Environmental Health Perspectives

Vol. 92, pp. 7-11, 1991

The Chemistry of Chromium and Some

Resulting Analytical Problems
by Saul 1. Shupack*
Chromium, named for its many-colored compounds, exists in the oxidation states of -2 to +6
inclusively. The compounds exhibit a wide range of geometries including square planar, tetrahe-
dral, octahedral, and various distorted geometries. Chromium is found in nature principally as
the chromite ore FeCr2O4 in which chromium is in the +3 state. The existence of a particular
oxidation state is dependent on many factors including pH, redox potentials, and kinetics.
Thermodynamically, +3 and +2 are the most stable states, while the +3 and +6 oxidation states
are the most common ones found in aqueous solution. Kinetically, chromium +3 is substitution-
ally inert: for water exchange k(sec-') = 2.5 x 10, due to the presence of the half-filled d(tg,)3 4A2
state. On the other hand, protonation/deprotonation is quite rapid. Polymerization is very slow
but is promoted at higher pHs; acid cleavage of the protonated oligomers is also quite slow.
Chromium +6 as the chromate ion is strongly oxidizing at low pHs and less so in basic solution.
The chromate ion does form some polyacids and polyanions. These factors must be considered in
analyzing samples for total chromium and for the amounts of each oxidation state.

General
Chromium was named for the many colors manifested
by its compounds. As is seen in Figure 1, potassium
dichromate, K2Cr2O7, is red, potassium chromate,
K2CrO4, is yellow, and chromium trichloride, CrCl3, is
green. The element (1) is found in the combined form
mainly as the chromite ore, FeCr2O4, a spinel. Here
chromium [Link] sites and Fe"l occupies
tetrahedral sites. Lower abundant ores are crocoite
(PbCrO4), chrome ochre (Cr2O3), and chromium in trace
amounts is found in emerald and ruby. The main de-
posits are in southern Africa with 96% of the known FIGURE 1. Examples of colored chromium compounds.
reserves.
In the metallic form chromium is a white, hard, brittle,
and lustrous metal that melts at 1903 ± 10°C. It dis- essential trace element in human nutrition. It is involved
solves easily in mineral acids that are nonoxidizing. It in glucose metabolism. The required amount has been
does not dissolve in nitric acid (concentrated or dilute) variously reported to be from 50 to 200 ,g per day.
or cold aqua regia probably due to passivation (2); thus, Most importantly, chromium(VI), the reason for this
the use of the metal as a protective corrosion inhibitor, conference, has been implicated as cause of cancer (5,6)
viz., chromium plating and metal finishing formulations. in animals and man. Therefore, the sources of the prob-
Other uses encompass pigments, tanning and textile lem, the pertinent aqueous chemistry, and some related
chemicals, synthetic rubies for lasers, synthetic emer- analytical problems will be discussed.
alds, wood preservatives, catalysts, stainless steels,
chromium dioxide magnetic tapes, labeling of red blood
cells, and as a fungicide (3). As Cr3+, chromium (4) is an
Source
Chromium is recovered directly from its ores by re-
duction. This is done (1) by using coke in an electric arc
*Department of Chemistry, Villanova University, Villanova, PA furnace to give an alloy, ferrochromium. However, pure
19085. chromium is typically obtained by first fusing the ore
8 S. I. SHUPACK

with lime and soda ash in air. The resultant yellow mix- Table 1. Representative formal oxidation states and
ture is then leached with water and filtered, separating properties of chromium compounds.
the aluminum impurities from the chromium by pre- Compound Geometry Oxidation state
cipitating the aluminum hydroxide. The filtered solu-
tion is then acidified and concentrated to a red slurry [Cr(CO)5]-2 Trigonal bypyramid -2
[Cr2(CO) l1-2 Octahedron -1
and then dried to yield sodium dichromate. From this, [Cr(bipy) ;] Octahedron 0
chromium metal can be recovered by electrolytic re- [Cr(CNR),;]+ Octahedron +1
duction in plating bathes or reduced with carbon. World [Cr(CO)2(diars)2X]+ Capped trigonal prism +2
production of chromite ores is almost 9.5 x 106 tons. [CrC14]- Tetrahedron +3
[CrF J-2 Octahedron +4
The residues, in the extraction process, can be re- [CrOCil-' Square pyramid +5
cycled, but the spent ores must be disposed of eventu- [CrO4]-2 Tetrahedron +6
ally. Herein lies the source of the problem because the
residues have been used as landfill in residential areas,
becoming part of the dust carried by the wind or stirred
up by traffic. Furthermore, these residues contain chro-
mium salts that are leached out by rain (acid rain) and cally determining its concentration are important. In
are even carried by capillary action or by ion exchange aqueous solution, chromium(VI) may exist in a variety
up the sides of houses. The spent material has also been of oxospecies depending on pH. The structures of these
dumped in places where the leachate enters the aquifer anionic species are based on the sharing of a corner of
or local water systems. Changes in oxidation state can the tetrahedral structure of the chromate ion as poly-
often accompany these movements. merization proceeds as pH is lowered. Figure 2 shows
the structure of the chromate and dichromate anions
Aqueous Chemistry where the Cr-O bond lengths are 166 pm (picometer)
and 163 pm, respectively, and the bridge is 179 pm,
General while the Cr-O-Cr bond angle is 1260. As pH is lowered
the familiar red dichromate Cr207-2 forms, followed
The inorganic chemistry of chromium is not only rich by formation of the tri- and tetra-anions Cr3O10-2 and
in its variety of colors, but also in its many oxidation Cr4,O,-2, respectively. The small size and large charge
states and the geometries of its many compounds. As of the chromium(VI) moiety enhances its liability and
seen in Table 1, the oxidation states of chromium can engenders Cr-O double bonding (infrared stretch at 730
go from -2 to +6. The electron configuration of the ele- cm-'). Thermodynamically, the aqueous equilibria are
ment in the ground state is 3d54s', while for the most as follows:
prevalent states, +3 and +6, it is 3d34s" and 3d°4s°, re-
spectively. These two ground states exist mainly in the
octahedral (4A2g), and tetrahedral ('Al) geometries re- HCrO(
C4 = CrO4-2 +H+ K = 10-5-9
spectively. Other geometries and oxidation states are H2Cro4 , HCrO4 +- + K = 10+0.26
listed in Table 1. 10-2.2
The Latimer diagrams for acid and basic solutions are: Cr2072- +H20 2HCrO4- K =

HCr207 f Z Cr2072- +H+ K = 10+0.85

H2CrO4 = HCr207 +H+ K = large

1.33V -0.408v -0.912V
%Cr207- 2 ~> Cr( 2O)6+3 > Cr(H2O)6+2 > Cro
(Acid) -0.744v '

-0.13v -[Link] -1.4V

Cr0
At pH < 1, the predominant species is H2CrO4, while as
CrO4 2 > Cr(OH)3 > Cr(OH)2 >
the pH is raised from pH 2 to 6, the HCrO,- and Cr2O72
(Basic) -1. 34v
anions prevail. At a pH > 8 only the yellow ion CrO-2
exists. Polymerization to the tri- and tetrachromates
occurs at very low pH. The addition of concentrated
The diagrams show that in aqueous solution the +3
state is most stable, followed by the +2 state. The +6 2- 2-
state is unstable in acid solution and goes to the +3
state. Furthermore, chromium in the +2 state is a good
reducing agent, while in the +6 state it is a powerful
%
I,
~II
/ I

oxidizing agent. I
IIII %

%%

Chromium(VI)
The +6 oxidation state is of great interest because it (a) (b)
is implicated in causing cancer in man and animals. Thus,
its aqueous solution chemistry and methods for analyti- FIGURE 2. (a) CrO42- ion; (b) Cr2O72- ion.
 CHROMIUM, CHEMISTRY, SPECIATION, AND ANALYSIS 9

sulfuric acid precipitates unstable red crystals of hy- Chromium(III)

drated CrO3. It should be noted that the Pourbaix dia-
gram (7) (pH plotted against EB) clearly shows that at In the cell (6), it is believed that the +3 oxidation state
low pH, the +3 state, Cr(H2O)6+3, is the predominant or contributes to the carcinogenic activity of chromium.
stable species, and the +6 state, CrO4-2, is the predomi- Thermodynamically, the +3 state is the most stable oxi-
nant species at high pH. The presence of all of these dation state of chromium, and it is represented by thou-
species and their pH dependence poses a problem if one sands of compounds. Kinetically, these compounds are
is interested in speciation as well as detection of a par- inert in keeping with the half-filled t2g level of the d3
ticular oxidation state. configuration in octahedral geometry. The violet hexa-
The electronic spectrum of the chromate ion (8) arises quo species is inert to water exchange, k = 3.5 x 10'sec-'
from ligand to metal charge transfer bands only, since (11), i.e., a half-life of a few days.
the chromium(VI) is do. It is its high charge-to-size ra- The hexaquo species exhibits a pKa= 4, comparable to
tio that enhances the process. Bands for the chromate formic acid. Upon heating, or with time, or by raising
ion in aqueous solution are 25,800 cm-' (E = 4,600), 37,000 the pH, this species will hydrolyze to form polymers
cm-' (£ = 3,800), and 55,560 cm-' (£ = 28,000). Clearly, containing OH bridges as follows:
spectroscopic determination using these bands is either OR
inconvenient or not sufficiently precise for current needs. 1(H20)4cr HCr(H20) 4]+4 + 2H20

Attention should be given also to the oxyhalide, -HF+ +( 1

chromyl chloride, CrO2Cl2, a red liquid that boils at 1170C (Cr(H20)6]' [Cr(H20)50H]+2
(1). Chromium analyses requiring high temperatures (A) +tH (B) 4( B
using, for example, inductively coupled plasma (ICP) or [(H20)5SCr Cr(H2o)5]5S + H20
atomic absorption methods, can involve samples con-
taining chlorides. This is especially true for tissue Aqueous chromium(III) chloride chemistry reflects the
samples or others in which hydrochloric acid or sodium kinetic inertness of the violet hexaquo ion. [Cr(H20)6]C13
chloride has been used in the preparation of the sample.
These samples would then give false results because exists as three isomers: the dark green hydrate trans-
some of the chromium(VI) would form the volatile chro- [CrCl2(H20)4]Cl*2H20 and the pale green [CrCl(H20)5]
mium oxychloride. C12.H20.
To overcome this problem and the inconvenience of Chromium(III) is particularly difficult to analyze by
the band positions and intensities, the valence-specific using its electronic spectrum. The spectral data are as
diphenylcarbazide method (9) can be used readily since follows for the hexaquo species. It exhibits bands at
at Xmax = 546 nm, £ = 3.4 x 104. In this case, care should 15,000 cm-' (£ = 2), 17,400 cm-' (c = 3),24,600 cm-' (F = 15),
be taken to avoid Hg, Fe, and V oxidants as well as too and 37,000 cm-' (c = 4) (12). These bands arise from the
low a pH, as the unstable +6 state will undergo reduc- ground state electron configuration. They are all spin
tion to the +3 state. and/or LaPorte forbidden as indicated by the very low
The analysis of total chromium is often carried out by molar absorptivities.
using a nitric acid solution with hydrogen peroxide and
heating (5). Under these conditions any chromate that Chromium(V)
may be present rapidly forms a deep violet-blue peroxo
compound, CrO(02)2, upon the addition of hydrogen The high oxidation state of +4 is most stable at high
peroxide. Addition of pyridine followed by extraction pH. It disproportionates easily to the chromium(III)
with ether affords the stable blue solid CrO(py), con- and chromium(VI), especially in acid solution (13). See
firming the presence of a peroxy group as part of the Table 2 for properties of (CrO4)-3. In studies with vari-
structure (1). It is important to realize that this com- ous cell systems, starting with chromate, chromium(V)
pound rapidly decomposes to chromium(III) and oxy- has been shown to be present as an intermediate. The
gen. Obviously, this method is only useful in determin-
ing total chromium.
Another problem that arises is whether or not chro- Table 2. Some properties of dl(CrO4').
mium(III) can be oxidized to chromium(VI) in the soil.
Because of the instability of chromium(VI) in the pres- Fairly stable at high pH but disproportionates as:
ence of organic matter, chromium(III) should be the 3Cr" o 2CrVI + Cr"'
only species present. However, Bartlett and James (10)
have shown that chromium(III), added as salts or hy- d' Electron configuration
droxides, is rapidly oxidized to chromium(VI) if a fresh Electron spin resonance: g = 1.98, g = 1.97 at 20 K
soil sample was moist. They attributed this to the pres-
ence of oxidized manganese. The oxidation of chro- Ultraviolet: 265 ± 5 nm (£ = 250 + 50); 355 ± 5 nm (£ = 500 + 50)
mium(III) was found to be directly proportional to
amount of the manganese(IV) reduced. The manganese Chromate reduction in the presence of organics, effected by
is reoxidized by air. ester formation, light, media, concentrations, temperature.
10 S. I. SHUPACK

mechanism of generation and carcinogenicity of methods, however, will be described briefly, which also
chromium(V) was dealt with by Wetterhahn (6) at this will reflect some of the difficulties in speciation.
conference.
Chromium(V) also can be found in the presence of Ion Chromatography
naturally occurring organic matter such as humus. The
ion is detected by a unique electron spin resonance McLeod (16) has refined a flow injection (FI) system
(ESR) signal caused by its electron configuration that in combination with ICP instrumentation. The basic
is d1. The ESR signal is at g = 1.98. At this time principle of Fl systems is to control the dispersion of
chromium(V) has been analyzed only by ESR. the sample in the carrier stream while the sample moves
Boyko and Goodgame (14) reacted chromate with soil- from injection port to detector. By exact synchroniza-
derived fulvic acids over a pH range of 3 to 12 to pro- tion and timing of the injection with the measurement
duce chromium(V). As the chromium(V) signal de- routine, reproducibility is obtained. McLeod has found
creased with increasing pH or time, chromium(III) was that activated alumina affords an excellent method for
generated. Conventional wisdom would then lead one concentrating both anionic and cationic analytes as a
to believe that chromium(VI) in soil, containing organic function of pH (16). The alumina has a high affinity for
matter, would have a short lifetime. This is because the oxyanions and cations. The procedure is to inject an
organic matter would reduce it to at least chromium(V), analyte and concentrate it on a microcolumn. If the an-
and the natural acidity would make it unstable with ion is retained on the acidic column, the cation can then
respect to chromium(III). But, as mentioned previously, be analyzed directly. Addition of strong base elutes the
chromium(III) can be reoxidized in soils (10). anion, which is then analyzed. For a 2-mL sample vol-
ume, limits of detection were 1.4 ppb for chromium(III),
Analytical Chemistry of Chromium and 0.2 ppb for chromium(VI). Interferences were co-
eluting cations for chromium(III) such as calcium(II).
General Only the simple hexaquo and chromate species were
studied.
Previous discussion showed that the use of the elec- Recently, Collins et al. (17) used column chromato-
tronic spectrum of the +3 and +6 states is at best incon- graphic methods combined with radiometric detection
venient and at worst impossible. Also, for analysis us- of 51Cr. Radiolabeled chromium(VI) and chromium(III)
ing high temperature methods such as ICP and atomic of the mixture was placed on the cationic column and
absorption, only total chromium can be determined. In eluted with increasing concentrations of perchloric acid,
addition, care should be taken with samples containing followed by mixtures of Ca(ClO1)2 and HClO4, and then
chlorides. a mixture of La(ClO). and HClO4. The chromium com-
In general, for atomic absorption methods, matrix ef- plexes were eluted giving peaks in the order of increas-
fects are important and subtle. The valence-specific di- ing charge as follows: CrCl, [and chromium(VI) if
phenyl-carbazide method in testing for chromium(VI) present], [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]1+, [Cr(H2O)5Cl]2, [Cr(H2O)J+(J,
is an excellent method, but the presence of various oxi- Cr2(OH)2+4 (dimer), Cr; (OH)4+5 (trimer), and Cr4(OH)(;+"
dants and a low pH interfere. The use of the nitric acid- (tetramer). Clearly, the assumption that the aqueous
hydrogen peroxide mixture and heating is a superb chemistry of chromium contains only simple ions is a
method, but only for total chromium, since all the dangerous one.
chromium(VI) will be converted to chromium(III). A
cursory search of the literature shows that there are 1,1,1,5,5,5-Hexafluoro-2,3-Pentanedione
many methods available for the determination of total
chromium, and some can also evaluate oxidation state Hexafluoropentanedione (Hf) forms volatile tris-Hf
and species; Table 3 gives a nonexhaustive list (15). Two complexes with chromium(III) that can be detected with
electron capture gas chromatography. This technique
Table 3. List of analytical methods. has the advantage that chromium(VI), being anionic,
will not react with Hf, while chromium(III) reacts
Atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy readily with it. Recently, Debetto and Luciani (18) used
Indluctively coupled plasma this method to quantify chromium(III) in mammalian
X-r ay fluorescence
X-ray photoelectr on spectroscopy
cells to which chromate had been added. Chromium(V)
Proton-induced X-ray emission (valence dletection) was not determined.
Neutron activation
Mass spectroscopy Caveat
Ion chromatography
UV visible spectroscopy
Electr ochemical In a paper titled "The Inexact Imprecise Science of
Chromatography: high performance liquid chromatography, Trace Analysis," Rodgers (19) makes a number of im-
gas chromatography portant points concerning detection of species in the
Radioactivity,5'Crcdetection laboratory setting. Among these are two pertinent
Infrareld and raman spectroscopy points.
 CHROMIUM, CHEMISTRY, SPECIATION, AND ANALYSIS 11

First, as the concentration of the species of interest Pergamon Press, New York, 1984.
(e.g., impurity one is trying to detect) decreases, the 2. Cotton, F. A., and Wilkinson, G. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry,
5th ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1988.
number of interferences increases. Moreover, if the de- 3. Sharpe, A. G. Inorganic Chemistry. Longman, New York, 1981.
tection limits drop by two orders of magnitude, then "it 4. Anderson, R. A., and Kozlovsky, A. S. Chromium intake, absorp-
is possible to include every substance that has ever tion and excretion of subjects consuming self-selected diets.
been made in a laboratory" (19). Clearly, there must be Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 41: 1177-1183 (1985).
agreed-upon limits. 5. Witmer, C., Park, H. S., and Shupack, S. I. Mutagenicity and
disposition of chromium. Sci. Total Environ. 86: 131 (1989).
The second point was made using the results of a 6. Wetterhahn, K. E. Mechanism of chromium(VI) carcinogenesis:
Taft Engineering Center study in the early 1960s in reactive intermediates and DNA damage. Presented at a Con-
which samples of the same chromium-spiked standard ference on the Chromium Problem: Research Needs and Risk
was sent to over 50 different laboratories. The amount Assessment, February 2-3, 1990, Piscataway, NJ. Sponsored by
the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute,
of chromium in each sample was 0.18 mg/mL, but the Piscataway, NJ.
mean value reported was 0.14 mg/mL. Rodgers con- 7. Campbell, J. A., and Whiteker, R. A. periodic table based on
cludes that since several different methods were used potential-pH diagrams. J. Chem. Educ. 46: 92 (1969).
for analysis and each laboratory had its own calibration 8. Johnson, L. W., and McGlynn, S. P. The electronic absorption
procedures, that the error was not in the analytical spectrum of chromate ions. Chem. Phys. Lett. 7: 618-620 (1970).
9. Upor, E., Mohai, M., and Novak, G. Y. Photometric methods
chemistry, "but a discrepancy arising from the handling in inorganic trace analysis. In: Comprehensive Analytical Chem-
of the sample before it was analyzed" (19). Indeed, the istry, Vol. XX (G. Svehla Ed.), Elsevier, New York, 1985, pp. 181-
human factor must be carefully reckoned with in any 182.
analytical procedure. 10. Bartlett, R. J., and James, B. R. Mobility and bioavailability of
chromium in soils. In: Chromium in the Natural and Human
Environments (J. 0. Nriagu and E. Nieboer, Eds.), John Wiley
an(l Sons, New York, 1988, pp. 267-304.
Summary 11. Hunt, J. P. Metal Ions in Aqueous Solutions. Benjamin, Inc., New
York, 1963.
Clearly, the aqueous chemistry of chromium is com- 12. Lever, A. B. P. Inorganic Electronic Spectroscopy,2nd ed. Elsevier,
plicated. In analyzing for chromium many factors must New York, 1984.
be considered. These factors are the thermodynamic 13. Mitewa, M., and Bentchev, P.R. Chromium(V) coordination chem-
stability of each oxidation state as a function of pH and istry. Coord. Chem. Rev. 61: 241-272 (1985).
14. Boyko, S. L., and Goodgame, D. M. L. The interaction of soil fulvic
the kinds of species, i.e., anions, cations, and polymeric acid and chromium(VI) produces relatively long-lived, water soluble
ions, that can form for each oxidation state as a function chromium(V) species. Inorg. Chem. Acta 123:198-191 (1986).
of conditions of the sample such as pH, lability, equilib- 15. Fundamental Reviews. Anal. Chem. 62 (12) (1990).
ria, temperature, and the presence of other reductants 16. McLeod, C. W. Flow injection techniques in inductively coupled
and oxidants. Other factors that should be considered plasma spectrometry. J. Anal. Atom. Spectr. 2: 549-552 (1987).
17. Collins, K. E., Bonato, P. S., Archundia, C., and de Queiroz, M. E.
are the volatility, geometry of its compounds, and the L. R. Column chromatographic speciation of chromium for Cr(VI)
electronic state of the metal ion. an(l several species of Cr(I I I). Chromatography 26: 160-162 (1988).
18. N. Debetto, P., and Luciani, S. The toxic effect of chromium on
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