CHAPTER 5

Solution Chemistry and the Hydrosphere

 CHAPTER OUTLINE
Solutions on Earth concentration chemical Precipitation Acid-Base
and Other Places Reactions Reactions Neutralization
Reaction

Chapter outline

Solutions Oxidation- Combination Combustion Single-

Reduction Decomposition replacement
(Redox) reactin
Reactions
 SOLUTIONS ON EARTH AND OTHER
PLACES
• aqueous solution: a solution where water is the dissolving medium (the
solvent)
• For example, when table salt (NaCl) is dissolved in water, it results in an
aqueous solution of sodium chloride, NaCl(aq), with Na+ and Cl- ions
dissolved in water.
• Note: The physical state aqueous,(aq), indicates an element or compound
dissolved in water while the physical state liquid,(l), means a pure substance
in the liquid state.
• Thus, NaCl(aq) NaCl(l), which is molten NaCl requiring very high
temperatures.
• A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
 SOLUTIONS
• solute: component present in smaller amount
• solvent: component present in greater amount The formation of a solution:
As a solute crystal is dropped into a solution, the water molecules begin to
pull apart the ionic compound ion by ion
• Solvent molecules surround the solute particles, forming a solvent cage
• the ions are now hydrated (surrounded by polar water molecules)
• solute is now dissolved in the solvent and cannot be seen because the ions
are far apart, like the particles in a gas
 EARTH: THE WATER PLANET
• About 70% of the Earth is covered with water, with 97% residing in oceans.

• Earth’s early atmosphere may have been formed from the gases released
by volcanic activity.

• As the Earth cooled the vapor in the atmosphere condensed

• and rain fell. This filled the depressions in the planet’s crust. We think…
• Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water,
called saline water .
• Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of
individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye,
• Water conductivity
• TDS or Total Dissolved Solids is a measure of the total ions in solution. EC is
actually a measure of the ionic activity of a solution in term of its capacity to
transmit current. In dilute solution, TDS and EC are reasonably comparable.
 UNSATURATED, SATURATED AND
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTIONS

• In general, if a solid is soluble in a solvent, more solid dissolves in the solvent

at higher temperatures.
• unsaturated: contains less than the maximum amount of solute that a solvent
can hold at a specific temperature
• saturated: contains the maximum amount of solute that a solvent can hold
at a specific temperature
• supersaturated: contains more than the maximum amount of solute that a
solvent should be able to hold at specific temperature
 A SUPERSATURATED NAC2H3O2
SOLUTION RECRYSTALLIZING AFTER
ADDITION OF MORE SOLUTE:
 UNSATURATED, SATURATED AND
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTIONS

• How can a solution hold more solute than it should be able to hold?
• If a given amount of solute is dissolved in a solvent at a higher temperature,
and the solution is allowed to cool without being disturbed, the solute will
remain in solution.
• But the solution is unstable, and the solute will come out of solution (i.e.
recrystallize) if the solution is disturbed (e.g. by adding more solute,
scratching the glass, etc.)
 UNSATURATED, SATURATED AND
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTIONS

• For some substances, recrystallization is exothermic, releasing heat to the

surroundings.
• For other substances, recrystallization is endothermic, absorbing heat and
making the surroundings colder.
 DILUTE AND CONCENTRATED
SOLUTIONS
• When the solute is higher than the solvent, we can say it is a concentrated
solution. In contrast, if the solvent is higher than the solute, it is known as a
dilute solution.
 HOW DO WE MEASURE
CONCENTRATION?
• A concentrated solution has a large quantity of particle present for a given
amount of solution.
• A dilute solution has a small quantity of particle present for a given amount
of solution.
• SOLUTION CONCENTRATION = amount of solute amount of solvent
• The more solute in a given amount of solution the more concentrated the
solution
• Example: difference between the density of pure copper sulphate sol and
the concentration of an copper sulphate in aq solution.
• [density is defined as its mass per unit volume]
 HOW DO WE MEASURE
CONCENTRATION?
• Concentration: Measure of the amount of solute that has been dissolved in a
given amount of solvent or solution.

• given by the ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of solution or

solvent sometimes.

• can be expressed as in percentages, Parts per Million, and several other ways. The
concentration of a solution can be expressed both qualitatively and quantitatively.
 HOW DO WE MEASURE
CONCENTRATION?
• Concentration can be measured a number of ways:
• ppm (parts per million) – one part in a million parts
• ppb (parts per billion) – one part in a billion parts
• g/kg (grams per kilogram) – one gram solute per one kilogram of solvent
• The chemical standard most used is Molarity
• Mole Fraction :
• Molarity = moles of solute liters of solution
• units: M (molar = mol/L)
 MOLARITY EQUATION
• n the lab, chemists frequently prepare solutions of known molarities. So, to
prepare a concentrated solution, it has to be diluted with the solvent. Now,
as a result, the volume of the solution changes. The equation given below is
used to determine the volume of an unknown solution from a known molarity
solution:
• M1V1 = M2V2
where,
• “M1” is the initial molarity of the given solution,
• “M2” is the molarity of the new solution,
• “V1” is the initial volume of the given solution, and
• “V2” is the volume of the new solution.
• A solution was prepared using 20 g of sodium hydroxide. Calculate the
molarity of the given solution of sodium hydroxide if the volume of the
solution is 125 ml.

• A solution is prepared by mixing 10 grams of ethanol. Calculate the molarity

of the given solution if the volume of the solution is 25.6 ml.

• We have 25 mL of a 2.56 M carbon tetrachloride solution, but we need a

1.28 M solution. So, how many mL of the 1.28M solutions can we prepare?
 WHAT IS GRAM EQUIVALENT?
• The gram equivalent is defined by the amount or the mass of the substances
that is utilized to displaces a fixed amount of another substance.
• Amount of a substance react with 1 mole of hydrogen.
Normality:
number of equivalents of a solute divided by the volume of the solution
in liters. Normality is also known as equivalent concentration.
EX: CALCULATE THE NORMALITY OF 0.321 G SODIUM
CARBONATE WHEN IT MIXES IN A 250 ML SOLUTION.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

• Solubility Rules: Indicate if an ionic compound is soluble or insoluble in water.

• Keep in mind that these are just general guidelines, and in reality, some ionic compounds are slightly soluble,
and solubility may depend on the temperature.
• Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds in Water:
• Soluble if the ionic compound contains:
• Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+ (ALWAYS!)
• C2H3O2–, NO3–, ClO3–, ClO4–
• Halide ions (X–): Cl–, Br–, or I–, but AgX, PbX2, HgX, and Hg2X2 are insoluble
• sulfate ion (SO42-), but CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, Ag2SO4, `and PbSO4 are insoluble.
• Insoluble if the ionic compound contains:
• carbonate ion, CO32-
• chromate ion, CrO42-
• phosphate ion, PO43-
• sulfide ion (S2–), but CaS, SrS, and BaS are all soluble.
• hydroxide ion (OH–), but Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2 are soluble.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• soluble = compound dissolves in water exists as individual ions in solution
physical state is aqueous, (aq)
• Insoluble = compound does not dissolve in water but remains a solid
physical state is shown as solid, (s)
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• Example 1: Use the Solubility Rules and identify the ionic compounds are soluble or insoluble by indicating the
physical state of each compound.
• a. NaCl
• d. LiOH
• g. Mg(OH)2
• j. Ag3PO4
• b. MgS
• e. CaS
• h. SrSO4
• k. BaCO3
• c. K3PO4
• f. Li2CrO4
• i. Na2CO3
• l. (NH4)2CrO4
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• In a precipitation reaction, two solutions react to form a precipitate (an
insoluble solid):
• AX(aq) + BZ(aq) AZ(s) + BX(aq)
• precipitate
• For example:
• KI (aq)+ Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbI2 (s) + KNO3 (aq)
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• To balance and complete the precipitation reactions:
• 1. Exchange the anions, writing the formulas for the products based on the
charges of the ions!
• 2. Use the Solubility Rules to determine if each product is soluble or insoluble.
• If at least one product is insoluble, a precipitation reaction has occurred.
Write the formulas for both products, indicating the precipitate as (s), then
balance the equation.
• If both products are soluble, write NR (=no reaction).
• 3. Keep in mind that the charges on ions do NOT change in precipitation
reactions. For metals that can form more than one charge, use the charge
on the metal ion from the reactant side of the equation.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• Ex 1. MgSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)
• Ex 2. K2CO3(aq) + AlCl3(aq)
• Ex 3. SrBr2(aq) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
• Ex 4. CuSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)
• Ex 5. KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)