C-6&7 PEDAGOGY OF SCIENCE-I

UNIT-I
MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF SCIENCE, IMPACT OF
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY.

Introduction : Every scientific activity is characterized by two partial

activities. On is some form of observation or perception. It can be taken through
senses. Another part is the form of thought activity. It penetrates to the
observation though activity gives the name to observation and make more
specific conceptual analysis of them. It has given a reality to our thoughts.
Science has played a tremendous role. In our lives during the last century and
is now changing our entire existence in such important aspects as health, power
communication and transportation. The artificial silk fabric of the chair covers
has been made from wood-pulp.

Meaning : Science has been derived from a Latin ward “Scientia” which means
knowledge. It is a systematized body of knowledge which may pertain to any
subject. Science is an organized common sense. Science is a heap of truth.
Science is an organized common sense.

Definitions of Science

1. B.F. Skinner : “Science is first of all a set of attitudes. It is a disposition to

deal with facts rather than with what someone has said about them.”

2. J.H. Poincare: “Science is built up with facts as a house is with stones, but a
collection of facts is no more a science than heap of stones is a house.”

1
3. Albert Einstein : “Science searches for relations which are thought to exists
independently of the searching individual.”

Meaning and Nature of Science

The word science has its roots in the latin word Scientia, meaning knowledge".

Definition: Science as a process -In modern use, "science" more often refers to
a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge itself. Experimentation -
It is a process in the sense it helps to explore the truth and involves certain
systematic procedures and mental faculties as reasoning, analysis and synthesis.
The process of science is the scientific method. This is the process of
constructing an accurate, reliable, repeatable model of the real world, by
scientists collectively working towards this goal over time. Scientific ideas are
developed through reasoning.

The process of science is not predetermined.

1. Science is a Process as well as Product It is a process in the sense it helps to

explore the truth and involves certain systematic procedures and mental
faculties as reasoning, analysis and synthesis. It is a product because it results in
an organized body of systematic knowledge.

2. Science helps to make descriptions It answers questions like how , where,

when, under what circumstances.

3. Science makes predictions Extending knowledge to further situation is

prediction. It involves the use of generalizations or application of knowledge in
new situations.

2
4. Science is based on observation Meticulous observation followed by
inference drawing is an essential part of science. These observations and their
conclusions are objective in nature. Unbiased approach is followed in science.

5. Science is concerned with past, present and future Science answers questions
about the [Link] why could the dinosaurs have become extinct? It is involved
with the present. eg search for remedies to diseases. It also dwells in the
[Link] what fuels can be used in the future?

6. Scientific ideas are subject to change It is never a finished product. There is a

lot more to be discovered. The quest in science is unending. Scientific laws are
tentative and may be changed with further research . Science is an eternal quest
for truth. Science in its nature is dynamic.

Values of science in socio-cultural context.

Science has immense value in an individual’s life and his life in society.

INTELLECTUAL VALUE

MORAL VALUE

AESTHETIC VALUE

CULTURAL VALUE

VOCATIONAL VALUE

UTILITARIAN VALUE

SOCIAL VALUE

3
SCIENTIFIC TEMPER

Impact of Science & Technology on Modern living

Modern era is the age of science & technology Science has revolutionized our
modern living through changes in the way of thinking, attitudes, outlook etc.
Science has great effect on our life and surroundings. It has brought revolution
in the fields of health, communication, transportation, power, food products etc.
Science has made the life of modern man easy. It has bestowed its blessing over
areas like agriculture, education, industries etc. Science play role in our day to
day life which shows its impact.

1. Impact of Science and Agriculture : Food is the most important need of

any living thing. Some ten thousand years ago, it was discovered that certain
plants can be cultivated to get regular supply of food. Agriculture implies that
one has not a gather food daily. The Green revolution in this context is showing
the impact of science in this field. The frequent and effective use of fertilizers
and pesticides, advanced methods of cultivation, improved varieties of seeds,
separating grains from chaff have all increased the yield of the crop. Spraying
of insecticides over crops through spraying pumps saves the destruction of
crops by harmful insects.

2. Science and Health : Science has played a significant role in this field. In
recently time thousands of the people in the world died of diseases like small
pox, malaria and plague every year. During these epidemics, people had to
move away from their places to another. Now a days we don’t even hear about
plague or small pox. The Medicines & Vaccines have proved to be a saviour of
mankind. Today more than 90% of human and animal diseases are being cured
4
by synthetic drugs, X-rays, radio active isotopes, TMT, CAT, MRI scan, NMR
scan, ECG, EEG, EMG, are some of the important scientific discoveries to
maintain our health.

3. Science & Industry : The discoveries of science accelerated the rate of

growth of industries. The only source of energy available to man was his own
muscular energy, but now machines do work for man. It has made the work
easy and at the same time fast. All the processes including preparation of soaps,
detergents, dyes, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides are carried out by
the automatic machines, steel production, railways, automobiles and electrical
products are some examples of industry.

4. Science and Research : Universities are providing opportunities to the

scholars to carry out research in various fields like industry, fuel technology,
agriculture, food development etc. U.G.C., CSIR, ICMR, IARI other scientific
agencies sponsor many programs in this context.

5. Science and living conditions : We have seen that science and technology
evolves with the development of human society. Its benefits are available to
society at large leading to an overall improvement in the living conditions. Each
time a technology is introduced and adopted, it changes man’s way of life and
also provides him with never abilities to do things that could n’t have done
before.

6. Science and Women : Science has improved the status of women. In past,
the women were facing lot of health hazards due to use of traditional chulahs.
She had to walk a longer distances to fetch water for fulfilling the daily needs of
the family but now a day the things have been changed a lot with the blessing of
5
science, she is not only a house wife now but a doctor, engineer, teacher, pilot
at the same time. She is working side by side with men in laboratories, research
institutions, industries hospitals etc.

7. Science and Communication : It is an another important discovery of

science. Now a days programmes of Higher Education are broadcasted on
Doordarshan for specific time by U.G.C. Sometimes agencies are also
telecasting educational programmes on Television. The satellite channels have
played a significant role here. The news are being brought by radio waves now.
These waves travel with the speed of light and go round the earth seven times in
one second. The recent advancement in this field is E-mai8l and internet which
have made the world interconnected.

8. Impact on Employment : Due to the vast increase in the field of science

education day by day. We get more opportunities of getting technically trained
employee. Vast field of science and its branches has made much more
vacancies for the individuals. One can go into different field of its choice and
capability. To avoid unemployment different courses of free or less fee
education has been established.

9. Impact on education : All the areas of the education is the product of

science like Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Geography,
Economic, Education Technology, Computer Science etc. To improve the
facilitate science education National Policy of Education in 1986 initiated a
scheme under which financial assistances, science has increased the educational
field to great extent with the help of education we are able to produce crop
production, resistance to pest, artificial insemination high yielding qualities of
crops and prevention from communicable disease.
6
 10. Impact of Science on Democracy : Demoracy is meant for open mindness
and independence which has brought about by in our behaviour by science.
Science has helped us in independent thinking, outlook of receiving new ideas
and capacity for clear or rational thinking. It has developed moral values among
individual like respect, co-operation. It has helped us to develop humility,
loyalty etc. All these qualities in an individual leads to make a person
democratic.

Conclusion : So we can say, science plays an important role in our daily life.
Science is a common sense. It is an interconnected series of concept and
conceptual schemes that have developed as a result of experimentation and
observation. The concept as abstraction of a series of experiences that defines a
class of objects or events.

2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SCIENCE - BLOOMS’

TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (REVISED FORM
ALSO), INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SCIENCE
AT SECONDARY AND SENIOR SECONDARY LEVEL.

Introduction : The aims and objectives of teaching science have undergone

numerous changes during the last few decades. There was a times when
science was not a compulsory subject in the secondary schools. Only a few
selected student opted for it. At that time, the major stress was on the
teaching of facts of science. Later on owing to tremendous developments in
Science & Technology. Science was made a compulsory subject not only in
secondary schools but in primary classes as well. Now a days, science is a

7
 compulsory subject for all the children in all the schools from 1st to 10th
classes. The stress or the aim of teaching science shifted from fats to
application aspect of science.

Meaning : Aim is a declaration of intent. It gives the direction. The education in

the real sense, is the modification of behaviour of the pupils in the desirable and
useful direction. To line as an efficient member in the modern society, each citizen
should know some facts of the natural phenomenon laws, properties of matter,
their application in the daily life.

Definitions of Aims

1. John Dewey : “An Aim implies an ordered activity.”

2. Professor Gurrey : “It is desirable to know exactly what one is hoping to

achieve as it is in all a great undertaking.

3. W. Pauti : “The aim of science teaching is n’t the acquisition of information

and a few skills but to attain the understanding of the relationship which
connects the answer to the problem.

Definitions of objectives

1. Davies : “Learning objectives is a statement of proposed change.”

2. Acc. to Dictionary of Education : “The end towards which a school

sponsored activity is directed.”

3. B.S. Bloom : “Objectives as the desired goal or outcome at which

instruction is aimed.”

8
Criteria of Selection of Aims

1. Usefulness : Derived learning should be have value in the life of pupil.

2. Practicability : Experiences are needed for learning in the life.

3. Fitness : Learning should lead toward broad objectives.

4. Timeliness : Learning should concerned with material that is familiar at the

present time.

5. Appropriateness : Learning should be appropriate for the maturity of the

pupils.

Difference b/w Aims and Objectives

Aims Objectives

1. Aim is broad. It is not much used by Objectives are small. These are
teacher. meaningful clear and specific.

2. It gives direction to a teaching These are particular point in that

programme. direction.

3. The answer to the question of why a The answer to the question what
subject is taught. will be achieved after teaching.

4. Indefinite and vague. Clear and definite.

9
5. School, society & nations are Teacher is responsible
responsible for their achievement
and fulfillment.

6. Close to ideals that cann’t be Can be achieved easily.

fulfilled.

7. Time consuming for achievement Not of much duration.

8. Can be achieved in one day Step by step achieved.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational objectives

These objectives are introduced by Dr. Benjamin S. Bloom of Chicago University.

He classified objectives in three domains.

1. Cognitive Domain Objectives

2. Affective Domain Objectives

3. Psychomotor Domain Objectives

1. Cognitive Domain : These domains include those objectives which deal

with recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of intellectual
abilities and skill. It helps in curriculum development. In cognitive domain
the taxonomy of educational objectives is organized under six major classes
:

10
a) Knowledge : Knowledge includes those behaviours which include
memorizing, recognitional phenomenon.. The knowledge include :

a) Real of specific and Isolated facts and information.

b) Dates, events, persons, places, sources of information

c) Terminology

d) Conventions

e) Process, directions and movement of phenomenon w.r.t. time.

f) Classification & Categories.

b) Comprehension include :

(1) Translation (2) Interpretation (3) Extrapolation

Translation Interpretation Extrapolation

1. From one level of Ability to interpret It include drawing

abstraction to another. various types of the conclusion &
social data. predication etc.

2. From symbolic form to The ability to

another form. differentiate value
judgement from
predictions of
11
 consequences.

3. From one verbal form

to another

c) Applications : This can be illustrated by applying to comprehension of

method following by the principles. It is said that student comprehens
something that can apply it. Principles are followed that can apply to
generalized ideas procedure to solve the problem.

d) Analysis : It means breakdown of material into constituent parts and the way
they are organized. It includes :

a) Analysis of elements

b) Analysis of relationship

c) Analysis of organizational principles.

e) Synthesis : It is putting together of all elements or parts as to form a whole.

It includes :

a) Production of unique communication

b) Production of plan

c) Derivation of a set of abstract relations.

f) Evaluation : It’s aims at making judgement about the values, ideas, works,
solution, method material etc. It involves the use of criteria as well as

12
 standards for appraising the extent to which particulars are accurate,
effective, economical etc.

2. Affective Domain : It includes objectives which deals with attitudes, values,

interest and appreciation. The affective domain is divided into 5 major
classes of objectives :

a) Receiving : It means to orient the learners to learn which is 1st step It

includes awareness, willingness to receive, controlled or selected attention.

b) Responding : This class comes after the learner has given his attention. It
includes :

a) Compliance in responding

b) Willingness to respond

c) Satisfaction in response

c) Valuing : It includes acceptance of a value, preference for a value and

commitment. It includes :

1. Acceptance of a value

2. Preference for a value

3. Commitment.

d) Organization : When the learner develops certain values, he encounters

situations for which more than one value is relevant. It includes :

a) Conceptualization of a value

13
 b) Organization of a value

e) Characterising : The individual starts acting constantly in accordance with

the values he has developed. It includes :

a) Generalized set

b) Characterization of value

3. Psychomotor domain : Psychomotor domain is related to activity.

1. Perception : Ability to make preparatory adjustment.

2. Initiation : Ability to follow directions.

3. Manipulation : Ability to perform according to given instructions.

4. Precision : Ability to perform complex task.

5. Articulation : Ability to establish sequence and harmony or to perform with

accuracy, speed and time.

6. Naturalization : To perform with smoothly, naturally, automatically or

spontaneously.

Conclusion : The aims of teaching science, the basis of their formation should be
child, society and subject matter. Apart from all these aims discussed, the most
important function of science education should be the development of all
dimensions of child’s efficiency. This can be possible only if we shift our forms
from acquisition of knowledge to development of scientific attitudes reflective
thinking favourable or useful skills.

14
OBJECTIVES at UPPER PRIMARY STAGE

1. At the upper primary stage, the child should be engaged in learning the
principles of science through familiar experiences, working with hands to
design simple technological units and modules (e.g. designing and making a
working model of a windmill to lift weights) 2. The students should continue
to learn more about the environment and health, including reproductive and
sexual health, through activities and surveys. 3. Scientific concepts are to be
arrived at mainly from activities and experiments. Science content at this
stage is not to be regarded as a diluted version of secondary school science.
4. Group activities, discussions with peers and teachers, surveys,
organisation of data and their display through exhibitions, etc. in schools and
the neighbourhood should be important components of pedagogy.

Objectives at Secondary stage

1. The students should be engaged in learning science as a composite

discipline. 2. The students should be engaged in working with hands and
tools to design more advanced technological modules than at the upper
primary stage. 3. The students should be involved in activities and analysis
on issues concerning the environment and health, including reproductive and
sexual health. 4. The students should be engaged in systematic
experimentation as a tool to discover/verify theoretical principles. 5. The
students should work on locally significant projects involving science and
technology.

OBJECTIVES at HIGHER SECONDARY STAGE

15
 1. At the higher secondary stage, science should be introduced as separate
disciplines, with emphasis on experiments/technology and problem solving. 2.
The curriculum load should be rationalised to avoid the steep gradient between
secondary and higher secondary syllabi. 3. The core topics of a discipline,
taking into account recent advances in the field, should be identified carefully
and treated with appropriate rigour and depth.

3. Formulation of specific objectives in behavioral terms (Magers approach and

RCEM approach).

Unit-II

METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE- PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

Problem Solving
In Hammonds Carsie’s Words—
“Problem solving in teaching refers to the task of making decisions or doing things
that learner wants to
make or to do, the nature of which he is able to understand but for which at the
time he has no solution.”
Problem-solving method was born as a result of litigation purposes. Problems
related to the students
before the student presents his text and Students according to their interests and
abilities is to look at
their solution. This method should be placed in clear terms the problem faced by
students and their
learning should be based on experiences. With the help of the teacher student
synthesis or analysis of
problems and solutions to be able to reach
16
The method includes the following steps—
(1) Selection of problem,
(2) Presentation of the problem,
(3) Aggregation of facts,
(4) Hypotheses,
(5) reach on conclusions,
(6) Assessment,
(7) Drafting work.
Characteristics
(1) Students learn to solve problems automatically.
(2) They develop observation and reasoning.
(3) They are able to generalize.
(4) The integration of data, assessment and conclusions are familiar with the
procedures.
(5) Learn to use the old facts in a new context.
(6) Would infuse a spirit of working together.
(7) This is motivational method.
(8) It is based on “Learning by doing”
Demerits
(1) Is a waste of time and energy.
(2) In this method, confusion could be the wrong conclusion.
(3) This method requires the use of qualifi ed teachers.
(4) This method is not useful in small classes.
Which method for teaching a particular subject should be selected and will be more
useful approach to teaching which, on the subject of the next chapter highlights.
Write down fi ve characteristics of problem solving method.
17
 LECTURE CUM DEMONSTRATION METHOD,

Introduction : This method is also called as Demonstration method. The main

drawback with the lecture method is that it is one sided process. The teacher
talks too much and the students are totally neglected. The best method is that
which involves a kind of ebb and flow b/w the teacher and taught, where the
teacher and the children are really part of an educative process. It is in an
atmosphere of this kind that children develop in the best way. The
demonstration method takes stock of this fact and thus while in a lecture
method the teacher merely talks.

Meaning : Demonstration means ‘to show’. In the lecture method teacher just tells
but in the demonstration method he also shows and illustrates certain fundamental
phenomena and the various applications of abstract principles through a series of
experiments. This method is also in accordance with the maxims of teaching
“from concrete to Abstract.” The students see the actual apparatus and
experiment and thereby they feel interested in learning.

Characteristics of Good Demonstration :

1. Visibility : A demonstration should be visible in most of its significant

details to all the students of the class.

2. One major idea at a time : Only one major idea at a time should be taken
so that students become aware of the objectives of demonstration.

18
3. Clear Cut : The demonstration should be clear cut, for this, the teacher
should be clear of the purpose of demonstration. He should know the aims of
demonstration before hand.

4. Convincing : It should be convincing so that students get a training in

scientific method of solving problem.

5. Rehearsal : It is necessary before demonstration so that teacher becomes

well versed in handling the apparatus.

6. Supplemented with other teaching aids : Demonstration should be

supplemented with other teaching aids like charts, models etc. to make it
more interesting.

7. Asking relevant questions : The teacher should ask suitable and relevant
reflective type questions. It also helps to keep the students alert.

8. Neat, Clean & Tidiness : The teacher should see the general order,
neatness, cleanliness and tidiness of the demonstration table. The table
should be occupied by the apparatus and materials relevant to the lesson. It
is always better to keep the used apparatus right hand side and the apparatus
to be used on left hand side.

9. Sequence of Experiments : The teacher should carry out the experiments in

such a way that the students should learn how to carry it out by themselves.

10. Simple & Speedy : Demonstration should be simple and speedy.

11. Acc. to time and season : While planning and performing the
demonstration, it should be kept in mind that the demonstration should be in

19
 accordance with the time and season otherwise it will prove to a failure and
wastage of time.

12. To Write Observation : The students should be asked to draw diagrams and
to write, what they observe.

13. Black Board : The blackboard behind the demonstration table helps the
teacher to summarise the principles and concepts related and also the student
to note it down.

14. Sufficient time : For recording data, the students should be give sufficient
time.

15. Apparatus : The apparatus used for demonstration should be larger in size.

16. Teacher to act as performer : For maintaining the interest of the students
sometimes the teacher act as a performer, showman or actor.

17. Spare parts for the apparatus : Reserve or spare parts for the apparatus
should be there on the table.

Common Errors in a Demonstration lessons :

1. The demonstration may not to be visible to all.

2. The set up of apparatus may not be at a good height.

3. The lighting and ventilation may not be adequate.

4. The speed of demonstration may not be accurate, either too fast or too slow.

5. The apparatus may not be ready to use.

20
6. Students are not involved.

7. The purpose of demonstration may not be clear.

8. The teacher may arrive at the generalization himself without getting it done
by the students.

9. The students may not be given sufficient time.

10. The apparatus may not be arranged in proper order and the teacher may
flounder while performing the experiment.

Conduct of Lecture-cum-Demonstration

1. Planning & Preparation : While planning a demonstration the following

points should be kept in a mind.

a) Subject matter : The subject matter should be thoroughly prepared. If the

teacher knows it, even then he should go through the subject matter.

b) Lesson Planning : The teacher should plan how to introduce the lesson, the
way to present it, types of questions to be asked in experimentation and
recapitulation.

c) Rehearsal of experiment : The demonstration should be rehearsal well in

advance as it provides confidence to the teacher too. In this way, his lesson
will go on smoothly and systematically.

d) Collection and arrangement of apparatus : The apparatus and chemicals

should be properly arranged on the demonstration table. Only such materials
should be pro kept on the table as are required for

21
2. Introduction of Lesson : The lesson may be introduced on the following
basis :

a) Student’s personal experience or incident.

b) Student’s environment

c) Telling story

d) A simple and interesting experiment.

3. Presentation of the subject matter :

a) The teacher must study the subject matter on broad basis taking into
consideration the interest and experience of students.

b) While demonstration is going on, questions should also be asked which

helps the students to understand the underlying principles.

c) The teacher should try to illustrate the facts and principles. the experiment in
progress. b/z too many things at a time divert the attention of students.

d) Language used by teacher should be simple and clear.

4. Experimentation

a) Demonstration should be properly spaced and striking, clear and convincing.

b) The demonstration table should have only apparatus related to the lesson.

c) The experiment should be simple and speedy.

d) All the apparatus should not be displayed at once.

22
e) Reserve or spare apparatus can be kept for emergency.

5. Black board work : A big black board behind the demonstration table is
necessary in order to summarise the principles and other matters of
demonstration and also to draw necessary diagrams and sketches.

Advantages

1. Economical : This method is economical as it helps in economizing

resources. Some equipments are too expensive for general use and thus
demonstrating the experiment to the whole class becomes an economical
exercise.

2. Psychological Method : Demonstration method is psychological as the

students are shown concrete things. They have not to enter into false
imagination.

3. Student participation : This is one of the best techniques to get

participation of students.

4. Save time & effort : This method saves teacher’s time and effort as it is
easier to perform one experiment than to supervise 45 experiments.

5. Helpful to promote useful discussion : This method can help to promote

relevant and useful discussion in the classroom and also provides
opportunity to question and to review.

6. More efficient method : Discussion method is more efficient than

laboratory method as a teacher is more competent to handle apparatus than
students.

23
7. Activity Centred : By this methods students are kept busy in various
activities like observing, taking notes, answering questions, drawing
diagrams etc.

8. Useful for all types of students : This method is suitable for all types of
students i.e. from average to above average.

9. Helpful for teacher : This method is useful and helpful for teacher also he
can be in position to explain each and every step and to ensure that all the
students see and interpret all the work in uniform manner.

Disadvantages

1. Ignore maxim of education : The maxim of education “Learning by Doing”

and the principle of psychology of learning has no place in this method. The
students don’t get chance to perform experiment themselves.

2. Visibility : It is main problem for a teacher b/z all the students may not be
able to see the details and results of a demonstration.

3. Speed of Experiment : Either too fast or too slow speed of demonstration

some times may create trouble in understanding what is going on.

4. Ignore individual difference : This method totally ignores the main

principle of psychology ‘there is always individual difference’ slow learners
and genius are made to sail in the same boat.

5. Hinder progress : This method some how hinder the development of

laboratory skills among the students.

24
6. Not useful for developing scientific attitude : This method does n’t help
the students for inculcation of scientific attitude.

7. Problem of indiscipline : Some time students may get into mischief,

thereby creating a problem of indiscipline.

Diagram showing the Characteristics of Lecture-cum-demonstration Method :

Visibility

One major idea at a time

Clear cut

Convincing

Rehearsal

Supplemented with T.A

Asking relevant question

Neat, Clean & Experiments

25
 Sequence of Experiments

Simple & speedy

Acc. to time & season

To write observation

Black Board

Sufficient time

Apparatus

Teacher to act as performer

Spare parts of apparatus

Diagram showing Impact of Science on modern living

Impact of science on modern living

26

Impact of Science
Science &
&
Agriculture
27
 3. Table showing educational objectives in the three Domains : Blooms’s
Taxonomy

Cognitive Affective Psychomotor

Domain Domain Domain

1. Knowledge Receiving Perception

(Low) (Low) (Low)

Comprehension Responding Imitation

(High)

Application Valuing Manipulation

Analysis Organization Precision

Synthesis Characteristics Articulation

Evaluation (High) Naturalization

(High)

PROJECT METHOD,

Project Method : Based on the philosophy of pragmatism and to lesson the gap
between school life and the life in society, project method was devised by
Kilpatrick & it was perfected by Stevenson with the objective of bringing
life into school.
28
Definitions :

1. Ballard : “A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into school.”

Stevenson : “A Project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural

setting.”

Dig. Shows

Steps involved in the Project Method

Providing a situation
to propose a problem

Choosing & announcing

the topic

Planning

Execution

Graduation

Recording

29
Role of the teacher :

a) Well informed : The teacher has to be well informed. He should himself

collect articles, reports, illustrations, charts, specimens, to keep his interest
alive.

b) Helping : He should help students in selecting projects acc. to their ability,

interest and age level.

c) Encouraging & inspiring : He should be encouraging and inspiring.

d) Alert : He should be alert enough to check whether the project is running

along right lines.

e) Suggestive : He should suggest books for references, place to visit, people

to ask and so on.

f) Training in scientific method : He should help to develop a scientific

attitude in the students and give training in scientific method.

g) Accessible : He should be accessible to the students.

h) Guide & friend : He should act as a guide, a friend and a working partner.

i) Provide democratic atmosphere : He should provide democratic

atmosphere in the class.

Advantages:

1. Based on laws : This method is based upon laws of learning law of

readiness, law of exercise, law of effect.

30
2. Critical thinking : This method helps in developing critical thinking.

3. Correlation : By this method correlation of various subject is achieved and

knowledge is obtained.

4. Freedom of work : In this method, student can work at their own speed,
they plan and execute the project.

5. Problem solving : This method stresses on problem solving approach and

hence scientific attitude is developed.

6. Dignity of labour : This method upholds the dignity of labour.

7. Social relationships : This method promotes social interaction and co-

operation amongst the students.

8. Challenges : It sets up a challenge to solve a problem and in the face of real

life difficulties.

9. Interest : It develops interest in science hobbies in the right use of leisure

time later on.

10. Educational value : It provides maximum educational value as educational

content is emphasized.

Disadvantages :

1. Teacher : This method heavy demands on the teacher. The teacher required
for this method should be exceptionally gifted, knowledgeable and alert.

2. Time : This method is time consuming. The syllabus cann’t be completed on

time by this method.
31
3. Text books : Instructional materials and text books written on these lines are
not easily available.

4. Superfacial knowledge : This method gives a superfacial knowledge of the

subject.

5. Expensive : This method is expensive. The cost of education goes up as

more expenditure will have to be incurred on well equipped library.

6. Work load : In this method, the work load on teacher is increased a lot.

HEURISTIC METHOD.

Heuristic
Students learn by looking at the policy itself. The teacher’s task is only a guide.
Mistakes help improve
the proper time. Student - such as work and are using it - it leads to knowledge
they are innovative.
Creator of this policy was Prof. Armstrong. According to his belief “Process of
learning any subject
sensual exploration and students themselves must fi nd facts and principles.”
Student can perform as an exploration of the policy. In the beginning the student
does not use the
information. To fi nd the desired information itself and a number of principles that
are required to use,

32
as well as to study the available literature.
Characteristics
(1) Students develop the scientifi c method and spirit.
(2) This method has been faithful and true to the students near delivers
(3) The student has acute observation and reasoning power is activated.
(4) Work is to develop the ability and interest.
(5) Students’ activity, confi dence and independence increases.
(6) This method prepares students for life.
(7) This knowledge is more stable.
(8) Increases in students thinking and perception.
(9) Because the work is completed in class does not require homework.
(10) This is psychological method.
Demerits
(1) Being slow to teaching full time course can not be taught in precribed time
limit.
(2) Student experiences diffi culty in reaching conclusions.
(3) The teacher has to make special preparations to use this method.
(4) This method is not suitable in small classes.
(5) This method needs good laboratory and good library.
(6) More money is spent.
(7) This method is hard to teach large groups.
(8) It is not useful for weak students.
(9) The entire course can not be taught.
Suggestions
(1) As a method of investigation must be genuine.
(2) Over the course of only a few selected text to go to teach this method.
33
(3) Teachers must fully conscious and aware of their responsibilities.

APPROACHES OF TEACHING SCIENCE: INDUCTIVE AND

DEDUCTIVE APPROACH.

INDUCTIVE METHODS:

It leads from concrete to abstract, particular to general and from examples to

formula. It is the method of constructing a formula with the help of a sufficient
number of concrete examples. It is based on induction which means proving a
universal truth by showing that if it is true for a particular case and is further true
for a reasonably adequate number of cases, it is true for all such cases. A formula
or generalisation is thus arrived at through a convincing process of reasoning and
solving of problems. After a number of concrete cases have been understood, the
student successfully attempts the generalisation.

Deductive Method:

It is the opposite of Inductive Method. Here the learner proceeds from general o
particular, abstract to concrete, and formula to examples. A pre constructed
formula is told to the students and they are asked to solve the relevant problems
with the help of that formula. The formula is accepted by the learners as a pre-
established and well-established truth.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING,

34
Cooperative Learning approach is a sort of group learning task in which the whole
class or a group of it takes part. It can take various forms like a seminar, a debate, a
panel discussion, a symposium, a brain trust or a workshop.

According to yoakam and simpson: “in Cooperative Learning approach

students/children are discussing, questioning, reporting, planning working in
natural ways. The teacher is a guide, counselor, advisor, contribution and director
in the best sense of the world, trying to get children discover things for themselves
rather than to have them merely listening to them.”

Forms of Cooperative Learning approach

Informal group Formal group

technique 35
technique
1. Informal group technique: In it, students and teacher discussed about their
experiences and problems. Any member of a group can start discussion any
member can ask question and explanation and demand for clarification.
2. Formal group technique: A formal committee is organized to discussion.
Every student get opportunity to lead others.

 Seminar: The seminar is an advanced level of socialized technique

useful for seminar students. Teacher is leader of the seminar. He
control the discussion seminar is an organized process. Every member
participate in it and give their views.
 Debate: A debate is a programme in which two or more students
holding contradictory opinions on a particular problem present
argument.
 Symposium: We think of a symposium as a group of comments.
Either spoken or written, which portrays contrasting or at least
different points of view.
 Panel Discussion: Panel discussion is a discussion among a selected
group of four to six persons, a large enough for variety and a small
enough for purposeful deliberations.
 Brain storming: In brain storming the brains of the students are
stimulated to create a storm of ideas and deliberation to find whether
or not they are meaningful and purposeful.
36
 Workshop: Workshop is the latest form of socialized recitation
technique. It is different from a seminar as it emphasizes practical
work more than theoretical discussion. The group is devided into
some sub group to complete the activity.
 The workshop is guided by some expert called resource persons or
consultant. They give their expert advice to the interested group or
the whole group. They also deliver lecture or give demonstration.
 Conference: In conference discussion is on higher level. The member
of the conference speaks on the different theme. It is different from
seminar. In seminar there is one theme. And they discuss their themes
on higher level and at last in common session. They present
conclusion of their themes.
 INQUIRY BASED APPROACH
 What is inquiry-based learning?
 An old adage states: "Tell me and I forget, show me and I remember,
involve me and I understand." The last part of this statement is the
essence of inquiry-based learning, says our workshop author Joe
Exline 1. Inquiry implies involvement that leads to understanding.
Furthermore, involvement in learning implies possessing skills and
attitudes that permit you to seek resolutions to questions and issues
while you construct new knowledge.
 1.

37
 "Inquiry" is defined as "a seeking
for truth, information, or
knowledge -- seeking
information by questioning."
Individuals carry on the process
Part 1 of 2 Part 2 of 2
of inquiry from the time they are
born until they die. This is true
even though they might not reflect upon the process. Infants begin to
make sense of the world by inquiring. From birth, babies observe
faces that come near, they grasp objects, they put things in their
mouths, and they turn toward voices. The process of inquiring begins
with gathering information and data through applying the human
senses -- seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.
 A Context for Inquiry
 Unfortunately, our traditional educational system has worked in a way
that discourages the natural process of inquiry. Students become less
prone to ask questions as they move through the grade levels. In
traditional schools, students learn not to ask too many questions,
instead to listen and repeat the expected answers.

Some of the discouragement of our natural inquiry process may come

from a lack of understanding about the deeper nature of inquiry-based
learning. There is even a tendency to view it as "fluff" learning.
Effective inquiry is more than just asking questions. A complex
process is involved when individuals attempt to convert information
and data into useful knowledge. Useful application of inquiry learning
38
 involves several factors: a context for questions, a framework for
questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions.
Well-designed inquiry learning produces knowledge formation that
can be widely applied.

 Importance of Inquiry
 Memorizing facts and information is not the most important skill in
today's world. Facts change, and information is readily available --
what's needed is an understanding of how to get and make sense of the
mass of data.
 Educators must understand that schools need to go beyond data and
information accumulation and move toward the generation of useful
and applicable knowledge . . . a process supported by inquiry learning.
In the past, our country's success depended on our supply of natural
resources. Today, it depends upon a workforce that "works smarter."
 Through the process of inquiry, individuals construct much of their
understanding of the natural and human-designed worlds. Inquiry
implies a "need or want to know" premise. Inquiry is not so much
seeking the right answer -- because often there is none -- but rather
seeking appropriate resolutions to questions and issues. For educators,
inquiry implies emphasis on the development of inquiry skills and the
nurturing of inquiring attitudes or habits of mind that will enable
individuals to continue the quest for knowledge throughout life.
 Content of disciplines is very important, but as a means to an end, not
as an end in itself. The knowledge base for disciplines is constantly
expanding and changing. No one can ever learn everything, but
39
 everyone can better develop their skills and nurture the inquiring
attitudes necessary to continue the generation and examination of
knowledge throughout their lives. For modern education, the skills
and the ability to continue learning should be the most important
outcomes. The rationale for why this is necessary is explained in the
following diagrams.

Illustration developed by Joe Exline

This figure illustrates how human

society and individuals within society
constantly generate and transmit
the fund of knowledge 2.


2.
 Human society and individuals within society constantly generate and
transmit this fund of knowledge. Experts, working at the boundary

40
 between the known and the unknown, constantly add to the fund of
knowledge.
 It is very important that knowledge be transmitted to all the members
of society. This transmission takes place through structures like
schools, families, and training courses.
 Certain attributes are necessary for both generating and effectively
transmitting the fund of knowledge. The attributes that experts use to
generate new knowledge are very similar to the qualities essential for
the effective transmission of knowledge within the learners'
environment. These are the essential elements of effective inquiry
learning:

This figure illustrates the attributes necessary for both generating and effectively
transmitting the fund of knowledge.


We propose that the attributes experts use to generate new knowledge
are very similar to the attributes essential for the effective
41
 transmission of knowledge within the learner's environment -- the
essentials of effective inquiry learning.

Inquiry is important in the generation and transmission of knowledge.

It is also an essential for education, because the fund of knowledge is
constantly increasing. The figure below illustrates why trying to
transmit "what we know," even if it were possible, is
counterproductive in the long run. This is why schools must change
from a focus on "what we know" to an emphasis on "how we come to
know."

This chart illustrates that while knowledge is

constantly increasing, so is the boundary of the
unknown.

42
  An effective and well-rounded education gives individuals very
different but interrelated views of the world. All disciplines have
important relationships that provide a natural and effective framework
for the organization of the school curriculum, as shown in the chart
below. The subject matter of disciplines can be set in the larger
context of a conceptual framework 3. This framework is crucial for
understanding change and also for the organization of the discipline
and its application to the natural and human-designed worlds.
 3.

Illustration developed by Joe Exline

This chart illustrates that skills for processing

information are similar across all disciplines.

 The habits of mind 4, values, or "ground rules" of a particular

discipline provide that discipline's unique perspective. The sciences,
43
 for example, demand verification of data, while the study of literature
often relies on opinions and subjective interpretations as a source of
information. Habits of mind vary in their rigidity across disciplines.
This doesn't mean that one is right and the other is wrong, but simply
that the "ground rules" are different.
 4.
 The Application of Inquiry
 While much thought and research has been spent on the role of
inquiry in science education, inquiry learning can be applied to all
disciplines. Individuals need many perspectives for viewing the world.
Such views could include artistic, scientific, historic, economic, and
other perspectives. While disciplines should interrelate, inquiry
learning includes the application of certain specific "ground rules" that
insure the integrity of the various disciplines and their world views.
 Outcomes of Inquiry
 An important outcome of inquiry should be useful knowledge about
the natural and human-designed worlds. How are these
worlds organized? How do they change? How do they interrelate?
And how do we communicate about, within, and across these worlds?
These broad concepts contain important issues and questions that
individuals will face throughout their lives. Also, these concepts can
help organize the content of the school curriculum to provide a
relevant and cumulative framework for effective learning. An
appropriate education should provide individuals with different ways
of viewing the world, communicating about it, and successfully
coping with the questions and issues of daily living.
44
  While questioning and searching for answers are extremely important
parts of inquiry, effectively generating knowledge from this
questioning and searching is greatly aided by a conceptual context for
learning. Just as students should not be focused only on content as the
ultimate outcome of learning, neither should they be asking questions
and searching for answers about minutiae. Well-designed inquiry-
learning activities and interactions should be set in a conceptual
context so as to help students accumulate knowledge as they progress
from grade to grade. Inquiry in education should be about a greater
understanding of the world in which they live, learn, communicate,
and work.

ROLE OF TEACHER IN INQUIRY

The teacher reflects on the purpose and makes plans for

inquiry learning.

 He plans ways for each learner to be actively engaged

in the learning process.
 She understands the necessary skills, knowledge, and
habits of mind needed for inquiry learning.
 He understands and plans ways to encourage and
enable the learner to take increasing responsibility for
his learning.
 She insures that classroom learning is focused on
relevant and applicable outcomes.
 He is prepared for unexpected questions or suggestions

45
 from the learner.
 She prepares the classroom environment with the
necessary learning tools, materials, and resources for
active involvement of the learner.

The teacher facilitates classroom learning.

 The teacher's daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly

facilitation plans focus on setting content learning in a
conceptual framework. They also stress skill
development and model and nurture the development
of habits of mind.
 She accepts that teaching is also a learning process.
 He asks questions, encouraging divergent thinking that
leads to more questions.
 She values and encourages responses and, when these
responses convey misconceptions, effectively explores
the causes and appropriately guides the learner.
 He is constantly alert to learning obstacles and guides
learners when necessary.
 She asks many Why? How do you know? and What is
the evidence? type of questions.
 He makes student assessment an ongoing part of the
facilitation of the learning process.

46
What are the benefits of inquiry-based learning?

One of the important missing pieces in many modern schools is a coherent and
simplified process for increasing knowledge of a subject from lower grades to
upper grades. Students often have difficulty understanding how various activities
within a particular subject relate to each other. Much more confusion results when
the learner tries to interrelate the various
subjects taught at school.

Too little effort is devoted to defining

important outcomes at the end of high school
and planning backwards and across subjects.
Inquiry-based learning can help make these
Part 1 of 2 Part 2 of 2
connections.

Specific content such as photosynthesis has

much more relevance for the learner if set in a
larger context of understanding
the interrelationship of the sun, green plants, and the role of carbon dioxide and
water. Social studies content, such as industrial development, set in the context
of interrelating changes in the human-designed world can add new perspectives
to this important natural process. Students can still learn content of both science
and social studies, but through a series of well-planned experiences, they will grasp
the larger conceptual context and gain greater understanding.

Within a conceptual framework, inquiry learning and active learner involvement

can lead to important outcomes in the classroom. Students who actively make
47
observations, collect, analyze, and synthesize information, and draw conclusions
are developing useful problem-solving skills. These skills can be applied to future
"need to know" situations that students will encounter both at school and at work.

Another benefit that inquiry-based learning offers is the development of habits of

mind that can last a lifetime and guide learning and creative thinking.

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT.

[Link]. to NSSE : “Scientific attitudes can be defined as open mindness, a desire

for accurate knowledge, confidence in procedure for seeking knowledge and
expectation that the solution of the problems will come through the use of
verified knowledge.”

2. Views of NCERT : The National Council of Education Research and Training

conducted a workshop at Chandigarh and evolved the following specific behaviour
of a pupil who has developed scientific attitudes.

The pupil :

1. Is clear and precise in this statements and activities.

2. Bases his judgement on verified facts.

3. Is willing to consider new ideas and discoveries.

48
4. React favourably to efforts made to use science towards human welfare.

5. Is prepared to reconsider his own judgement.

6. Arranges the apparatus, material etc. in their proper places at the end of
work.

7. Suspends judgement in the absence of sufficient data.

8. Is free from superstition.

9. Is objective in the approach.

10. Is honest and truthful in recording and collecting scientific data.

3. Pulp B – Dlederich :

1. Scepticism

2. Faith in the possibility of solving problem.

3. Desire for experimental verification.

4. Precision

5. A liking for new things

6. Willingness to change opinion

7. Humility

8. Loyalty to truth

9. Aversion to superstition

49
10. An objective attitude

11. Linking for scientific explanation

12. Desire for completeness of knowledge.

13. Suspended judgement.

14. Awareness of assumptions

15. Distinction b/w hypothesis and solution

16. Judgement of what is fundamental and of great significance

17. Respect for theoretical statement

18. Respect for qualification

19. Acceptance of probabilities

20. Acceptance of warranted generalization

Techniques for developing scientific attitudes

As discuss, there is no clear cut definition of scientific attitudes. Scientific attitudes

are certain mind-sets in a particular direction. The following suggestions for
planning learning experiences to inculcate scientific attitudes.

1. Increase the degree of consistency of the environment.

2. Increase the opportunities for making satisfying adjustments to attitude

situations.

50
3. Provide opportunities for the analysis of problem or situation so that a pupil
may understand and then reset intellectually in the desirable attitudes.

Diagram

Techniques developing Scientific attitudes

1. Use of Wide Reading

2. Use of Planned Exercise

3. Removal of Superstitions

4. Co-curricular activities

5. Advanced Teaching Method

6. Proper use of laboratory period

7. Class Room Atmosphere

8. Preparing Science Room

9. The personal example of the teacher

1. Use of Wide Reading : According to the study made by curtis, the pupil
who engage themselves in wide reading in science, develop scientific
attitudes more than those who study only one text book. A teacher should
51
 inculcate love for reading among students. The students should be
encouraged to read library books and supplementary books on science.

Ex : Reading news paper, Encyclopedia, Magazine related to Science, see

discovery channels.

2. Use of planned exercise : Some magazines devoted to science provide

exercises for developing certain attitudes. Proper use of such exercise should
be made quite frequently. Good text books contain exercises at the end of
each chapter which developed fulfill the aim of scientific attitudes.

Ex : Cutting from news papers can also be used for this purpose, certain
pictures and cutting may be displayed on the bulletin board and used again
and again for direct teaching.

3. Removal of Superstitions : To develop scientific outlook of the students, it

is necessary to remove the existing superstitions amongst the students. While
teaching science lessons, teacher can encourage the students to practically
investigate some common superstitions and come to their own conclusions
by actual survey and study.

Ex : If a cat crosses the path, one should not turn black and find a new road,
see empty basket, broker mirror in the home.

4. Co-curricular activities in science : Teaching of the subject can n’t be

limited to its subject matter. The teacher should encourage the students to
participate in specialized activities. The requires the inclusion of co-
curricular activities.

52
 Ex : Science club, science hobbies, science fair, science exhibition,
educational trip, eco-club, science conferences.

5. Advanced Teaching Method : The teacher should use effective and

impressive methods of teaching science. The teacher should adopt those
methods which give the students an understanding of the basic concepts,
promote interest in science and also acquire laboratory skills.

Ex : Through PPT, group discussion, science quiz, teaching aids etc.

6. Proper use of laboratory period : Laboratory work involves students in

hand on activities that help them participate in scientific investigation and to
verify for themselves scientific laws, principles and concept, so the science
teacher should carefully plan and organize the laboratory activities.

Ex : Give the precautions for the students by teacher. Proper discussion with
student before the starting experiment etc.

7. Class Room Atmosphere : If the internally setting of the class is properly

arranged and the room is decorated in a manner which contributes to the
development of proper atmosphere secondly the role of the teacher is also
very imp. to develop desirable atmosphere in a class. The attitude of the
teacher will not help to develop proper atmosphere in a class.

Ex : Proper data collection, friendly behaviour with the student etc.

8. Preparing science room : The environment in science room should be

stimulating and interesting where science staff and students can work with
initiative towards appropriate goals. The science room must be decorated in
proper way. The laboratory apparatus should be arranged in systematic way.
53
 Ex : Class room decorated with science charts and models etc.

9. The personal example of the teacher : Perhaps the greatest force for the
inculcation of scientific attitudes is the personal examples of the teacher.
The teacher must be open minded, critical in thought and action in his day to
day dealings.

Conclusion : So we can say, the scientific attitudes can be open mindness a desire
for accurate knowledge. Scientific attitude is the clear and precise in his statements
and activities. They are bases his judgement on verified facts. A teacher should
inculcate love for reading among students. Laboratory work involves students in
hands on activities that help them participate in scientific investigation.

UNIT- III: INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL AND AIDS

a) Instructional resources in Science: Meaning, importance, classification,

Science is an inspiring process of discovery that helps satisfy the natural curiosity
with which we are all born. Unfortunately, traditional instruction that
misrepresents science as a body of facts to be memorized and the process of
science as a rigid 5-step procedure can deaden students' spirit of inquiry.

Students should come away from our classrooms with an appreciation of the
natural world — fascinated by its intricacies and excited to learn more. They
should view and value science as a multi-faceted, flexible process for better
understanding that world. Such views encourage life-long learning and foster
critical thinking about everyday problems students face in their lives. You can
54
cultivate these ways of thinking in your students through science instruction that
accurately and enthusiastically communicates the true nature of science and that
encourages students to question how we know what we know.

Fortunately, fostering such understandings needn't require reorganizing your entire

curriculum. Simple shifts in how content and activities are approached can make a
big difference in overcoming student misconceptions and building more accurate
views of the process of science. Educational research supports the following
strategies for teaching about the scientific endeavor:

 Make it explicit: Key concepts regarding the nature and process of science
should be explicitly and independently emphasized. Engaging in inquiry and
studying the history of science are most helpful when the nature-of-science
concepts they exemplify are explicitly drawn out in discussion and
interactions.
 Help them reflect: Throughout instruction, students should be encouraged
to examine, test, and revise their ideas about what science is and how it
works.
 Give it context, again and again: Key concepts about the nature and
process of science should be revisited in multiple contexts throughout the
school year, allowing students to see how they apply to real-world situations.

55
56
57
58
59
60