees-rolls and release : it
should come back to its original shape without breaking.
This quality of bread is known as elasticity.
If the bread does not contain proper elasticity, the pressure of slicing blades will break the
crumb rather than cutting it into neat slices. Such slices may sometimes break while applying
butter due to the pressure of butter-knife.
FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTICITY :
Poor quality flour
Improper fermentation

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4.3.4 Sheen and Texture :
(i) Sheen : If the crumb cells are small, oblong, shallow and evenly distributed with thin cell wall, it
will reflect light with greater intensity, hence it looks like a sparkling objects along with
brightness. This is known as sheen. It is the result of proper quality raw material in adequate
quantity and controlled processing.
(ii) Texture : When the bread slice is gently pressed with fingertip the sensation produced by the
crumb is known as texture.
TYPES & FACTORS AFFECTING ON TEXTURE :
GOOD TEXTURE : The texture, which is soft, silky and still with certain degree of
firmness is considered to be good texture.
WOOLY TEXTURE : A slack dough or over proofed dough will produce a bread having
open crumb structure which will be soft to touch but feels coarse. Such texture is known
as wooly.
CHEESY TEXTURE : Excessive use of milk powder (or such other ingredients which is
having tightening action on flour protein) or potassium bromate will produce a bread like
a block of cheese. That is known as cheesy texture.
DRUMMY TEXTURE : Bread made from under fermented dough or too tight dough will
have a texture, which is very tight, hard to press and rough, known as drummy texture.
4.3.5 Taste and Aroma : Aroma is the quality perceived by the sense of smell. To determine bread
aroma, the loaf is held close to the nose and air squeezed out of it during the act of smelling. The
taste is detected by the taste buds of the tongue and mouth membranes while keeping a piece of
bread in mouth. In practice, the consumer does not distinguish consciously between taste and
aroma, but reacts subjectively to their combined effect, which is known as flavour. Flavour plays
a primary role in determining consumer appeal. Hence, controlling its specific character and
optimum development are the prime objective of the entire baking process.
Depending on consumer preferences within a market area, the aroma should incorporate
wheaty, nutty, malty or sweet diacetyl notes etc. The fresh bread should have typical slightly
sweet sour taste, with a very light salty note and a barely perceptible bitter element derived from
the crust.
(i) Factors Affecting Taste and Aroma :
The bread flavour is the result of heating (while baking) of acid, alcohol and other byproducts
produced during fermentation. Hence, if the dough remains under fermented, there will not
be enough by-products present and consequently bread will lack in flavour. On the other
hand, over fermentation will produce excessive quantities of acids etc. and the flavour will be
too strong sourish, sometimes termed as gassy.
• High temperature of dough during fermentation will produce acidic flavour.
• Excessive long fermentation time will produce a flavour similar to that of rancid butter.
• Flour made from old or new wheat, flour stored or transported with strong flavoured
material or machinery, place used for bread processing having strong flavour etc. could
produce problems in bread flavour.
Salt, sugar, malt, milk powder and such other ingredients used in bread making also impart or
enhance (particularly salt) the bread flavour.

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4.3.6 Moistness : Quality of freshness is judged by the degree of bread moistness. Which depends on
the quality of moisture present throughout the bread and not on the quantity of moisture. Hence,
sometimes bread containing more amount of moisture is devoid of the quality of moistness.

(i) Factors Affecting Moistness :

Moistness is influenced by the conditioning of gluten and starch in bread. If the gluten is
adequately conditioned during fermentation stage, it will form a very fine web like structure
having thin cell wall, thereby enhancing the moisture holding capacity of the bread.
Similarly, the proper conditioning of starch, which is influenced by action of diastase enzyme
, will also improve the moisture holding capacity of bread. Normally, proper fermentation
mellows the gluten and starch adequately.
Some of the bread making ingredients (like salt, fat, sugar, malt etc.) helps in retaining
moisture in bread due to its hygroscopic nature.
If the bread is baked at low temperature, it requires long baking time, which results in more
evaporation of moisture from the bread.
Bread should be stored at about 60% rh. Lack of humidity will rob the bread of its moistness.
Long process of bread making retains the moistness for longer duration as compared to short
process.
Better quality of packaging material retains the moisture for longer time.
The amount of moisture in bread after baking should be 35 to 40 %. More moisture
makes it favourable for the microbial growth whereas less moisture feels it dry while eating.
4.3.7 Cleanliness : This is such a characteristic of bread, which has hardly any bearing with quality of
raw material or processing conditions, but it largely depends on care taken by the bakers during
handling and production. Among the different stages, absolute care on baking and operations
followed by baking (i.e. depanning, cooling, slicing, packing etc.) should be taken. For that, dirty
hand or equipment should not touch the bread as well as it should not be placed on dirty places
because it may make spot on the bread.

===============

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 5 : BREAD FAULTS

5.1 Introduction . . .
5.2 External Faults . .
• Faults in Volume • Faults in Crust • Shell Top • Irregularity of Shape • Lack of Cleanliness
5.3 Internal Faults . .
• Holes & Tunnels • Core, Seams, Streaks & Condensation Mark • Damp, Clamy & Closed
Crumb •Dryness and Rapid Staling • Crumbliness of the Crumb • Defects in Taste and
Aroma

5.1 INTRODUCTION : Deviations from normal bread quality standards, whether perceived
subjectively or determined by objective measurements, are designated by the collective term
bread faults. They arise from two principal sources : inferior ingredients and improper
processing. In many instances, bread faults result from a combination of various factors so that it
is more convenient to classify them into broad categories and indicate the possible causes that
may be involved in each.
It is said that, every bakery encounters as many bread faults as it deserves. This implies
that bread faults can be held to a minimum by paying close attention to the quality of the
ingredients and by accurate control on the production process. For that :
A thorough knowledge about raw material and its functions
Adequate understanding of bread making procedures
Necessary information on time, temperature and humidity at different stages of bread making
Above all personal skills and experience of the baker
Go a long way in avoiding faults in bread and also in finding out remedies, if any fault occurs.
A skilled baker should examine the bread carefully, and by reasoning, deductions,
elimination and if necessary by experimentation should be able to detect the cause(s) of fault and
subsequently find the solution.
Bread faults are divided into two parts : External and Internal
The main causes of above faults are discussed below in detail while the other causes are
summarized in table at the end of the chapter.
5.2 EXTERNAL FAULTS : The bread faults, which can be seen outer side, are divided into five
major parts :
5.2.1 Faults in Volume : Proper volume of bread is the outcome of adequate conditioning of the gluten
and sufficient gassing power of the dough at the time of baking. The imbalance in the same may
results in less or excessive volume.
(i) Lack of Volume : This fault may be caused due to many factors beginning from improper
selection of raw material to cooling process. Among them fermentation is the principal cause. In
addition to that, lack of sugar at proofing stage is also important cause because insufficient sugar
would not produce carbon dioxide in sufficient quantity hence the product may not rise
adequately. Moreover factors affecting gluten quality is also one of the major cause of lack of
volume, as the carbon dioxide gas produced during fermentation is retained in the gluten cell
framework.
(ii) Excessive Volume : generally the opposite causes to lack of volume produce excessive volume.
Excessive quantity of yeast, strong flour, low salt, loose moulding are the chief causes of the

Page 33 of 52
 fault. It is advisable to keep in mind that too much quantity of the above mentioned raw material
would produce bread with lack of volume.
5.2.2 Faults in Crust :
(i) Lack of Crust Colour : Crust colour largely depends on quantity of the residual sugar, although
the baking temperature also should be adequate (at the same time). Under any circumstances,
when the yeast activity is vigorous, the utilization of sugar is much, resulting in light crust colour.
(ii) Dark Crust Colour : More quantity of residual sugar results in foxy red dark crust colour, which
is the result of opposite conditions to light crust colour.
(iii) Cracking of Crust : This fault is principally caused by the excessive oven heat. Because in such a
condition gluten stretches much, which shrinks speedily when bread comes out of oven, as a
result crust gets cracked. Sometimes, the speedy cooling of bread may cause cracking of the crust.
(iv) Leathery Crust : The bread crust should be crispy and should break easily when it is stretched.
But sometimes crust feels leathery when it is stretched. This fault may be caused due to improper
ripening of dough (particularly in case of strong flour) results is insufficient gluten ripening
which make it leathery. Secondly, when crust absorbs the water during baking or processing
followed after baking the crust becomes leathery.
(v) Hard Crust : Sometimes, bread crust feels hard and breaks just like egg-shell is known as hard or
flinty crust. Strong flour with insufficient conditioning is the chief cause of hard crust. But the
Indian wheat is not so hard, hence there are less chances of such a fault.
(vi) Thick Crust : When expansion of the bread in the oven (oven spring) is insufficient or bread is
left in oven for too long time, there will be more concentration of heat on the outer surface of the
bread rather than heat penetrating in the bread. This condition results in bread having thick crust.
(vii) Blisters : If the bread is prooved or baked under highly humid atmosphere, the moisture may
accumulate as droplets. Hence, the water content of that particular part results into more
extensibility of gluten (just like slack dough), when that part absorbs heat during baking, it
increases in volume and finally come-up as a blisters. Secondly, in case of machine moulding, if
the pressure board are kept tight, it will result in to hard moulding and some air may erupt
between gluten-layer & will rise during proofing and baking results in blisters. Thirdly, in case of
sandwich bread, if less proofing time is allowed, there will be a gap between lid & dough, where
the steam is accumulated (particularly in corners) which results into blisters.
(viii) Lack of Bloom : This fault is generally caused when low maltose figure flour is used for the
bread production. Sometimes, over ripened dough may results in such fault.
5.2.3 Shell Top : This fault of bread can easily be determined (particularly in case of open top bread),
as the crust is separated from crumb in the form of shell. Its main cause is early setting of crust.
5.2.4 Irregularity of Shape : Irregular shape of bread is the result of many factors. But the loose
moulding is the chief cause. Secondly, the seal of moulded dough does not arranged at the bottom
while panning.
5.2.5 Lack of Cleanliness : If the bread seems dirty (without any external fault) the consumer will not
prefer to purchase it. In such a situation time, raw material, labour etc. will be wasted. Except one
or two causes lack of cleanliness is caused due to carelessness of bakers. Then it can be said that
the baker is not perfect.
5.3 INTERNAL FAULTS : Internal faults are divided into six parts:

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5.3.1 Holes and Tunnels : Some gluten strands break (due to any reason), either during proofing or
initial stage of baking, it has a chain reaction and the neighbouring gluten strands also continue to
break (results into hole and sometimes into tunnel) until the protein are coagulated under the
action of heat and the structure of bread is set.
5.3.2 Core, Seams, Streaks & Condensation Mark :
(i) Core : When the cut surface of crumb is gently pressed with finger tips, it feels that entire surface
may not be evenly soft and presence of occasional hard spots may be left. These hard spots are
known as cores. The main cause of core is addition of dough scrap (produced on hand, surfaces
of mixing bowl, working table, dough cutters etc.) after mixing operation is over. This dough
scrap being hard as compared to dough, produces cores.
( ii ) Seams : Very often, sandwich bread may show dense layers on the outer periphery of the crumb
specially near the top crust. If the cut surface of such bread is observed, it could be clearly seen
that the central part has open soft structure while the outer periphery has very close and compact
structure. These dense layers are known as seems. The main cause for the same is restriction of
dough expansion (during baking) by sidewall or cover of the bread tin.
( iii ) Streaks : Sometimes, white layers of flour are observed inside the cut surface of bread is known
as streaks. It is the result of (unweated) flour, which remains in the dough at any stage of bread
processing.
( iv ) Condensation Mark : If the bread is not allowed to cool properly before packing, some of the
water vapour will deposit in the crumb structure causing dark colour patches known as
condensation mark.
5.3.3 Damp, Clamy & Closed Crumb : Flour having more diastetic activity produces dextrin, it being
gummy, imparts stickiness to the crumb. Hence the normal quantity of moisture will not be
baked-off leaving crumb over moist. However, over moist crumb with pineapple smell is the
indication of rope disease.
5.3.4 Dryness and Rapid Staling : The main cause of dryness and rapid staling is the improper
development of gluten, because such gluten could not retain the moisture for longer time, hence
bread becomes dry speedily.
5.3.5 Crumbliness of the Crumb : Adequately ripened gluten has proper elasticity, hence the crumb
will also have similar properties. The improper elasticity of the crumb may break it while slicing
or buttering. It is known as crumbliness. The main factor responsible for proper elasticity is
adequate fermentation, which makes the proper development of the gluten.
5.3.6 Defects in Taste and Aroma : Pleasant taste and aroma in the bread is the result of proper
fermentation, because it produces sufficient quantity of acid & alcohol and these two components
are mainly responsible for flavour in the bread. Over fermentation may produce sour taste and
aroma. If the dough temperature or temperature of fermentation room is high or the period of
fermentation is too long, the yeast itself stops functioning after sometimes, but the acid producing
bacteria (particularly lactic acid) will still remain active, which produces the typical sour taste and
aroma in the bread. However, sometimes rope may produce sourness in bread but it has a fruity
acidic aroma.

=================

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 6 : BREAD DISEASES

6.1 Introduction . . . .
6.2 Rope . . . . .
• Bacteria • Symptoms • Sources of Contamination
6.3 Moulds . . . . .
• Types • Causes
6.4 Preventive Measures . . .
• Chemical Inhibitors • Germicidal Ultra Violet Rays • Recommended Bread
Making Practices
6.5 Bleeding Bread . . . .
6.6 Food Poisoning . . . .
• Salmonella • Streptococcus • Staphylococci

6.1 INTRODUCTION : The chief types of microbial spoilage of baked bread are mouldiness and
ropiness, usually termed mould and rope respectively. In addition to that bread sometimes may be
affected by bleeding bread or food poisoning diseases.
6.2 ROPE : Rope is the chief disease of the bread, which is caused by the bacteria. Hot and humid
atmosphere is most favourable to these bacteria. Hence the season in which warmth and humid
atmosphere (April to August in India) is prevailing, the possibilities of causing disease is too high
while in other seasons the chances of rope disease are very rare.
6.2.1 Bacteria Responsible : The bacteria responsible for causing rope is Bacillus mesentericus. The
baking temperature is able to destroy all the bacteria present at the outer periphery of the bread
loaves. However, this baking temperature, which seldom exceeds 99oC (210o F) in loaf interior,
will destroy the vegetative or growing cell but is insufficient to kill the spores of the bacteria,
which are more heat resistant than the vegetative cells. During cooling operation, these spores
revert to their vegetative state and begin to multiply as soon the favourable condition is appear.
The bread may effected to disease within 8 to 12 hours to 24 to 36 hours depending on number of
bacteria present in the bread and temperature as well as humidity of the store room.
6.2.2 Sources of Contamination :
The flour or other raw material having been infected largely by the rope-producing bacteria
will produce rope in the bread. However, among them flour is the main source of
contamination. Because, the rope producing bacteria are present in the soil, which deposited
in the crease of the wheat berry and in spite of thorough cleaning / washing during milling
process, all of these bacteria do not get removed completely hence these microorganisms get
mixed with resultant flour.
If the contaminated dough is once passed through machineries, equipments, working tables
etc., the bacteria present in the dough stick with the surfaces of equipments and mixed with
the fresh batch of dough when passed through the same equipments. This is a very serious
problem in case of slicer because it directly comes in contact with the crumb of baked loaf.
The growth of rope producing bacteria is favoured by pH values near to neutrality (i.e. pH 7)
but the growth rate is increasingly inhibited as the acidity increases toward pH 5.0. It
indicates that, lack of acidic medium in the dough favoures the rope development. The lack of
acidity is mainly caused due to less fermentation.
Bread having well developed crumb structure is less likely to go ropy than bread having
close, compact and over moist crumb. For the same reason, the adequate fermentation and
proofing is required.

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 An under baked bread has an overmoist and soggy crumb. This condition is favourable to
rope development.
Slow cooling of the bread after baking favours rapid germination of spores and multiplication
of vegetative cells of rope producing bacteria.
While cooling, if the bread is kept nearer to each other or staked on each other, the water
vapour condensation takes place on the surfaces come in contact with each other. It makes the
crumb soggy and sticky. Secondly, if the cooling room is not properly ventilated the water
vapour escaping from the bread will saturate the atmosphere. Hence, after cooling the water
vapour again condense on the bread and make the bread soggy. This moisture will form an
ideal medium for the growth of rope bacteria.
If the warm bread is packed, the moisture evaporating from the bread remains inside the
packet itself. It is absorbed by the crumb, making it soggy and overmoist, which are again a
favourable condition for rope bacteria.
Storage of bread in a warm and humid atmosphere provides appropriate favourable
conditions for the growth of rope. This condition is more likely to happen in the home and at
retailers’ shops during hot season or inadequate ventilation facilities in storeroom.
Unhygienic conditions are the most favourable for the development of rope producing
bacteria, hence in such conditions chances of causing rope is more.
If rope infected cripple bread is kept in the bakery, the bacteria present in such bread are
likely to transfer in fresh bread and produce rope.
6.3 MOULDS : Moulds are of direct interest to the bakers because spores of various kinds of moulds
are always present in the atmosphere and start growing wherever they find suitable conditions of
warmth and moisture just like rope. Hence, most of all the ingredients used for the bakery
products, all finished bakery products (with few exception) and some processing area (like
fermentation room, proofing cabinets and bread coolers) are conducive to the proliferation of
moulds.
The temperatures attained in the baking procedure are high enough to destroy all the
mould spores of the loaf and thus the baked bread is free from mould spores. So one can say that
mould reaches the outer surface or penetrate in the bread (through the cracks on the surface) only
after baking.
6.3.1 Types : Moulds are a type of fungi. They can be easily detected on the bread surface in the form
of coloured mycelium or conidia. Many types of moulds are present in atmosphere but the chief
moulds involved in the spoilage of bread are known as bread moulds. That are given in the table
(next page) :
6.3.2 Causes : Mould spores are destroyed while baking, hence the conditions only after baking causes
moulds. That are :
Mould spores are always present in atmosphere, which stick to break surface while cooling
and finaly transfer through bread crackes into the crumb, where it grows and make bread
mouldly. However, the mould can grow anywhere where they find suitable conditions.
If underbaked or undercooled bread is sliced, some of the crumb particles stick to slicer
blade, that contaminated by atmospheric mould spores, which automatically transfer to crumb
of fresh batch when passes through slicer.
If the surfaces come in contact with baked bread i.e. coding rack, conveyer belt, wrappers are
already contaminated with mould spores, it will definitely contaminate to bread.
Packing of warm bread, storage of bread in a warm and humid atmosphere, inadequate
ventilation facilities are some of the conditions where bread exposed to warm and humid
atmosphere, which may produce mould, similar to rope.

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 If the mould infacted products are return, the mould present on that will immediately transfer
to fresh product.
The major cause of mould in developing countries is unhygienic condition.
Some times, the warmth and humid condition of bread storage at customer’s house may cause
the mould. So, if one/two customer complaint about mould inquire about the conditions and
guide them to prevent it.
6.4 PREVENTIVE MEASURES : Once the diseases appear, the product becomes unsalable, that
means financial loss to the bakers. Therefore it is advisable to adopt some precautionary measures
when the weather conditions are favourable to this kind of infection. No doubt the causes of rope
and mould infection are well known therefore the preventive measures could automatically be
applied. The following steps can be adopted for prevention of rope :
6.4.1 Chemical Inhibitors : Various moulds and rope inhibitors are commercially available in the
market, which are the combination of one or more of the following chemicals. That are tabulated
on the next page. However they must be :
Effective at low concentrations without noticeably affecting the pH of the products
Non-toxic and harmless even used in excess
Do not produce deleterious effect on dough and bread properties
Do not produce any problem in handling during the production process
Are inexpensive
6.4.2 Germicidal Ultraviolet Rays : The germicidal rays of ultraviolet lamps act to reduce the degree
of infection by sterilizing the atmosphere to which the baked products are exposed from the time
they are baked until they are sealed in their protective wrappers. For this purpose, recently a
tunnel type microwave sterilizer with a holding capacity of 180 to 270Kg bread is introduced.
Sterilization takes place by conveying the wrapped bread through the unit and heating it for 45 to
90 seconds. The heat shock created in the loaf causes slight vapour formation within the package,
which should be dissipated. For that, sterilizing the bread in an open plastic bag whose top is then
sealed as soon as sterilization is completed and the vapour has escaped. However, germicidal
irradiation does not give absolute mould protection and has little practical effect on rope
infection.
6.4.3 Recommended Bread Making Practices : Among the rope and mould, the spores of rope
producing bacteria are not killed during baking while all the mould are killed under baking
process. Hence incase of mould, attention must be paid to post baking process while incase of
rope to both post and pre baking processes. Those are :
(i) Cleaning : Principal recommended bread making practice is an efficiently organized programme
of plant sanitation to keep the bakery spotless clean and no accumulation of dirt or dirty
conditions in and around the bakery. Plant sanitation includes major points such as :
Periodic washing down of walls, floors and ceilings, followed by application of sanitizing
solutions.
Scheduled cleaning and sanitizing of equipments.
Cleaning of water supplying tanks & pipelines, gutter, flourbins, conveyors etc.
Use of clean covered containers for ingredients and avoidance of nesting containers in which
ingredients are weighed and handled.
Unfortunately, none of the Indian bakery (except a few) follows the above mentioned
sanitary conditions even upto certain level. Hence, it is a very serious problem in India where the
atmosphere is conducive to infection. Finally, disease could not prevented even after using
expensive chemical inhibitors.
(ii) Raw material :

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 Store the raw material in cool, properly ventilated and well-illuminated storage room.
Use of raw materials (especially flour), which are having less rope producing bacteria. Hence,
if flour having large number of rope producing bacteria is purchased by mistake, keep it aside
till the hot and humid atmosphere is over, if possible. Otherwise, use such flour for the
production of low moisture products such as biscuits, crackers, cookies, and cakes etc.
(iii) Fermentation :
Provide such a conditions, which make vigorous and healthy fermentation at normal
temperature with proper amount of yeast, that will maintain the pH of the dough between 5 to
5.15 and thereby make it less conducive to rope development.
(iv) Baking :
Bake the bread thoroughly, as it will retard development of diseases because of decreased
moisture content of the loaf. The proper baking temperature is useful for thorough baking.
High baking temperature bakes the outside wall quickly while the crumb remains under
baked, moist and soggy that increases the chances of infection.
(v) Cooling :
Bread should be allowed to cool thoroughly and promptly, preferably in an atmosphere of
washed or filtered air. Air filters are available for washing or filtering the air entering the
bakery to eliminate dust particles, which carry rope and mould spores.
For proper cooling, bread should be kept on racks spaced about 1cm (½”) apart from each
other. Never make stacks.
Cooling room should be well ventilated to ensure that water vapour escaping from bread does
not saturate the atmosphere.
It is desirable to install exhaust fan in the bread cooling room.
(vi) Contact Surface :
Adequate cleaning and sanitizing the surfaces (like working table, conveyer belt), equipments
(cooling racks), machinery (particularly slicing knives) coming in contact with the dough or
bread to prevent contamination of the spores present on them.
One may use ultraviolet irradiation for the above-mentioned purpose.
One can also spray the 5% propionic acid or 5% hydrogen peroxide on the above mentioned
surfaces, machineries etc.
(vii) Packing :
Bread should be thoroughly cooled i.e. the internal (mid point of crumb) temperature of the
loaf should reach 32oC (90oF) or lower before slicing and wrapping.
The slicing knives and wrappers (packing material) must be clean and free from infectious
spores of mould and rope.
One can spray 5% propionic acid inside the packing material or add two drops of
concentrated propionic acid to each bag 1 hour before packing.
(viii) Storage :
The bread should be stored at low temperature and never in hot & humid atmosphere. The
suitable conditions for storage are 21° to 35°C (70° to 95°F) and 75% rh. However, freezing
of bread and its storage in the frozen condition will prevent the mould growth entirely.
Bread storage room should be clean, illuminated and well ventilated. Incase of insufficient
ventilation, the fans should be installed in the room.
The room should be whitewashed with lime or hard glazed paint. The room should be re-
limed or washed (if painted) thoroughly with sanitizer at the beginning of summer.
Bread should never be stored one over the other as the bread at the bottom will be unduly
compressed and results into close crumb which is conducive to rope infection.

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 Maintain bread boxes, delivery trucks and retail storage areas in cool, clean and well
ventilated conditions.
(ix) Re-entry of State Bread :
Even a single slice of moldy bread can serve as a potent source of contamination for the
entire bakery premises. Hence, prevent entry of stale baked product either into retail shop or
plant. If such products are found, it should be dumped in the ground immediately.
(x) Customers :
When a customer complains of mouldy bread, the matter should be carefully investigated.
Although it is likely that the bread storage conditions in the house of the customer himself
may be responsible for the spoilage, hence guide the customer to prevent such conditions.
6.5 BLEEDING BREAD : On very rare occasions, red spots appear in the bread is known as
bleeding bread. It is generally caused by Serratia marcescens bacteria. However, these bacteria
are low heat resistant hence do not withstand baking temperature, thus infection takes place after
baking only. Growth occurs in the form of patches that are first colourless but eventually develop
a blood – red tint. It may proceed to a stage where dripping results due to the digestion of the
bread by the enzymes of the bacteria. Hence, the name blood rain has also been applied to this
condition. The bacteria producing this disease are far less common than the rope spores and an
infection by them is readily eradicated by a thorough cleaning and disinfections of the baking
plant.
6.6 FOOD POISONING : Bakery products may occasionally be affected by outbreaks of bacteria
induced food poisoning. It may be caused either by food ingested may be contaminated with
living bacteria that cause illness in human being i.e. Salmonella and Streptococcus or by the food
may contain toxins elaborated by bacteria i.e. Staphylococcus.
6.6.1 Salmonella : These organisms are non-spore forming and heat liable hence most of all bakery
products are free from these bacteria after baking.
( i ) Sources : The source of infection of foods by these bacteria is:
Usually traceable to the intestinal tracts of man or animals.
In bakery : • eggs and egg products • milk and milk products • raw flour • soy flour • dried
yeast •dried coconut etc. are the source of contamination.
Carrier employees and unsanitary equipments.
( ii ) Symptoms : The symptoms of salmonellosis (infection of man by salmonella) include :
• abdominal cramps
• diarrhoea
• occasional vomiting
arises after 12 to 24 hours of ingestion of contaminated food.
( iii ) Prevention : The effective method to control this type of food poisoning is pasteurization and
heat treatment. Heat treatment is already given to all the bakery products hence care must be
taken to prevent contamination after baking and unbaked raw material like icing, cream filling
etc.
6.6.2 Streptococcus : Streptococcus faecalis is the common causative agent with symptoms similar to
salmonellosis but relatively mild and of short duration.
6.6.3 Staphylococci : The toxic effect of these bacteria causes violent nausea and vomiting, prostration
and severe general malaise. The disease is seldom fatal and usually lasts for only short time.
Cream-filled products are generally cause the illness. Summer is favourable season for these
bacteria hence chances of infection are increased during these months.

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 7 : STALENESS IN BREAD

7.1 Introduction . . .
7.2 What is Staleness ? . .
7.3 Characteristics of Stale Bread
7.4 Types . . . .
• Crust Staling • Crumb Staling
7.5 Causes . . .
• Improper Quality Raw Material • Improper Bread Processing • Improper Packing and Storage
7.6 Retardation . . .
• Ingredients • Processing • Freezing • Use of Additives

7.1 INTRODUCTION : Losses resulting from bread staling are of great economic importance hence
much attention has been focussed on this problem, because people never prefer stale products.
Therefore, once the customer finds the product stale, he will never purchase any product from
that shop, ultimately the baker loses the customer.
7.2 WHAT IS STALENESS ? : Staleness in bakery product is a vague term and conveys different
meaning for different people. For example, some people prefer to eat bread immediately after
baking, for them bread becomes stale after 12 hours. On the other hand, some people usually eat
bread after 12 hours of its baking, for them bread after 12 hours is fresh.
Most of all fresh fermented bakery products possess moist & spongy crumb, tender crust
and pleasant taste & aroma. When they are stored at ambient temperatures, they undergo a
progressive deterioration of quality like tough crumb, leathery crust, lose of taste & aroma etc.
That is known as staling. Hence, staling of bread is defined as loss of palatability during storage
caused by change other than those resulting from the action of a spoilage organism namely
spores of rope and mould.
In general, the higher the practical moisture content of the baked product in its fresh state,
the more pronounced are the changes in its properties that occur on staling. Thus the products
such as bread, french loaf, cakes stale much more markedly than do cookies and biscuits that
possess much lower initial moisture content.
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF STALE BREAD :
Crust of the fresh bread is usually dry, crisp and somewhat brittle. It becomes soft and
leathery on staling.
Bread crumb becomes dry, hard and very crumbly. It also loses its elasticity and water
retention power.
While eating a stale piece of bread, it feels very dry and requires considerable chewing and
even then it feels dry while swallowing.
Bread loses (nearly completely) its original pleasant flavour and aroma, which is replaced by
a flavour that lacks taste appeal and is often characterized by a faintly bitter taste.
7.4 TYPES : Staleness in bread may be divided in two parts namely crust staling and crumb staling.
7.4.1 Crust Staling : The crispy crust of the fresh bread becomes leathery on staling, which is the
result of high degree of hygroscopicity of the crust. Hence, the moisture lose by crumb is
absorbed by the crust or incase of high atmospheric humidity, the crust absorbs the moisture from
the air. The other causes of crust staling and its remedies are listed below :
(i) Causes :

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 Insufficient fermentation of the dough (particularly incase of strong flour).
Improper mixing.
Excessive humidity in the proover or oven.
Transfer of hot bread in cool temperature.
Packing of hot bread.
Storage of bread in humid condition i.e. more than 74% rh.
Insufficient ventilation in store room.
(ii) Preventive Measures :
Adequate fermentation of the dough.
Adequate baking of the bread loaf.
Remove excess vapour from oven by opening damper for a few minutes.
Insert vapour in the oven while baking hard crust products like hard-rolls, french-loaf etc.
Allow gradual and adequate cooling of the bread before packing.
Do not store the bread in highly humid and improper ventilated room.
7.4.2 Crumb Staling : During bread staling, crust becomes soft while crumb becomes hard. It also
loses taste and aroma, increases crumb hardness and opacity, crumbliness and starch
crystalization and decreases crumb absorptive capacity, in B-amylase susceptibility of the starch
and in soluble starch content. As staling progresses, there also occurs an apparent over-all
moisture loss.
When the starch cells are heated with water it swells and makes a thick paste, which is
known as gel. The process of gel formation is know as gelatinization. Starch cell can held nearly
six time water to its weight. But, when it cools down, the starch granules loses some of its water,
shrink and become harder. This process of water migration is known as syneresis. The migrated
water is generally absorbed by the protein of crust. Therefore, the water is not evaporated but it is
migrated.
7.5 CAUSES : The main factors responsible for staleness in bread are :
7.5.1 Improper Quality Raw Material : Different raw material effect staleness in bread differently,
which are :
( i ) Flour : Too strong or weak flour stale the bread quickly.
( ii ) Yeast : Poor quality or insufficient quantity of yeast results in insufficient fermentation hence
bread stale quickly.
(iii) Water : Insufficient or more water in relation to strength of the flour effects on adequacy of
fermentation, results in quick staling of the bread.

7.5.2 Improper Bread Processing :

( i ) Mixing : Improper mixing results in uneven distribution of yeast, which ultimately affects
fermentation. It also results in uneven dough temperature that affects fermentation. Hence, both
the factors stale the bread quickly.
(ii) Fermentation : Excessive fermentation results in open grain structure, which increases the bread
surface area. That results into more moisture evaporation and ultimately stale bread quickly.
(iii) Proofing : Excessive proofing produces coarse grain structure, which stales the bread quickly.

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 (iv) Baking : High baking temperature produces much oven spring, which exerts similar effect to
over proofing. While, incase of low baking temperature, the bread is to be kept in oven for a
longer period hence bread becomes more dry in oven itself.
( v ) Cooling : When the bread is transferred to cool temperature immediately after baking, then vapor
condensation takes place on crust and makes it leathery.
7.5.3 Improper Packing and Storage :
If the bread wrappers are not wax-coated, the bread stales quickly. In case of airtight packing,
the moisture cannot evaporates hence accumulates inside the packet, which is absorbed by the
crust and makes it stale.
The rate of staleness is higher immediately after baking which decreases as the time passes.
The crust contains about 12% while the crumb contains about 44 to 45% moisture after
baking. If such bread is stored at 21oC (70oF) for 4 days, the crust moisture content increases
to about 28%.
If the temperature of store room is low [ i.e. between 1.66 to 21oC (35 to 70oF) ] the staling
rate is higher. Normally, at 43oC (110o F) temperature, the bread does not stale faster but at
this temperature other reactions may take place, which deteriorate the crust colour and taste,
hence it is not advisable for commercial purpose.
The crust may absorb moisture from the atmosphere under conditions of high humidity in
store room, which results in crust staling.
7.6 RETARDATION : Staling leads to great economic losses hence, bakers make attempt to
develop such production procedure as well as additives and ingredient formulations that would
either prevent or at least delay the appearance of stale characteristics during the normal shelf life.
Cryogenic freezing appears currently to be the most effective practical means for preserving the
essential quality characteristics of bread products for extended periods.
7.6.1 Ingredients :
Always use proper quality ingredients.
The yeast and yeast food should be of the best quality and used in adequate quantity to give a
vigorous fermentation.
Flour should neither be too strong nor too weak. It should be able to produce bread with fine
texture and thin cell wall.
The quantity of water should be adjusted according to flour strength.
The bread made from high protein flour stale at slower rate and degree of crumb firmness is
also less as compared to bread made from low protein flour. However, one may increase the
protein content either by appropriate wheat selection or by addition of vital gluten or high
protein flour fraction.
Use of milk products exerts a favourable effect on the keeping quality of the baked products.
7.6.2 Processing :
Dough must be properly mixed to ensure even distribution of all the ingredients, then only the
action of yeast cells will be even throughout the mass. Over or under mixing should be
avoided. The dough temperature should be maintained adequately (for that, use ice in summer
and warm water in winter).
Slack dough has been recommended for prolonged freshness in bread as the fact that any
ingredient or additive which permits and increases in the water absorption of the dough
within practical limits exerts a favourable affect on the breads keeping quality.
Ferment the dough under regular conditions for maximum period (that a given flour strength
will tolerate) and with normal yeast levels at low temperature. So that it mellows gluten
properly and produces bread having shallow and oblong cell structure.

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 Handle the dough properly to avoid escape of gas from the dough. Care must be taken while
dividing, moulding and proofing.
The baking temperature and procedure should be properly maintained throughout the process.
Bread should be cooled gradually, means never be transferred to cool temperature
immediately after baking.
Bread should not be stored one over the other as it will have crushing effect on crumb.
Bread should be packed in wax coated paper, cellophane or polyethylene films (popularly
known as plastic bag).
Bread should be stored, transported or kept in retail shop at 21o to 35oC (70o to 95oF) to
prevent early staleness. Never store the bread into hot and humid temperature. Arrange such a
marketing strategy, which helps in speedy selling of the bread.
7.6.3 Freezing :
Low temperature freezing represents (at present) the most effective practical means for either
inhibiting or greatly retarding the staling process in bread products.
Bread could be stored without affecting its flavour and aroma for 30 days at -34.4oC (-30oF)
and can remain sellable upto 345 days.
For best storage, bread should be stabilized at a temperature below its freezing point, which is
about –6.7oC (20oF) and thereafter store it at –18oC (0oF). However, storage period more
than 1 month at this temperature will eventually adversely affect bread quality.
Bakery product should be wrapped and packed before entering the cold storage because a low
humidity conditions (that normally present in storage freezers) will dry out the unwrapped
products.
Bread should never be frozen near to extraneous odours as bread will absorb it readily and
release them on thawing.

7.6.4 Use of Additives :

Addition of moisture retention additives is useful to increase the keeping quality of the bread.
Use of sucrose (at 2 to 4 % on f.b.) or replacing it by glucose syrup, invert syrup, malt
extract, commercial dextrin and such other liquid sugar keep the bread fresh for longer time.
Use of various emulsifiers (like G.M.S., lecithin, super glycerated fat, polyoxy ethylene
monostearate, sorbitol, monitol, glycerol, polyglycerol esters, polyhydric alcohol esters,
ethoxylated mono and diglycerides, diacetyl tarteric acid esters of mono and diglycerides,
succinylated monoglycerides, acyl lactylates, sodium stearoyl fumarate) while bread
preparation.
Gelatinized or dextrinized starch obtained by boiling flour, cornflour or potato can also act as
moisture retentioner.
Add 5 to 10% soy flour (on f.b.) to reduce the moisture lose from crumb and also slows the
rate of syneresis. Moreover, soy flour has also beneficial effect on bread quality.
Bacterial -amylase derived from B. subtilis also increases the keeping quality.
Excessive use (up to desirable level) of natural emulsifying agents like fat, sugar etc. also
improves the keeping quality of the bread.

=====================

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 8 : VARIETY BREADS

8.1 Introduction . . . .
8.2 French Bread . . . .
8.3 Italian Bread . . . .
8.4 Vienna Bread . . . .
8.5 Dutch Bread . . .
8.6 Raisin Bread . . .
8.7 Rye Bread . . .
8.8 Egg Twist Bread . .
8.9 Cracked Bread. . . .
8.10 Process Control . . .
• Fermentation • Proofing

8.1 INTRODUCTION : For several hundred years, breads, because of their food value, in one or the
other form, have been used as one of the staple foods in many countries around the world. And
because of that the breads may vary in size, shape and texture due to different eating habits from
one country to other country. Hence, apart from the different breads mentioned in earlier
chapters, there are several other breads, which will fall into the realm of variety breads. These
variety breads are french, italian, vienna, dutch crunch, raisin, rye, egg twist, cracked wheat or
many more. The name of the bread denotes either area of its origin or the presence of
unconventional ingredients. The some important bread varieties are discussed here.
8.2 FRENCH BREAD : The authentic french bread is made from a very lean formula using sour
dough. The sour dough process calls for setting of a small sponge which when ripe is mixed into
a sponge approximately twice as large as the original sponge. At certain periods of time, the
sponge is remixed and its size is doubled with each mixing. The dough is allowed to ferment until
it becomes sufficiently light for make-up. This type of bread usually has a thick, hard crust and a
characteristic sour taste. It is important to mould french bread less tightly so the gas force out will
be less compared to pan bread because the character of the grain for this bread is open. The
typical french bread is the best when it has many large holes.
French bread is made up in many shapes and lengths, the most popular is the long loaves
or sticks. The french sticks are usually made up to about 46 cm (18”) long for the 400 gm loaves
and 60 cm (24”) for the 600 gm. It is important that the bread is proofed just to the point where it
will receive the cut and open slightly but not over proofed to the extent when cut, it will recede.
8.3 ITALIAN BREAD : Italian bread dough is usually made from a very lean formula. The dough
often contains nothing but flour, water, yeast and salt. When mixing the dough, it is a common
practice to incorporate some old dough into the batch in order to obtain more acid flavour. These
breads must have a hard, thick crust with a dry crumb. Sometimes the bread is proofed in the hot
atmosphere (i.e. oven itself ) so that it will be crusted when it goes in the oven for baking thus
producing a heavier crust on the baked loaf. Little or no steam is required for baking this type of
bread.
Italian bread is usually made up long & pointed and given two or three cuts which must
crack freely. Some give one cut length wise, slightly off center, with the knife held at a slant so
that there is large shell-like bread when the loaf is baked while others make the loaves round with
four cuts in the form of a square.

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8.4 VIENNA BREAD : The interior characteristics of vienna bread differ from pan breads. The
grain is more open with some holes, the crumb is drier and texture is harsher. The crust and
crumb are more thoroughly baked than pan breads, which accounts in part for the fine flavour and
taste. To produce quality vienna bread, the dough should be fully fermented. Young dough will
result in loaves with a tough rubbery crust, while loaves from over fermented dough will have a
hard brittle crust.
Vienna loaves are made up in variety of shapes, the most popular being the pointed
shape. It should have an almost full proof before placed in the oven. The loaves are usually given
two, three or more diagonal cuts before being loaded into the oven. Sesame or poppy seeds are
sometimes sprinkled on the loaves before baking. If the seeds are to be used, the loaves should be
washed with water first so that the seed will stick to the crust. Low pressure steam should be used
freely in the oven while loading and for the first few minutes of baking.
8.5 DUTCH BREAD : The ingredients for topping are mixed thoroughly and are allowed 15 minutes
rest before using. The topping is spread over the top of the bread just before the bread goes into
the oven. During baking the dough expands and separates, the topping making cracks, which
produce a crunchy effect. The same topping may be used on dinner rolls.
8.6 RAISIN BREAD : The procedure for making the raisin bread is same for making the regular
bread except that the raisin should be soaked for a few hours before use. Add raisin 2 minute
before finishing the mixing.
8.7 RYE BREAD : As far as possible, strong flour should be used for making rye bread. This strong
flour will be able to carry the dead weight of rye flour, which does not contain gluten forming
proteins. In making rye bread, apart from yeast, sour dough is used as mentioned in the formula.
The recipe for sour dough is Rye 100 %, Sour Milk 175 %, Compressed Yeast 6 %, Temperature
26.6o C (80oF) and Fermentation time 18 to 24 hours.
In baking rye bread on the hearth, plenty of low-pressure steam is used because it
requires a higher percent of moisture. The rye loaf is also cut three or four times as the french
bread before placing it in the oven.
8.8 EGG TWIST BREAD : This bread is made by using egg.
8.9 CRACKED BREAD : The cracked wheat bread is made like regular bread except that cracked
wheat is soaked for a few hours prior to use. This bread has a nutty flavour.
8.10 PROCESS CONTROL :
8.10.1 Fermentation : In order to create conducive conditions for fermentation, temperature control
assumes a great degree of importance. For regular bread production, the temperature for
fermentation ranges between 23.3° to 26.6°C (74° to 80oF). However, the required temperature
within this range depends on the formula, type of flour and the condition of the bakery. A rich
formula could have somewhat retarding effect on the yeast activity, in this situation higher
temperature (a few degrees) will speed up the dough fermentation so that the production schedule
is not disturbed. If there are no temperature controls in the bakery, a variation in dough
temperature will be necessary in order to conform to the atmospheric conditions. When too low
temperature is used, it will prevent the dough from maturing and will also prolong production. On
the other hand, higher temperatures stimulates fermentation and will create excesive lactic and
acetic acid which will affect the flavour and other qualities of the end product. Therefore, it is
essential that the dough temperature should be maintain not only during mixing stage but also
during the entire fermentation period. This temperature control starts from the time the dough is
mixed until it reaches a temperature of 60oC (140oF) during baking at which temperature the

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 yeast is killed. The place where the dough is allowed to ferment should have a temperature of
about 26.6oC (80oF).
8.10.2 Proofing : During the make up period the dough should be kept away from a place where too low
or too high temperatures are prevailing. At the proofing stage also, proper temperature and
humidity should be maintained.
Therefore it is desirable for each baker to conduct an actual baking test for each type of
bread. This is by far the most economical and simplest test, which does not involve use of any
sophisticated equipment. The formulation of breads is given in table (next page) :
Mix : to smooth dough
Temperature : 25.5o to 26.6o C (78o to 80o F)
Fermentation : 2 to 3 hours
Proof : 45 to 60 minutes
Bake : 218o to 232o C (425o to 450oF)

=================

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 9 : OTHER FERMENTED PRODUCTS

9.1 Introduction . . .
9.2 Bun Goods . . .
• Raw Material • Processing
9.3 Pitza Base / Crust . .
• Raw Material • Processing
9.4 Doughnut . . .
• Raw Material • Processing

9.1 INTRODUCTION : There is a whole range of femented products other than breads like bun
goods,doghnut, danish pestry, pitza base etc. Many bakers consider it as confectionery goods,
because these products are usually consumed as a breakfast or snacks along with biscuits, cakes
etc.
9.2 BUN GOODS : It includes all kinds of buns, fruit breads, tea cake etc. The raw material, process
etc. for the same are discussed below in short :
9.2.1 Raw Material : All fermented buns contain a considerable percentage of enriching agents such
as fat, sugar, egg etc. in addition to common raw materials for bread preparation like flour, yeast,
water etc.
( i ) Flour : To obtain a bold bun, high-class flour suitable for bread making is required for all types
of buns.
( ii ) Yeast : Bun doughs contain high amount of enriching agents, which tends to retard fermentation
hence quantity of yeast must be greater than bread making. Similarly, strong or fast working
types of yeast are best since these are capable of bringing about a thorough maturing of the dough
followed by rapid gas production during final proof.
(iii) Egg : The use of eggs was formerly limited to the richer types of fermented goods but research
has shown that the use of eggs in all types of fermented small goods should be widely practiced.
Because it imparts silkiness on the texture of the finished products and also enables to increase
the volume that helps in decreasing scaling weights.
(iv) Shortening : For bun dough, vegetable oil is undoubtedly the best, since it is more evenly
distributed in the dough and so it brings about a greater modification of the gluten which helps in
production of bulky buns. It also keeps bun moist and fresh for longer time with silky crumb
appearance. In case of richer varieties of continental buns, extra fat is incorporated after the
dough has fermented, so as to produce an effect similar to the layer formation in puff paste. As
with the puff paste, a good flavour is required, therefore butter should be used. Although, for
cheaper varieties, a high grade margarine, in conjunction with demerara sugar will prove quite
satisfactory.
( v ) Fruit : The sugar present in the fruit may retard the yeast activity and thereby delay the
fermentation. Hence, it is better to add the fruits in the dough after fermentation.
9.2.2 Processing : With these types of products, the ferment is generally used as preparatory to dough
making (although a straight dough is sometimes employed) especially where overnight dough are
favoured. Such dough gives very satisfactory results when properly manipulated. The following
are the main steps :

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 (i) Ferment Preparation : 28.37 gm (1oz) milk powder & 28.37 gm (1oz) sugar dissolve in 12.7 kg
(1 quarter) water by whisking Õ add 28.3 gm (1oz) yeast Õ mix 28.37 gm (1oz) flour to produce
clear batter Õ whisk thoroughly to aerate which stimulate yeast activity Õ allow to rest till drop
(not more than 30 minutes) at 32.2o C (90o F) temperatures.
(ii) Mixing : Mix (at the same temperature) with rest of the ingredients.

(iii) Fermentation : All bun dough should be kept at 25.5o to 27.7°C (78° to 82oF) and should not be
worked warmer, otherwise product will become dry & stale very quickly and will be lacking in
bloom. Cool dough containing more yeast is always preferred to warm dough because it produces
better buns.
(iv) Knock Back : In short process dough fermentation becomes very vigorous hence knock back
should be carried out in early stage and for the same reason it should knock back frequently
(every 20 minutes interval) which produce bun with large volume and silk like texture.

(v) Proofing : Proofing should be done at 25.5° to 27.7oC (78° to 82oF) and be careful that
temperature does not rise, otherwise the dough will work too fast and become exhausted, which
produce bun with poor volume, bloom & appearance and also dry to eat. The humidity should be
controlled strictly. Excess steam makes more condensation on surface results into rapid working
of yeast and skin may be broken.

(vi) Baking : Most of buns are baked at 238o C (460o F) hence a substantial oven (which can bake
fast) is required, that will produce buns with good volume and pleasing bloom. In such oven the
loss of moisture will be just sufficient to bring about the correct baking without any excessive
drying.
(vii) Glazing : Wash the buns when they slightly cool down after baking for pleasing appearance,
which is the most important characteristics of all buns. There are many mixtures used for glazing
purpose known as bun washes. That is :
PREPARED MIXTURES : Many preparations are marketed now in such a way that, it
requires only the addition of warm water to produce a liquid as a glaze.
An egg and water glaze, consisting of 2 parts egg to 1 part of water, thoroughly whisked.
Fresh eggs will give better glaze than frozen eggs.
1 egg, gill water and 28.37 gm (1oz) sugar, are thoroughly whisked. This will produce a
good gloss, but will be slightly sticky.
Stock syrup, in which 28.37 gm (1 oz) of gelatine has been dissolved, will produce a
good glaze. Stock syrup alone produces an extremely sticky glaze. Hence it should be
used according to consumer choice.
9.3 PITZA BASE / CRUST : Pitza may be defined as flat bread products that are topped by a sauce
based chiefly on tomato paste. But commercially it finds to contain various vegetables, meats,
cheeses, spices, flavours and many other garnishes on top to provide variety. The quantity of
topping may vary from 25 to 45% of finished pitza weight. Pitza base may be differentiated into
two categories :
Thin, crisp, crackers like crust : Produced by pressing.
Thick, so called dip dish crust : Produced by sheeting.
9.3.1 Raw Material : The crusts are quite different in their properties hence their raw material,
procedure, formula etc. vary accordingly.

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 ( i ) Flour : relatively strong flour with a protein content of 12 to 14% is recommended. However, for
thin pitza crust higher protein flour is preferred to minimize soakage of sauce into the crust and to
preserve its desirable crispness. However, for thick pitza crust, flours of lower protein content
will be found more suitable as these will minimize dough shrinkage and impart a more desirable
chewiness to the finished crust.
( ii ) Leavening Agent : Pitza crust is usually leavened with yeast but sometimes it may be leavened
with baking powder. However yeast leavened pitza are better in most of all the characteristics.
The quantity of yeast or baking powder required depends on many factors hence it may vary from
1 to 5% (on f.b.) usually 3 to 4%.
(iii) Water : The water absorption will range from 55 to 70%. Thin crusts generally take less water –
55 to 60% - whereas absorption of 60 to 70% is normally used for thick crusts. A correct
absorption of each type of crust is essential to avoid sticky dough with poor machining properties
that results from excessive absorption. However, in case of under absorption, fragile dough
produces rather leathery crusts.
(iv) Shortening : Shortening levels are relatively high, particularly in thin crusts where fat creates a
more tender texture and a greater resistance to soakage of the sauce. Liquid or plastic shortenings
are equally suitable for this application.
9.3.2 Processing :
(i) Mixing : By hand or conventional horizontal mixers upto cleanup stage.
(ii) Floor Time Fermentation : Either fermented for 30 to 40 minutes or given just 10 to 15 minutes
floor time to relax in case of yeast leavened dough but chemically leavened dough are directly
taken for make-up.
(iii) Sheeting or Pressing : It is sheeted into desired thickness by machines in the series of sheeting
rolls while by hand with rolling pin. Then cut into selected circular shape either by cutting wheel
or by hand with simple pitza cutter. The scrap dough may be remixed, rested for 5 to 10 minutes
and resheeted or may be used for other products. In case of pressing or stamping, dough is scaled,
rounded into appropriate size circles, allow to rest for 2 to 3 minutes & press again in order to
minimize subsequent shrinkage, which are then proofed for a short time (15 to 20 minutes).

(iv) Baking : Bake at 205oC (400oF) for 15 to 20 minutes. Allow cooling at ambient temperature and
then toping is applied.
(v) Serving : Pitza should be served hot. So one may apply toping vegetable, meat etc. before baking
& afterwards retopping with cheese & sauce etc. and serve. It has a typical taste, which liked very
much but the appearance may be somewhat poor compare to non-topped pitza before baking.
However, in commercial market generally baked pitza crust is topped and reheated just enough to
warm up & serve.
9.4 DOUGHNUT : Doughnuts are served quite extensively in hotels, restaurants and snack bars in
many countries of the world. It has plenty of varieties. The doughnuts are different from bakery
products, as it is cooked by deep-frying in heated edible fat instead of baking. It can be devided
into two parts based on leavening agent used for preparation :
Cake doughnut : Leavened with baking powder and batter will be similar to layer cake.
Yeast raised doughnut : Leavened by yeast similar to sponge & dough or straight dough
method.
9.4.1 Raw Material :

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 ( i ) Flour : A mixture of soft and hard wheat flours having 10 to 10.5% protein, 0.38 to 0.42% ash
and 13% moisture is suitable for doughnut production.
( ii ) Leavening Agent : In case of cake doughnut 2 to 5% (on f.b.) fast acting baking powder
(depending on type of formula, size and weight of doughnuts) is used for preparation. Too much
leavening will always result in poor texture and flavour as well as excessive fat absorption. In
case of yeast raised doughnut, 4 to 6% yeast is used similar to straight dough or sponge & dough
method.
(iii) Egg : The egg yolk, is preferred because it has ability to emulsify and disperse the shortening
present in the batter. Moreover, yolk protein coagulates during heating helps to strengthen the
structure of doughnut. It also improves volume as well as eating and keeping quality. The
albumen, has a toughening effect hence it is not generally used.
(iv) Shortening : Any shortening can be used for dough preparation. However, the frying fat should
be carefully chosen because it transmit the heat for cooking and also enter into doughnut and
become a part of the products. Hence, the quality of frying medium also affects the
characteristics of the doughnut. Therefore, hydrogenated shortening having high smoaking point [
i.e. more than 193oC (380oF) ] is preferred to avoid any objectionable odour during frying.
( v ) Sugar : Sugar is used for dough preparation as well as for outer application hence it should be
pure, clean, white in colour and free from any impurities.
9.4.2 Processing : When doughnut is correctly formulated and properly fried, it is characterized by :
Rich golden brown exterior colour that has eye appeal and also conveys an image of quality
product.
Crisp crust, that is formed by the dehydration of the outer portion of the doughnut.
Inner core, which comprises the major quantitative portion and resembles a baked product
more than a fried product.
Doughnut can be prepared either directly from ready made mixture with addition of water
or weighing each ingredient individually as per formula. But ready made mixtures are mostly
preferred due to consistence quality production.
The detail of process is :
(i) Mixing : Similar to straight dough or sponge & dough method of bread preparation.
(ii) Fermentation : Dough is fermented for about 2 hours.
(iii) Sheeting & Cutting : The dough is sheeted and cut on make-up table either in round or haxagonal
shape having 6 to 8 cm (2.5” to 3”) diameter.
(iv) Proofing : Proof the individual pieces at 35° to 46°C (95° to 115°F) and 35 to 45 rh for 20 to 35
minutes. The low humidity helps to skin formation on top which finally give crispiness while
eating.
(v) Frying : The temperature of fryign medium should be maintain 204° to 213°C (400° to 425°F).
The doughnut pieces should be fried for 45 to 60 seconds per side.
(vi) Granishing : Granish with sugar powder when the doughnut cooled down to room temperature.

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