ENG 161: STYLISTIC AND

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (P1) Purpose of Stylistics

Style. This refers to the personal use an  It aims to explain how meaning in a text was
individual makes in a spoken or written language. created through a writer’s linguistic choices.
 It aims to explain the relationship between the
text and the context in which it is both
Stylistic Analysis.
produced, since meaning is not stable and
 It is the study of style.
absoloute.
 It is an approach to the analysis of literary texts
using linguistic description. Meaning depends on the linguistic structures
 It spans the border of two subjects: literature used in the text and on the processes of
and linguistics interpretation undertaken by the reader or
 It is concerned with relating linguistic facts listener.
(linguistic description) to meaning
(interpretation) in as explicit way as possible. Purpose of Discourse Analysis
 It is detailed, systematic, and thorough  It looks at patterns of language across texts as
 It is used to examine the differences in the use well as the social and cultural contexts in which
of language among literary texts. the texts occur.
 Paul Simpson (2024) states that stylistic  It examines how the used of language is
analysis is a method of textual interpretation in influenced by relationships between
which the central focus is on language. participants as well as its effects upod social
identities and relations.
Discourse  It examines language beyond the level of the
 It is written or spoken communication that goes sentence and the relationship between the
beyond individual sentences, focusing on how linguistic and non-linguistic (non-verbal)
ideas are connected to create meaning. behavior.
 It can be spoken or written literary or non-
literary texts. Focus of Stylistics
Discourse Analysis  Establish discourse peculiarities
 It deals with the different devices used by the Studies the uniqueness that characterize the discourse of a
speakers and writers when they put sentences writer, speaker, period, people, or genre.
to form a coherent and cohesive whole.  Induce appreciation of discourse
 Teun Van Dijk (1997) states that DA is the Unfolds the beauty in authorial and character’s linguistic
choices and allows the readers to appreciate the aesthetic
study of real language use by real speakers in
appeals of choices
real-life situations.  Ascertain linguistic habits
 DA studies written or spoken texts paying Determine the linguistic background and prientation of a
particular attention to the relationship between given writer or speaker to understand the principle that
texts and the contexts in which they are created underlies the choice a writer has made.
and used.
Focus of Discourse Analysis
Three Aspects of Stylistics
 The use of linguistics to approach literary texts.  Focuses on the participants involved in the
(Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics,
Pragmatics)
discourse
 The discussion of texts according to objective  writer, speaker, reader, and listener
criteria rather than subjective or impressionistic  Looks into participant’s relationship in terms of
values power and knowledge difference
(spelling, grammar, textual organization)  power dynamics, and participant’s goals
 An emphasis on the aesthetic properties of
language  Examines what the piece of language means in
Stylistic analysis analyzes “how” the a particular context and what also the speaker
message and meaning is communicated or writer meant by the language used
using the language.
 Focuses on knowing the factors that enable the  It is the idea that a person's unique way of
analyst to interpret the text using language reflects their personality,
 Focuses on the knowledge needed about the character, or individuality.
context and what clues are present in the
surrounding context that help the analyst Style as DEVIATION
understand the text.  It is breaking the usual rules or patterns of
language to create a special effect or draw
attention.

Purpose of Deviation
 To surprise: Makes the audience pause and
think
 To create beauty: Adds creativity or aesthetic
appeal
 To emphasize: Highlights key ideas or
emotions

Types of Deviation

Discoursal Deviation
This occurs when a text violates expected discourse
structures or conventions.
Example:
Normal: A story usually follows a chronological
STYLE order (beginning, middle, end).
Deviation: A story begins in the middle of the
action (in medias res), such as:
Style as CHOICE "Blood on the floor. The clock ticking. She was
 Choice is an essential tool in stylistics since it
gone. "
deals with the variations and options that are
This creates suspense by disrupting the usual
available to a writer.
narrative order.
 A writer or speaker deliberately selects specific
words, structures, and expressions to achieve a
particular effect, convey meaning, or suit the Semantic Deviation
context and audience. This happens when meanings are distorted, such as
through metaphors, personification, or
Paradigmatic Relations contradictory ideas.
(Choices across Options) Example
 These involve choosing one word or element Normal: "The wind was blowing strongly. "
over others in a particular category Deviation: "The wind whispered secrets to the
(vocabulary, tone, etc.). trees."
 This choice reflects the tone or emotion the Personification adds emotion and imagination to
writer wants to convey. the description.

Syntagmatic Relations Lexical Deviation (Invented Words)

(Choices in Sequence) Example:
 These involve how words or elements are Normal: "The kids are happy. "
combined and ordered to create meaning in Deviation: "The kids are smilily skipping. "
context. Creating a new word like "smilily" captures joy in a
 Syntagmatic choices influence rhythm, flow, unique way.
and focus in a text, shaping its stylistic effect.
Grammatical Deviation
\Style as the MAN Example:
 “Your language reflects who you are. ” Normal: "She runs very fast. "
Deviation: "Fast she runs. " Deviation: "He waited. At the door. Alone. "
Changing the word order emphasizes the speed and Breaking the sentence adds tension and emphasizes
gives a poetic feel. isolation.

Morphological Deviation Style as CONFORMITY

This involves altering word forms, such as adding
 It is following established norms or rules of
prefixes, suffixes, or mixing word classes.
language and expression that are expected in a
Example:
particular context, audience, or genre.
Normal: "She felt sad and lonely. "
Deviation: "She felt unlonelyness for the first time."
Emails to a Professor
The playful formation of "unlonelyness" conveys a
Conformity: Formal greeting, polite language, and
unique emotional state.
clear subject line.
Example: “Dear Professor Smith, I hope this
Phonological and Graphological message finds you well. I am writing to request
Deviation clarification on yesterday’s lecture. ”
Example: Non-Conformity: Informal style might seem
Phonological: Playing with sounds, rhyme, or disrespectful.
pronunciation. Example: “Hey Prof, can u explain what u said
"Gonna fly high like a butterbly" (instead of yesterday? Thx. ”
"butterfly")
The rhyme and sound variation make it playful or Style as PERIOD OF TIME
musical.  It means that the way language is used often
reflects the historical, cultural, and social
Example: characteristics of a specific era.
Graphological: Altering the visual form of words or
text. Elizabethan Style (16th–17th Century)
“LOUD silence Language was formal, poetic, and rich with
whispers” imagery.
Changing the layout and capitalization emphasizes Example: Shakespeare's plays use metaphors,
contrast. wordplay, and a rhythmic structure called iambic
pentameter.
"Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou
Internal and External Deviation art more lovely and more temperate. "
Internal and External Deviation
Internal Deviation: Breaks patterns established Victorian Style (19th Century)
within the same text. Writing was detailed, descriptive, and moralistic,
Example: reflecting societal concerns like class and morality.
Roses are red, Example: Charles Dickens used long sentences and
Violets are blue, vivid descriptions to portray life in industrial
Sugar is sweet, England.
But life is tough sometimes. Quote: “It was the best of times, it was the
Draws attention to the contrasting message. worst of times… ”

External Deviation: Breaks conventional norms Modernist Style (Early 20th Century)
outside the text. Language became experimental, fragmented, and
Example: introspective, mirroring the uncertainty of the era.
A poem that doesn’t follow traditional poetic Example: James Joyce's Ulysses uses stream-of-
structures, like free verse compared to classical consciousness to explore characters' thoughts.
sonnets. “Yes I said yes I will Yes. ”

Deviation in Structure (Fragmented Style as SITUATION

Sentences)  Style as situation means that the way we use
Example: language (our style) changes depending on the
Normal: "He waited patiently at the door. " context, purpose, and audience of
communication.
 Language style adapts to match the situation— Simply, graphology is an alternative way to
formal or informal, professional or casual, represent language instead of using sounds.
written or spoken.
Linguistic Analysis
STYLISTIC ANALYSIS
 The Phonological Level examines the
Two Major Types of Stylistics sound system of a language, including
phonemes, stress, intonation, and rhythm.
Halliday highlights how sound patterns are
LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS
integral to creating meaning in texts and
This focuses on pointing out the linguistic choices a
spoken communication.
writer or speaker made as well as the effects of
these choices. It is interested in describing forms
SEGMENTALS
and functions of a text but it does not ignore the
Segmentals refer to the individual sound units, or
meaning. This concentrates on how a piece of text
phonemes, of a language. These include vowels and
expresses the language system (linguistic features:
consonants that form syllables and words.
syntax, graphology, lexico-semantic).
Segmentals are the "segments" of speech that can
LITERARY ANALYSIS be represented linearly in phonetic transcription.
Its focus is directed to the underlying message
which the interpretation of the language signals SUPRASEGMENTALS
revealed. It looks into the figurative use of language Suprasegmentals (also called prosodic features)
and its beauty and how the language captures refer to the features of speech that extend beyond
reality. Interpretation is the aim of literary stylistic individual phonemes and operate over syllables,
words, or phrases.
Michael Alexander Kirkwood
• Stress: The emphasis on certain syllables in a
Halliday
word or words in a sentence.
M.A.K. HALLIDAY • Intonation: The rise and fall of pitch across an
1925-2018 utterance, which conveys meaning, emotion, or
attitude.
He was a renowned linguist best known for • Rhythm: The pattern of stressed and unstressed
developing Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). syllables.
SFL is a theory emphasizing how language • Tone: In tonal languages, pitch patterns
functions in social contexts to create meaning. His distinguish word meanings (e.g., ma in Mandarin
work has been foundational in applied linguistics, can mean "mother" or "horse" depending on tone).
discourse analysis, and sociolinguistics. His • Length: The duration of sounds, which can also
Systemic Functional Grammar recognizes affect meaning in some languages (e.g., Finnish or
phonology and graphology as the levels of Japanese).
language substance.

Halliday stresses out that “substance” is the

material of language.  The graphological level focuses on the written
form of language, including spelling,
punctuation, typography, and layout. Halliday
“phonic” “graphic” saw graphology as part of a text's mode, which
audible noises visible marks determines how information is presented to
language is spoken language is written achieve its purpose.
 The lexico-semantic level explores the choice
of words (lexis) and their meanings
He popularized the term “phono-graphology”
(semantics), focusing on how language
which refers to the organization of substance
constructs meaning. Halliday emphasized the
into meaningful events.
ideational metafunction, where vocabulary
According to Leech and Short (1981), reflects the content and ideas being conveyed.
graphology is the alternative form of realization
to phonology.
M.A.K. Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics On the wrinkled face of the hills
highlights the interaction of segmentals and I see my shortening shadow
suprasegmentals in creating meaning. as my sun creeps towards the west
hills
• Segmentals contribute to the experiential gently, gently, gently
metafunction by conveying the basic content (the like afternoon’s flame
"what"). l
• Suprasegmentals contribute to the interpersonal o
metafunction by expressing attitudes, emotions, and w
relationships. e
r
Halliday viewed prosodic features i
(suprasegmentals) as essential for organizing n
spoken discourse, ensuring coherence and g
managing interaction between speaker and listener. to ash in the evening.
 HillSongsbyJoeUshie(P.
Do a linguistic analysis on these lines in the 35)
phonological level.
ANALYSIS
"Tyger Tyger, burning bright, The previous lines of the poem explicitly points to
In the forests of the night;" aging.
-WilliamBlake's,The Tyger ‘Lowering’ is a graphological symbolism signifying
entombment. It describes the
ANALYSIS process of burial.
 The repetition of the /t/ and /b/ sounds The graphological level considers and analyzes the
(alliteration) mimics the sharpness and spelling, punctuation, space management,
intensity of the tiger, creating a rhythmic effect. underlining, use of pictures, coloring, and so on.
(SEGMENTAL)
 The strong and weak syllables gives the poem a Lexico-Semantic Level
hypnotic and forceful cadence, emphasizing its  In this level, analysts look at the lexical choices
awe and mystery. (SUPRASEGMENTAL) made by a writer or speaker. The words can be
chosen for their denotative, or connotative, and
other dimensions of meanings.
 Lexical semantics is concerned with the
meaning of words and the meaning of syntactic
units (sentences).
 The term “lexicon” derives from the root word
“lexis” referring to the list of the possible
words in a language.
 Semantics help us understand the nature of
language because it accounts for the
abnormalities experienced when reading
Graphological Level COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS is the process of
 Graphology deals with graphic substance and analyzing lexical features.
the arrangement of words on their meanings.
 The graphological level focuses on the written Words can be broken down into their original
form of language, including spelling, meanings which can be represented through
punctuation, typography, and layout. markers: plus (+) and minus (-).
 Halliday saw graphology as part of a text's
mode, which determines how information is EXAMPLE:
presented to achieve its purpose. The word “man” may have these componential
features:
What have you noticed in this
+human, +male, +mature, -female
example?
Words can be broken down into their distinctive Words that have the same spelling and
semantic features in order to describe what they pronunciation but have different, unrelated
mean. meanings.
POLYSEMY
Consider these examples: A single word that has multiple related meanings.
METONYMY
The car danced across the icy road. A word or phrase is used to stand for another word
The worm ate the lion. or concept that is closely associated with. This
My hamster screamed ‘Hallelujah’ . relies on a contextual or associative relationship
between the two.
The abnormalities found in these sentences are not HOMOPHONY
evident in its syntax since they followed the correct pair, pear to, two, too, flour, flower
sentence structure. So, in order to identify what the HOMONYMY
sentence means, you have to understand what roles bat (animal), bat (used in sports) bank (financial
the words fulfill within the situation institution), bank (side of a river)
POLYSEMY
SEMANTIC ROLES head - part of the body, leader of a group, top part
 Agent - the entity that performs the action of an object
 Theme - the entity that undergoes the action run - to move quickly, to operate, a sequence
 Experiencer - one who perceives something light - brightness, not heavy, color
 Instrument - an entity used to perform an METONYMY
action The White House - president or administration
 Location - the place where the action happens The Crown - monarchy or royal authority
 Source - the place from which an action Suits - business people or executives
originates Hand - help or assistance
 Goal - the place where the action is directed COLLOCATIONS
These are words that commonly appear together
LEXICAL RELATIONS because they have a natural and frequent
Lexical relations refer to the ways words relate to association.
each other in meaning. These relationships are EX.
crucial in understanding semantics, vocabulary salt and pepper
acquisition, and how language is structured. fish and chips
thunder and lightning
TYPES OF LEXICAL RELATIONS cup and saucer
spoon and fork
SYNONYMY bed and breakfast
• Words that have similar or nearly identical law and order
meanings. trial and error
ANTONYMY heart and soul
• Words that have opposite meanings pros and cons
back and forth
peace and quiet
HYPONYMY black and white
• A word that represents a specific instance of a now and then
more general category. TYPES OF WORDS
PROTOTYPES (Denotative and Connotative Meanings)
• This represents the standard or most common
features of that category, making it what people Denotative meaning refers to the conceptual
think of first when they hear a certain word. meaning of a word. It is the central meaning of a
HOMOPHONY word. It is the literal, objective meaning of a word
Words that sound the same but have different and it is easi ly expressed through componential
meanings and spellings. features.
HOMONYMY
Connotative meaning is a kind of additional,
suggestive, personal or cultural meaning. It can be
regarded as the subjective meaning of a word and
has as sociative or figurative dimension of word MODIFIER
meanings. • Position: Precedes the head noun (typically
appears before the noun).
(Idiomatic Meaning) • Function: Describes or restricts the meaning of
 Ogunsiji (2013) states that idiomatic meaning the head noun by adding descriptive or specific
refers to the special or unique meaning of a information. Modifiers tend to be adjectives,
phrase that cannot be understood just by determiners, or nouns (used attributively).
looking at the meanings of the individual words • Scope: Directly affects the head noun without
in it. In other words, the phrase has a figurative involving additional clauses or phrases.
or non-literal meaning.
 Ogunsiji emphasizes that idiomatic expressions MODIFIER
are part of a language ' s cultural and social • the blue sky
identity, and they require familiarity with the • a wooden table
language to understand their true meaning • three small dogs

EXAMPLES: QUALIFIER
"Bite the bullet" • Position: Follows the head noun.
• Meaning: To face a difficult or unpleasant • Function: Adds extra detail or explanatory
situation with courage. information about the head noun, often through
• Cultural Explanation: This idiom comes from prepositional phrases, relative clauses, or infinitive
historical wartime practices when injured soldiers phrases. Qualifiers can clarify the relationship or
were given a bullet to bite during surgery to endure provide more context.
the pain. It reflects the value of bravery and • Scope: Broader and more explanatory than
resilience in challenging circumstances. modifiers; they sometimes give situational or
additional descriptions.
"Burn the midnight oil"
• Meaning: To work late into the night. QUALIFIER
• Cultural Explanation: Originating from the time • The sky above the mountains
when oil lamps were used for light, this idiom • A table that was built by hand
reflects the English-speaking world' s focus on hard • Dogs to adopt from the shelter
work and dedication, particularly in academic or
professional contexts. Verb phrase - this contains whether an action word
alone, or an auxiliary plus a lexical verb.
Syntactic Level Examples:
 This level focuses on the structure and Johnny will go to school.
arrangement of words within sentences. It She should have been there.
examines the rules and principles that He jumped happily.
govern sentence formation, such as word
Others:
order, clause relationships, and grammatical
Adverbial phrase
agreement.
Prepositional phrase
 This level of analysis helps us understand
Adjectival phrase
how meaning is constructed through syntax.
Infinitive phrase
Phrases contains one or more words which
UNITS OF GRAMMAR functions like a single lexical item.
• Group/Phrase
• Clause CLAUSE
• Sentence  A clause is higher than a phrase. It is a group of
• Grammatical Category of Voice grammatically coherent words with a subject
and a finite verb.
GROUP/PHRASE  A clause can be independent (can stand alone),
Noun phrase (nominal group) - has MHQ structure: and dependent (can’t stand alone.)
modifier, head, qualifier. For example:
The most obligatory is the “head” . So, in a nominal They left/when we did not expect.
group, modifier and qualifier may not occur. Unless you guide him,/he won’t know what to do.
Identify which clause is dependent and • I have more books than he __.
independent”
They left/when we did not expect. "has books" is omitted because the meaning is
Unless you guide him,/he won’t know what to do. clear.

 Clauses can be a noun clause, adjectival clause, Clausal Ellipsis

and adverbial clause.  Omission of part of a clause when it is
 There are also verbless clauses, that is, in some recoverable from context.
instances verbs are omitted from a clause. Example:
Example: • If you need help, I can __.
If it is possible, let the man leave now.
"help you" is omitted but understood.
The omission of the “it is” in the sentence is a case
of grammatical ellipsis. Common Elements of a Clause
More examples of grammatical ellipsis: Subject - the doer; the one being talked about
Gapping Predicate/Predicator - action or change in state
 Omission of repeated words in closely Direct object - the receiver of action
connected clauses. Indirect action - identifies to or for whom or what
Example: the action is performed
• Alex bought a book, and Sarah __ a magazine. Subject Complement - adjective or noun that
defines the subject
"bought" is omitted in the second clause because it's Object Complement - modifies a direct object
understood. Adjunct - adds extra circumstantial information
which may relate to time, location, speaker’s
Answer Ellipsis attitude.
 Omission of words in responses to questions.
Example: Take a look at these sentences and identify what
• Q: Who finished the report? elements are present in each clause:
• A: John __.
The coach made the players confident during
"finished the report" is omitted in the answer practice.
because the question provides context. • Subject (S): The coach
• Predicate/Predicator (P): made
Verb Phrase Ellipsis (VPE) • Object (O): the players
 Omission of a verb phrase. • Object Complement (OC): confident
Example: • Adjunct (A): during practice
• She can sing, and he __ too.
The manager considered the proposal excellent in
"can sing" is omitted after "he" because it's implied. every aspect.
• Subject (S): The manager
• Predicate/Predicator (P): considered
• Object (O): the proposal
• Object Complement (OC): excellent
Nominal Ellipsis
• Adjunct (A): in every aspect
 Omission of a noun while retaining modifiers.
Example:
• I’ll take the red apples; you can take the green __. SENTENCE
The sentence is the highest and largest grammatical
"apples" is omitted after "green" because it's clear unit. The difference between a clause and a
from context. sentence is a matter of degree rather than kind.

Types of Sentence according to STRUCTURE:

Comparative Ellipsis Simple - contains one final verb
 Omission of words in comparisons. Compound - independent clause + independent
Example: clause
Complex sentence - independent clause + a writer or speaker makes at the level of group
independent clause or more or phrase.
Compound-complex sentence - independent
clause + independent clause+ dependent clause  Through this, you can then unravel the effects
of these coices to the meaning of the text.
Types of Sentence according to Structure and
their STYLISTIC SIGNIFICANCE:
Simple - creates emphasis
Compound - use for balancing of ideas
Complex sentence - expresses dependency
relationships such as cause and effect
Compound-complex sentence - balancing of ideas
with dependency relation

Types of Sentence according to FUNCTION:

DECLARATIVE - declares a statement/fact or an
opinion
INTERROGATIVE - expresses or asks a question
IMPERATIVE - expresses demands, instructions,
requests, or a wish
EXCLAMATORY - expresses strong feelings and
excitement or extreme dislike; ends in exclamation
mark.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF
VOICE
Voice as a grammatical category in relation to verb
phrase relates to whether the subject acts or is acted
upon.

ACTIVE- the subject acts

PASSIVE- the subject is acted upon (agent or
agentless)

Consider the ff. examples:

Active: The chef prepared a delicious meal.
Passive: A delicious meal was prepared by the chef.
(agented)
Active: The students completed the project.
Passive: The project was completed by the students.
(agented)
Active: The scientist discovered a new species.
Passive: A new species was discovered. (agentless)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE
STYLISTIC SIGNIFICANCE:
 A writer or speaker can choose between active
or passive voice depending on his desire to
express thematic meaning, which is a way of
organizing message to indicate focus or
emphasis. It is the duty of the analyst to
describe its stylistic effect.

 When you do stylistic analysis at syntactic

level, you can pay close attention to the choices