Operational

Amplifiers

Electrical and Electronic Principles

 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (OP AMPS)
Amplifier Gain
The diagram below shows an Amplifier:
A is the amplifier
Vin Vout gain and we have the
A
relationship:
Vout  A Vin
Problems with this arrangement are that:
“A” is controlled by transistors and we have little or no
control over their gain. Two identical circuits will have
different gains due to the tolerance in the components
especially the transistor gains.
“A” may vary with:
Temperature, Supply Voltage, Aging
Operational Amplifiers
For the above reasons we introduce Negative
Feedback (NFB) into the amplifier.

Vin Va Vout
+ + A
-
Vf

From the above we can see that:

Vout  A Va (1)
Vf  B Vout (2)
Va  Vin Vf (3)

Operational Amplifiers
using (1) and (2) in (3) gives us:
Vout 1
 Vin  B Vout Vout(  B)  Vin
A A
1 A B Vout A
Vout( )  Vin Gain  
A Vin 1  A B
e.g.
An amplifier has a gain A = 14000 and a feedback ratio
of 0.01. What is the gain?

Due to component replacement A increases by 15%.

What is the new gain with feedback?

Operational Amplifiers
We can make certain assumptions about the gain equation –
A
Gain 
1  A B
if A is large then A  B1 and the gain becomes:
A 1
Gain   i.e. independent of A
A B B

Therefore we may wish to look for an amplifier with a

very large gain.

Operational Amplifiers
 Input Impedance (Resistance)
Signal Va is the voltage that
Source appears on the input of
Zin the amplifier and will be
Rs amplified. Rs is the
Vs Va
source resistance and
cannot be altered.
Vs  Zin
Note Va does not equal Vs Va 
Rs  Zin
How can we make Va  Vs?
Zin should be as large as possible so that Zin  Rs  Zin
If this is so then Va  Vs
Therefore we may wish to look for an amplifier with a
very large input impedance.
 Output Impedance (Resistance)

Zout VLOAD is the voltage that

appears on the output of the
Va RLOAD amplifier. RLOAD is the load
VLOAD resistance and cannot be
altered.

Note VLOAD does not equal Va  RLOAD

VLOAD 
Va (the input amplified) RLOAD  Zout

How can we make Vload  Va?

Zout should be as small as possible so that Zout  RLOAD  RLOAD
If this is so then VLOAD  Va
Therefore we may wish to look for an amplifier with a
very small output impedance.
 Bandwidth
Bandwidth :- the range of frequencies over which the
amplifiers gain remains constant.
If we wish to amplify a
complex periodic waveform
Gain such as a square wave then
Bandwidth Fourier Analysis tells us
that the wave is made up
of a large number of
sinusoidal waves of
different frequencies.
Frequency

e.g. A 5 kHz square wave will be made up of a wave at

5 kHz, another at 15 kHz another at 25 kHz, 35 kHz
etc. Operational Amplifiers
 Very soon the harmonics as they are called reach
high frequency values and unless the bandwidth
is large we will start to deform the waveform.
The plot below is of the 5 kHz square wave with
only the fundamental and first 3 harmonics.
5 kHz Square Wave

10
8
6
4
voltage

2
0
-2 time
-4
-6
-8
-10

Therefore we may wish to look for an amplifier with a

very large bandwidth. Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers
These are amplifiers with the following special
characteristics.
NOTE they are theoretical tools.
Gain infinite.
Input Resistance infinite
Output Resistance zero
Bandwidth infinite

In practice with modern I.C. technology we can end up

with values for the parameters that are close to the
ideal:
Gain > 106.
Input Resistance > 1012 
Output Resistance zero < 10 
Bandwidth > 106 Hz
Operational Amplifiers
The form that the amplifier can take will depend
upon the nature of the input and output
connections. Input and
outputs can be either DIFFERENTIAL or SINGLE
ENDED.

Input

SINGLE ENDED DIFFERENTIAL

Output

SINGLE ENDED DIFFERENTIAL

Operational Amplifiers
The most common configuration is
Differential Input, Single Ended
Output +

NOTES
 Power supply connections are not normally shown but
usually take the form of +Vs, 0v and -Vs, e.g. +12V, 0V,
-12V.
 The positive + terminal is the non-inverting input. A signal
on this input will not be phase shifted when amplified.
 The negative - terminal is the inverting input. A signal on
this input will be phase shifted by 180 when amplified.
Operational Amplifiers
 Typical I.C.
construction. 0.3”
Offset null No connection
Inverting input Positive Supply

Non-inverting input Output

Negative Supply Offset null

Offset Null

The input to an Op-Amp is differential and in practice

this means that there are two parallel input stages. The
output from these stages are then subtracted then
further amplified. The gains of these two stages can be
balanced using the offset null adjustment. See over the
page: Operational Amplifiers
 taken to
+ 7 zero and the
3
6 potentiomete
5
2 - 4 r is adjusted
1 to give zero
output.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER

If Rf
Iin
Vin -
Ia Vout
Rin Va
+
We can generate the
following equations:

Vin  Va Va  Vout Iin  Ia  If

Iin  If 
Rin Rf

Combining Vin  Va Va  Vout This is true for

 Ia 
these gives us: Rin Rf any amplifier.
 But this is an op-amp and therefore we can make
certain assumptions…
1. Va = 0. This is because the gain is very large
and therefore Va will be very small.
2. Ia = 0. This is because the input impedance is
very large and therefore Ia will be very small.
We can therefore rewrite the equation:

Vin  Vout Vout  Rf

 or Gain  
Rin Rf Vin Rin
The minus sign indicates that this is an inverting amplifier.

This set up is called a Virtual Earth Amplifier as the

amplifier input terminal (-) is at earth potential as the +
input is at earth. Operational Amplifiers
Note
The gain is determined purely by the ratio of two resistors.
This often means that we will not be able to directly
calculate resistor values. We may need to select one and
calculate the other.
The value of resistors used around op-amp circuits tend to
be no lower than
1 k and no bigger than 10 M.
Design an amplifier that has a variable gain from -10 to -50.
(use a 100K variable resistor)

Operational Amplifiers
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Vin +
Vout
I
- The current I flows
R1 through both
Vf
resistors as no
current flows into the
R2
op-amp (assumption 2)

I
Vout Vout  R2
R1  R2 from which Vf  VR2  I  R2 
R1  R2

But Vf = Vin as the difference in input voltages is zero

(assumption 1), so Operational Amplifiers
 Vout R2  Vout  R1  R2  1  R1
Vin  or Gain
R1  R2 Vin R2 R2

Design an amplifier that has a variable gain from 15 to

30. (use a 100K variable resistor)

Operational Amplifiers
UNITY BUFFER

Vin +
Vout

In the circuit Vout = Vin

– what is the purpose of this circuit?

Operational Amplifiers
SUMMING AMPLIFIER (Inverting)

I1
V1 R1 I Rf
V2 I2 R2
f
-
I3 Vout
V3 R3 Va
+
This is a virtual earth amplifier.

V1 V2 V3  Vout
I1 I2  I3  and If 
R1 R2 R3 Rf

Using Kirchhoff we can say:

 If  I1  I 2  I3  Vout V1 V 2 V 3
  
Rf R1 R2 R3

 Rf
If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin Vout  V1 V 2  V 3
Rin
If Rin = Rf Vout  V1 V 2  V 3

Notes:
2. If an input is negative it will be subtracted
3. Weighting can be applied to inputs by altering the
value of the input resistance – if R1 was half the value
of the other input resistors we would have:

Vout  2 V1  V 2  V 3

Operational Amplifiers
SUMMING AMPLIFIER (Non-inverting)

V1 R
V2 R V’ +

R Vout
V3
- R1

The output of the R2

amplifier will be:


Vout  1 
R1 
 V ' What does V’ equal?
 R2 
– Use superposition theory
Operational Amplifiers
 R
V1 V’ V1 R
V ' 2 
V1
R R R  R2 3

The same is true for the other inputs so we can say:

 V1 V 2  V 3
V1 V 2 V 3 1
V '   if the gain is
3 3 3 3 set to 3 then:
Vout  V1  V 2  V 3 What would we get if –
V1 resistor = R
V2 resistor = 2R
Operational Amplifiers
V3 resistor = 3R?
SUBTRACTOR (DIFFERENCE) AMPLIFIER

R2
I
V2 -
R1 Vout

V1 +
R1
To determine the output we
R2
will use Superposition.
V1 input only V2 = 0

We have a non inverting amplifier with a gain of:

R2 R1  R2
Gain  1  
R1 R1
The voltage appearing on the + input V+ is
equal to:
R2
V  V1
R1  R2
The output is therefore input times gain:
R1  R2 R2 R2
Vout   V1  V1
R1 R1  R2 R1
V2 input only V1 = 0

The V+ input will be at 0v and the amplifier will act as an

inverting amplifier.
 R2 The output will  R2
Gain  Vout   V2
R1 therefore be: R1
Operational Amplifiers
Combining these gives us the overall output equation:
R2 R2 R2
Vout  V1  V 2   V1 V 2
R1 R1 R1

This circuit will take the difference between two inputs

and amplify it by a factor R2/R1.

This circuit has two limitations:

•To alter the gain we need to simultaneously vary two
resistors e.g. both values of R2.
•The input resistance to the amplifier is not very large
 R1+R2.

To overcome these limitations we use an Instrumentation

Amplifier shown on the next slide:
V2 +
Vb

-
Rb R
-
R Vout
Ra
+
R We know that:
Rb R
- Vout  Va  Vb
I
Va
+
V1 We must now relate V1 and V2
to Va and Vb.
We can write the following equation for I
Va  V1 V1  V 2 V 2  Vb
I  
Rb Ra Rb
Va  V1 V1  V 2 V1  V 2 V 2  Vb
 
Rb Ra Ra Rb

Va 
Rb
V1 V 2  V1  Vb 
Rb
V1 V 2  V 2
Ra Ra

Adding Va  Vb  2
Rb
V1  V 2  V1  V 2
Ra

Vout   Ra  1 V1 V 2

2Rb
This gives us:

2Rb
The gain equals  1 and can be controlled by a single
resistor Ra. Ra
The input impedance of the amplifier is very large as it is
the actual input impedance of the op-amp.

Use of differential amplifiers.

The diagram below shows a sensor whose voltage output is
transmitted along a transmission path to an amplifier.
Vsig +
Vnoise Vout
A
Vsig Noise
Vnoise
The amplifiers output will be A  Vsig  Vnoise

Of which AVsig AVnoise

Desired Undesired
Often Vnoise will be relatively large and may swamp the
actual signal.

How can this be overcome?

Use a differential amplifier (subtractor).
Twisted Vsig +
pair Vnoise
Vsig Vout
A

Noise Vnoise
Vnoise

The twisted pair ensures that each transmission path

experiences the same noise and the same quantity of
noise. Operational Amplifiers
The amplifier output is the difference in the input times
the gain.
Vout  A  Vsig  Vnoise  Vnoise

This is Vout  A Vsig (desired)

In theory we have the ability to remove any signal which

appears on both inputs – i.e. a common input or a common
mode input.

In practice an amplifier will amplify a common mode

input and so a differential amplifier with inputs V1 and
V2 will have an output given by:

Operational Amplifiers
 V1  V 2 
Vout  Ad  V1 V 2  Ac   
 2 
Differential gain
 Common mode gain
Average input
Differential input
 The measure of an amplifier to reject common mode
inputs is:
 the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Ad
and is given by: CMRR 
Ac
CMRR  20  log
Ad 
normally expressed in dB 
 Ac 
The larger the CMRR the better the amplifier.
Ideal op-amp CMRR value is infinity
Example.
An amplifier has a differential gain of 500 and a CMRR of
85 dB. A signal from a thermocouple has the value of
7.25mV and during transmission picks up 0.5V noise. What
will be the output of the amplifier?

Operational Amplifiers
Slew Rate.
If the input to an amplifier changes rapidly then the
output needs to do the same. In practice the rate at
which the output can change is limited by the quality of
the amplifier (linked to its bandwidth).

The measure of the maximum rate of change is called the

slew rate and is measured in volts per microsecond V/s.

An inexpensive op-amp (741) has a value of 0.5 V/s.

Consider the effects on the output of an amplifier when

the input is a square wave of various frequencies.
The amplifier output should be switching between 0V and
10V.
Operational Amplifiers
 10

50 100 150 200 250 Time

(s)

The input is at 10 kHz – it has a period of 100 s (50 s

on 50 s off)

The output takes 20 s to rise and 20 s to fall giving

rise to the output shown.
There is some distortion but the signal is still
recognisable.
Let us increase the
frequency.
10

Time
50 100 150 200 250
(s)

The input is at 25 kHz – it has a period of 40 s (20 s

on 20 s off)

The output is distorted enough to make the square wave

output appear to be a triangular wave.
Let us increase the
frequency further.
10

250 Time
50 100 150 200
(s)

The input is at 50 kHz – it has a period of 20 s (10 s on

10 s off)

It can be seen that above a certain frequency the

distortion to the waveform is excessive. The only way of
overcoming this is to use an op-amp with a larger slew
rate.
A 351 op-amp has a slew rate of 35V/s and this would
mean that instead of taking 20s to rise from 0 to 10V
with the 741, it would take only 0.29s.

The larger the Slew Rate the better the amplifier.

Ideal op-amp Slew Rate value is infinite

Operational Amplifiers