UNIT - I NETWORKING CONCEPTS

Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network

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In the world of network architecture, two fundamental models are widely utilized to structure data exchange and
resource sharing. For the purpose of this discussion, two types of networks are available; the Client-Server
Network and the Peer-to-Peer Network. All the models have their strengths, weaknesses, and appropriate
applications that make them suitable for use. An understanding of these differences will assist in choosing
suitable approaches for different networking requirements.
What is a Client-Server Network?
This model are broadly used network model. In the Client-Server Network, Clients and servers are
differentiated, and Specific servers and clients are present. In Client-Server Network, a Centralized server is
used to store the data because its management is centralized. In Client-Server Network, the Server responds to
the services which is requested by the Client.

What is Peer-to-Peer Network?

This model does not differentiate the clients and the servers, In this each and every node is itself client and
server. In Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node can do both request and respond for the services.
 Peer-to-peer networks are often created by collections of 12 or fewer machines. All of these computers use
unique security to keep their data, but they also share data with every other node.
 In peer-to-peer networks, the nodes both consume and produce resources. Therefore, as the number of
nodes grows, so does the peer-to-peer network’s capability for resource sharing. This is distinct from client-
server networks where an increase in nodes causes the server to become overloaded.
 It is challenging to give nodes in peer-to-peer networks proper security because they function as both clients
and servers. A denial of service attack may result from this.
 The majority of contemporary operating systems, including Windows and Mac OS, come with software to
implement peer
 Difference Between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network
Client-Server Network Peer-to-Peer Network

In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not
differentiated, Specific server and clients are present. differentiated.

Client-Server Network focuses on information

While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on connectivity.
sharing.

In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is used While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its
to store the data. own data.

In Client-Server Network, Server respond the While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node
services which is request by Client. can do both request and respond for the services.

Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer-to-Peer While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
Network. Client-Server Network.

Client-Server Network are more stable than Peer-to- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if number
Peer Network. of peer is increase.

Client-Server Network is used for both small and While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for
large networks. small networks with fewer than 10 computers.

Conclusion
While Client-Server network has inherent merits which make it suitable for specific conditions, so too has
the Peer-to-Peer network. The Client-Server model can be useful where there is the need to have centralized
management and is more scalable than the Peer-to-Peer model which is suitable for scenarios where there is
decentralization and direct sharing of the resources. Such a distinction might help in choosing the right type of a
network model depending on the particular need and demand.

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and

Brouter)
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Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact
with each other. Network devices like hubs, repeaters, bridges, switches, routers, gateways, and brouters help
manage and direct data flow in a network. They ensure efficient communication between connected devices by
controlling data transfer, boosting signals, and linking different networks. Each device serves a specific role,
from simple data forwarding to complex routing between networks. In this article, we are going to discuss
different types of network devices in detail.

Types of Network Devices

Functions of Network Devices

 Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
 Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and securely.
 Network devices Improve network speed and manage data flow better.
 It protect the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
 Expand the network range and solve signal problems.
Common Types of Networking Devices and Their Uses
Network devices work as a mediator between two devices for transmission of data, and thus play a very
important role in the functioning of a computer network. Below are some common network devices used in
modern networks:
 Access Point
 Modems
 Firewalls
 Repeater
 Hub
 Bridge
 Switch
 Routers
 Gateway
 Brouter
 NIC
Access Point
An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like smartphones and laptops, to connect
to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless devices communicate with the internet or other
devices on the network. Access points are used to extend the range of a network or provide Wi-Fi in areas that
do not have it. They are commonly found in homes, offices, and public places to provide wireless internet
access.
Modems
Modems is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to convert digital
signal into analog signal of different frequencies and transmits these signal to a modem at the receiving location.
These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable systems, telephone lines, and other communication
mediums. A modem is also used to convert analog signal back into digital signal. Modems are generally used to
access internet by customers of an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Types of Modems
There are four main types of modems:
 DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is slower compared to other types.
 Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than DSL.
 Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on nearby Wi-Fi signals.
 Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular network not Wi-Fi or fixed
cables.
Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data between your computer or
network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking unauthorized access while allowing trusted data to pass
through. Firewalls help protect your network from hackers, viruses, and other online threats by filtering traffic
based on security rules. Firewalls can be physical devices (hardware), programs (software), or even cloud-based
services, which can be offered as SaaS, through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.
Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its
star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to
all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one.
Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.
Types of Hub
 Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the signal
along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the
maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the active hub.
These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend
the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They also
provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content
by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol. It typically connects multiple network segments and each port is connected to
different segment. The exact number of ports depends on the type of bridge and design, but it usually has at least
two ports for basic functionality.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s
existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source station and the
frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special frame called the
discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large number of ports
imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking
before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward
good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of
hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
 Types of Switch
 Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not offer advanced
configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion to a larger network.
 Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs, QoS, and link
aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized management.
 Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically easier to set
up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
 Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are responsible for
forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can route data
between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used in
larger, more complex networks.
 PoE Switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to supply power
to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than traditional
Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack and are suitable for
use in data centers or other large networks.
 Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office environment and
are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
 Modular Switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy expansion or
customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.
Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a
Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing
table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains
of hosts connected through it.
Gateway
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon different
networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it
to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways
are generally more complex than switches or routers.
Brouter
It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and router. It can work
either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across
networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.
NIC
NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the network. It is
installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector
to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC
card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and data link layers of the network
model.
Conclusion
In conclusion, different types of network devices play essential roles in keeping a network running smoothly
and securely. Devices like routers, switches, modems, and access points help connect devices, manage data
traffic, and ensure efficient communication. Firewalls add a layer of security, while other tools extend the
network’s reach or make it easier to manage. Each device has a specific function, but together they create a
reliable and secure network environment for both personal and business use.
Introduction to basic Networking Terminology
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For a specific purpose if things are connected together, are referred to as a NETWORK. A network can be of
many types, like a telephone network, television network, computer network, or even a people network.
Similarly, a COMPUTER NETWORK is also a kind of setup, where it connects two or more devices to share
a range of services and information in the form of e-mails and
messages, databases, documents, websites, audios and videos, telephone calls, and video conferences, etc.
among them.
A PROTOCOL is nothing but a set of defined rules, which has to be followed by every connected device
across a network to communicate and share information among them. To facilitates End to
End communication, a number of protocols worked together to form Protocol Suites or Stacks.

Networking terminology can be confusing, especially for those who are new to computer networking.
Here are some basic terms and their definitions to help you understand the fundamentals of networking:

Network: A collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, printers, and servers, that can
communicate with each other.
Node: Any device connected to a network, such as a computer, printer, or router.
Protocol: A set of rules and standards that define how devices on a network communicate with each other.
IP Address: A unique numerical identifier assigned to each device on a network, used to identify and
communicate with other devices.
Router: A networking device that connects multiple networks together and forwards data packets between
them.
Switch: A networking device that connects devices on a network and forwards data packets between them.
Firewall: A security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic,
based on a set of predefined security rules.
DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates domain names (such as [Link]) into IP
addresses, allowing devices to locate and connect to websites and other network resources.
LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects devices within a limited geographical area, such as a
home, office, or building.
WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that connects devices over a large geographical area, such as multiple
offices in different cities or countries.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses and
network configuration settings to devices on a network.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of protocols used to communicate over the
internet and other networks.
These are just a few basic networking terms, but understanding them is essential to building a strong foundation
in computer networking.
Some basic Protocols are:
 IP : Internet Protocol
 FTP : File Transfer Protocol
 SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
The Network reference models were developed to allow products from different manufacturers to interoperate
on a network. A network reference model serves as a blueprint, detailing standards for how protocol
communication should occur.
The most widely recognized reference models are the Open Systems Interconnect ( OSI ) Model
and Department of Defense ( DoD, also known as TCP/IP ) model.

 LANs (Local Area Networks)

 MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)
 WANs (Wide Area Networks)
An Internetwork is a general term describing multiple networks connected together. The Internet is the largest
and most well-known internetwork.

 SAN (Storage Area Network): A SAN provides systems with high-speed, lossless access to high-capacity
storage devices.
 VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN allows for information to be securely sent across a public or
unsecured network, such as the Internet. Common uses of a VPN are to connect branch offices or remote
users to the main office.

 A host can act as a Client when he is requesting information.

 A host can act as a Server when he provides information.
 A host can also request and provide information, which is called Peer.
What is Speed?
 Every family, student, and company needs the internet nowadays. Almost everyone is looking forward to
having access to what is known as high-speed internet. This is due to the fact that high-speed cable, satellite,
and wireless connections may all be used to transport data. They can manage numerous internet activities at
the same time, such as gaming, streaming, downloading, and many more.
The speed at which data or information flows from the World Wide Web to your home computer, tablet, or
smartphone is referred to as Internet speed. It is measured in megabits per second (Mb/s) or megabits per
second (Mbps), with 1 megabit equaling 1,024 kilobits. There are three types of internet speed testing. The
download speed, upload speed, and latency are the three factors. Each of these groups serves a distinct
purpose and performs a different function.
Advantages of High Speed
 Quick Loading Times: The need for higher speed is that; websites, videos, and even online applications
take lesser time to load as they have to use less bandwidth.
 Better Online Gaming: Hen fast speeds are used there is less delay or lag in the game and thus making
the game even more enjoyable.
 Efficient Video Conferencing: Faster internet connection leads to a much better experience in terms of
the frequency and duration of disruptions during an ongoing video call.
Disadvantages of High Speed
 Depends on Bandwidth: Also, even if the speed is high, but the bandwidth is low, then even browsing
can be displeasing.
 Susceptible to Throttling: There are cases where the ISPs limit some internet speed during some hours
of the day hence water down the gains of having a high internet speed.

What is Throughput?
Throughput is the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted over a network or channel within a
specific period. Also known as the effective data rate or payload rate, it reflects the real-world performance
of the network.
Advantages of Throughput
 Realistic Measurement: Provides a practical measure of how much data is being transmitted, taking into
account network conditions and overheads.
 Performance Evaluation: Useful for assessing the actual performance and efficiency of the network.
Disadvantages of Throughput
 Variable Rates: Can vary due to network congestion, errors, and other factors, making it less consistent.
 Affected by Latency: Throughput is influenced by latency, which can impact the rate of data transfer.

Delays in Computer Network

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The delays, here, means the time for which the processing of a particular packet takes place. We have the
following types of delays in computer networks:
1. Transmission Delay:
The time taken to transmit a packet from the host to the transmission medium is called Transmission delay.

For example, if bandwidth is 1 bps (every second 1 bit can be transmitted onto the transmission medium) and
data size is 20 bits then what is the transmission delay? If in one second, 1 bit can be transmitted. To transmit 20
bits, 20 seconds would be required.
Let B bps is the bandwidth and L bit is the size of the data then transmission delay is,
Tt = L/B
This delay depends upon the following factors:
 If there are multiple active sessions, the delay will become significant.
 Increasing bandwidth decreases transmission delay.
 MAC protocol largely influences the delay if the link is shared among multiple devices.
 Sending and receiving a packet involves a context switch in the operating system, which takes a finite time.
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2. Propagation delay:
After the packet is transmitted to the transmission medium, it has to go through the medium to reach the
destination. Hence the time taken by the last bit of the packet to reach the destination is called propagation
delay.

Factors affecting propagation delay:

1. Distance – It takes more time to reach the destination if the distance of the medium is longer.
2. Velocity – If the velocity(speed) of the medium is higher, the packet will be received faster.
Tp = Distance / Velocity
Note:
Velocity =3 X 10^8 m/s (for air)
Velocity= 2.1 X 10^8 m/s (for optical fibre)
3. Queueing delay:
Let the packet is received by the destination, the packet will not be processed by the destination immediately. It
has to wait in a queue in something called a buffer. So the amount of time it waits in queue before being
processed is called queueing delay.
In general, we can’t calculate queueing delay because we don’t have any formula for that.
This delay depends upon the following factors:
 If the size of the queue is large, the queuing delay will be huge. If the queue is empty there will be less or
no delay.
 If more packets are arriving in a short or no time interval, queuing delay will be large.
 The less the number of servers/links, the greater is the queuing delay.
4. Processing delay:
Now the packet will be taken for the processing which is called processing delay.
Time is taken to process the data packet by the processor that is the time required by intermediate routers to
decide where to forward the packet, update TTL, perform header checksum calculations.
It also doesn’t have any formula since it depends upon the speed of the processor and the speed of the processor
varies from computer to computer.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is
now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just
above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the
OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing
the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another
node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2) Data-Link Layer
 o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer

o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that
is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame
contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique through
which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that
the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving
station, with lower processing speed.
 o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is
sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for
the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then
the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a given
time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services
within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of
protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a

logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path
out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer
 o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are
sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between
source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes,
and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer
but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to
transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it
divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and they
all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented
service, all the packets travel in the single route.
 o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed end-
to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the
destination without any error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes or
we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or
full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If
some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
 o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings,
numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles
the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-
dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of
bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide that
global information about various objects.

What are Frames?

 A frame is a type of digital data transmission unit utilized in networking and telecommunications. A frame is
a straightforward container for a single network packet in packet-switching systems. A frame is a repetitive
structure in other telecommunications that allows for time-division multiplexing.

Frame synchronization is a component of most frames, and it is made up of a series of bits or symbols that
signal the beginning and end of the payload data inside the stream of symbols or bits received by the receiver.
When a frame is transmitted, a receiver connected to the system ignores the information until it notices a fresh
frame synchronization sequence.

What are Packets?

A packet is any small data block transmitted via a packet-switching network. The term packet comes from
character-oriented protocols in which unique start-of-frame and end-of-frame characters are inserted while
transferring packets.

A packet is a protocol data unit utilized in the network layer. The major role of the network layer is to deliver
packets from one logical address to another. A packet is a single unit of data exchanged between two network
devices. The router employs IP packet headers to transport packets from source to destination via the network.

Main Differences between the Frames and Packets

Here, you will learn the main differences between Frames and Packets. Some main differences between
Frames and Packets are as follows:

1. A frame is a type of data unit that is utilized in the data link layer. In contrast, a packet is a protocol
data unit utilized in the network layer.
2. The source and destination MAC addresses are included in the framing. In contrast, the source and
destination IP addresses are included in the packetization process.
3. Frames are created in the OSI's data link layer. On the other hand, packets are created in the network
layer.
4. In the network layer, a packet encapsulates a segment. On the other hand, Frames encapsulate
packets in the data link layer.

Head-to-head comparison between the Frames and Packets

A frame is a type of data unit

A packet is a protocol data unit utilized in the network
Definition that is utilized in the data link
layer.
layer.

It has the source and

Includes It has the source and destination IP address.
destination MAC address.
 Associated OSI Frames are created in the
The packets are created in the network layer.
layer OSI's data link layer.

It is encapsulated within a
Correlation It is encapsulated within a frame.
packet.

Layer It is associated with Layer 2. It is associated with Layer 3.

Addressing It has physical addressing. It has logical addressing.

Conclusion

Frames and packets are protocol data units that are used at various OSI layers. First, a segment of data that
typically includes the transport header and data is moved from the transport layer to the network layer.
Segments are categorized into packets that include the segment at the network layer and an IP header with the
source and destination IP addresses. Finally, the packets are contained in frames. After transmitting the created
frame, the data link prepends its header with the source and destination MAC addresses.

Collision Domain and Broadcast Domain in Computer Network

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The most common network devices used are routers and switches. But we still hear people talking about hubs,
repeaters, and bridges. Do you ever wonder why these former devices are preferred over the latter ones? One
reason could be: ‘because they are more efficient and powerful’. But what actually is the reason behind their
efficiency? This is when terms like “Collision Domains” and “Broadcast Domains” come into the picture.
Before going further, let us recall that a hub is a multiple-port repeater. Similarly, a switch is a multiple-port
bridge so that you can understand why repeaters and bridges are not typically used in production
networks(because of less number of ports).
Now, narrowing it down to Hubs, Switches and Routers, let us discuss them in reference to the below domains.
1. Collision Domain –
A Collision Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a message to the network, all other
devices which are included in its collision domain have to pay attention to it, no matter if it was destined for
them or not. This causes a problem because, in a situation where two devices send out their messages
simultaneously, a collision will occur leading them to wait and re-transmit their respective messages, one at
a time. Remember, it happens only in the case of a half-duplex mode.
2. Broadcast Domain –
A Broadcast Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a broadcast message, all the devices
present in its broadcast domain have to pay attention to it. This creates a lot of congestion in the network,
commonly called LAN congestion, which affects the bandwidth of the users present in that network.
From this, we can realize that the more the number of collision domains and the more the number of
broadcast domains, the more efficient is the network providing better bandwidth to all its users.
So, which of our network devices break collision domains, and which of them break broadcast domains?
 HUB –
We start with a hub because we should get rid of it as soon as possible. The reason being, it neither breaks a
 collision domain nor a broadcast domain,i.e a hub is neither a collision domain separator nor a broadcast
domain separator. All the devices connected to a hub are in a single collision and single broadcast domain.
Remember, hubs do not segment a network, they just connect network segments.
 SWITCH –
Coming to switches, we have an advantage over the hub. Every port on a switch is in a different collision
domain, i.e a switch is a collision domain separator. So messages that come from devices connected to
different ports never experience a collision. This helps us during designing networks but there is still a
problem with switches. They never break broadcast domains, which means it is not a broadcast domain
separator. All the ports on the switch are still in a single broadcast domain. If a device sends a broadcast
message, it will still cause congestion.
 ROUTER –
Last, but not least, we have our savior. A router not only breaks collision domains but also breaks broadcast
domains, which means it is both collisions as well as broadcast domain separators. A router creates a
connection between two networks. A broadcast message from one network will never reach the other one as
the router will never let it pass.

Also, as repeaters and bridges differ from hubs and switches only in terms of the number of ports, a repeater
does not break collision and broadcast domains, while a bridge breaks only collision domains.

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of Collision Domain and Broadcast Domain in
Computer Network:

Advantages of Collision Domain:

High Network Performance: Collision Domain helps to improve network performance by reducing collisions
on the network, which can improve data transmission and reduce packet loss.
Efficient Use of Network Resources: Collision Domain enables efficient use of network resources, such as
bandwidth, by reducing the number of collisions and avoiding wastage of network resources.
Better Network Security: Collision Domain can help to improve network security by reducing the risk of
unauthorized access and network attacks, which can occur due to network congestion.
Disadvantages of Collision Domain:
Limited Scalability: Collision Domain may not be scalable in larger networks, as the number of devices
connected to the network increases, which can lead to network congestion and performance degradation.
Complex Network Management: Collision Domain can be complex to manage, requiring the use of protocols
such as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), which can be difficult to
configure and maintain.
Advantages of Broadcast Domain:
Efficient Network Communication: Broadcast Domain enables efficient network communication by allowing
multiple devices to receive the same message simultaneously.
Simplified Network Management: Broadcast Domain can simplify network management by allowing
administrators to manage network devices and policies more easily.
Improved Collaboration: Broadcast Domain can improve collaboration by enabling real-time communication
and collaboration among network users.
Disadvantages of Broadcast Domain:
Increased Network Congestion: Broadcast Domain can lead to increased network congestion, particularly in
larger networks, which can impact network performance and lead to packet loss.
Reduced Network Security: Broadcast Domain can reduce network security by increasing the risk of
unauthorized access and network attacks, particularly in environments with a large number of devices.

Difference Between LAN and WAN

A computer network is undoubtedly the backbone of most of the organizations in this technological era. LAN
and WAN are the two most popular types of computer networks. However, there are a few differences. In this
article, we are discussing the major differences between LAN and WAN. Let's first understand both with the
definitions:

LAN (Local Area Network)

A LAN is a group of computers and other network devices attached within a limited area like a house, a
building, an office, an entire campus, etc. It is a widely used network of devices and can be set up in a limited
geographical area without investing a huge cost like other networks. In most cases, LAN is used to form a
network to share resources like printers, scanners, or files like audio, video, movies, software, games, etc. The
simplest kind of LAN example is a connection formed between a computer and a printer within a house.
Typically, it is a medium that helps transfer data across devices in a limited range area.

Advantages:

Few advantages of using a LAN are listed below:

o Data can be transferred from one device to another networked device without any issue.
o Data can be stored centrally in a single storage disk of the server computer. It will be a lot easier to
secure the data in a single disk than all the separate disks. This also helps in data management.
o LANs allow administrators to share a single internet connection across all the other connected devices.
o Instead of purchasing any paid software for each system, users from different systems can use the same
software from the server's main computer over the network.
Computer peripherals like hard-disk, Optical Disk Drive, and printer can share local area networks that will
reduce the hardware purchases' overall costs. Using LAN, multiple computers can use the same printer or other
connected devices.
WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN is an essential computer network that extends over a large geographical area. It can cover distances
between states or countries. WAN is comparatively much larger than LAN or MAN (Metropolitan Area
Network) and relatively more expensive. Because of its cost and complex setup, WANs are not usually owned
by one organization. Wide area networks are established using several LANs attached by telephone lines or
radio waves. Typically, these types of networks are organized using high-end telecommunication circuits. The
Internet, a kind of public network, is an example of the largest wide area network.

Advantages:

Few advantages of using a WAN are listed below:

o WAN enables users to establish a connection over a large geographical area. This is helpful for the
organizations having offices at a large distance. They can communicate with other offices easily.
o The data is organized in a centralized manner. It helps users to access or manage the data easily. This is
helpful when using emails, files, or backup servers. Users don't have to pay for these resources for each
office or branch separately.
o WAN allows users to communicate over the instant messaging system. Applications like Whatsapp,
Telegram, and Skype, have made it easier for people to connect with their friends or family.
o Using WAN, companies work on the live server. Thus, the developers and programmers have instant
access to the updated files within seconds. This helps in increasing productivity.
o Due to a public network, people can organize their business over the Internet globally.
Key Differences between LAN and WAN

Few key differences between LAN and WAN are listed below:

o LAN is a computer network established within a small geographic area, such as a house, office or
buildings. WAN, on the other side, is a computer network that covers a broad geographical area.
o LANs allow users to transfer the data faster, whereas WANs have a comparatively slower data transfer
rate.
o LAN has a higher speed, whereas WAN has a slower speed.
o Designing, setup and maintenance in LANs are relatively easy while designing, setup, maintenance is
difficult in WANs.
o Fault tolerance is high in LANs, whereas WANs have less fault tolerance.

Major Differences between LAN and WAN

The other major differences between a local area network and a wide area network can be explained in a
tabulated form, as below:

The complete form of LAN is 'Local Area The complete form of WAN is the 'Wide
Complete Form
Network'. Area Network'.

WAN is an arrangement of several

devices attached over a network
LAN is a group of devices connected in a covering a broad area. A network having
Definition small geographic area, such as houses, communication links crossing the
offices, or buildings. regional, metropolitan, or national
boundaries over a large distance is an
example of WAN.

Geographical Area LAN covers a small geographical area, WAN covers a large distance
 geographical area that usually crosses
and it does not require any leased
regional or metropolitan boundaries and
telecommunication lines.
requires leased telecommunication lines.

LAN provides a comparatively higher WAN has a slower speed as compared to

Speed
speed. LAN.

LAN provides a high data transfer rate WAN provides a relatively slower data
Data Transfer Rate
than WAN. It can reach up to 1000 Mbps. transfer rate. It can reach up to 150mbps.

In WANs, the propagation delay is

Propagation Delay In LANs, the propagation delay is short.
comparatively long.

LAN is owned, managed, and used by an WAN can be either private or public.
Ownership individual or an organization. Therefore, it The Internet is the best example of
is a private network. public WAN.

WAN has relatively higher congestion as

Congestion LAN has low congestion than WAN. compared to LAN.

WAN has a lower fault tolerance as

Fault Tolerance LAN has higher fault tolerance.
compared to LAN.

LANs tend to use some particular WANs tend to use Frame Relay, MPLS,
Technologies connectivity technologies, mainly Ethernet and ATM along with X.25 for
and Token Ring. connectivity over larger distances.

LANs can be attached over any distance In WAN, the devices are connected
using telephone lines and radio waves. through public networks, such as the
Connection
Typically, co-axial or UTP cable is used as telephone system. They can also be
the transmission medium. connected via leased lined or satellites.

The main components of WAN include

The main components of LAN include Layer 3 devices (e.g., Routers, Multi-
Components Layer 1 devices (e.g., hubs, repeaters) and layer switches) and technology-specific
Layer 2 devices (e.g., switches, bridges). devices (e.g., AM, Frame-relay
switches).

LAN offers high bandwidth for the WAN offers low bandwidth for the
Bandwidth
transmission. transmission.

Designing and maintenance of LANs are Designing and maintenance of WAN are
Maintenance
easy. complex.

It operates on the principle of point-to-

Core Principle It works on the principle of broadcasting.
point.

Since LAN covers a small area, it can be The setup for WAN is high because of
Cost
set up very cheaply. its wider geographical area.

When it comes to WAN, the setup of

additional devices will cost high because
If there is a requirement to connect more
networks in remote areas must be
Scalability devices in a LAN, it can be easily done. It
connected. Besides, WANs using public
will not cost much.
networks are easy to set up and are not
expensive.
 What is Network Hub and How it Works?

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Hub in networking plays a vital role in data transmission and broadcasting. A hub is a hardware device used at
the physical layer to connect multiple devices in the network. Hubs are widely used to connect LANs. A hub has
multiple ports. Unlike a switch, a hub cannot filter the data, i.e. it cannot identify the destination of the packet,
So it broadcasts or sends the message to each port.
What is HUB?
A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to
all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through hub remains
one. Hub does not have any routing table to store the data of ports and map destination addresses., the routing
table is used to send/broadcast information across all the ports.
How Does a Network Hub Work?
A hub is a multiport device, which has multiple ports in a device and shares the data to multiple ports altogether.
A hub acts as a dumb switch that does not know, which data needs to be forwarded where so it broadcasts or
sends the data to each port.
Types of Network Hubs
Networks hubs are classified into three types:
1. Active Hub: They have a power supply for regenerating, and amplifying the signals. When a port sends
weak signalled data, the hub regenerates the signal and strengthens it, then send it further to all other ports.
Active hubs are expensive in costs as compared to passive hubs.
2. Passive Hub: Passive hubs are simply used to connect signals from different network cables as they do not
have any computerised element. They simply connect the wires of different devices in the star topology.
Passive hubs do not do any processing or signal regeneration and that’s why do not require electricity the
most they can do is they can copy or repeat the signal. It can’t clean the message, and it can’t amplify or
strengthen the signal.
3. Intelligent Hub: Intelligent hubs as the name suggests are smarter than active and passive hubs. The
intelligent hub comprises a special monitoring unit named a Management Information Base (MIB). This is
software that helps in analysing and troubleshooting network problems. Intelligent hubs work similarly to
active hubs but with some management features. Like it can monitor the traffic of the network and the
configuration of a port.
Features of Hubs
Hubs are the hardware device that operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.
 It supports half-duplex transmission
 It works with shared bandwidth and broadcasting.
 The hub can provide a high data transmission rate to different devices.
 It can detect collisions in the network and send the jamming signal to each port.
 Hub does not support Virtual LAN(VLAN) and spanning tree protocol.
 It is unable to filter the data and hence transmit or broadcast it to each port.
 It cannot find the best route/ shortest path to send any data, which makes it an inefficient device.
Difference Between Network Hub And Switch
Hub Switch

It works on the physical layer of the OSI model. It works on the data link layer of the OSI model.

It performs frame flooding, which includes broadcast, It mainly performs broadcasts and performs
multicast and unicast as well. multicast, and unicast whenever required.
Hub Switch

The transmission mode is half-duplex. The transmission mode is full-duplex.

It can filter data and send the frame to the desired

It cannot perform data filtering.
destination.

A switch may contain more than one spanning

There is no spanning tree.
tree possible.

It can not store the MAC address of the ports and the It can store the data in a routing table and it helps
destination address of the frame that arrived. in further sending the data.

It is a passive device. It is an active device.

The switch can operate at a speed of 10-100Mbps

Hub can operate at a speed of 10Mbps.
and 1- 10 Gbps.

Does a Network Hub Affect Speed?

Because network hubs are unable to prioritise data between devices, they can have an effect on a network’s
speed. As a result, when numerous devices are in use at once, the total network speed is decreased because all
connected devices share the same bandwidth. Communication delays are further slowed down by the fact that
data must be provided to all linked devices even if only one of them requires it. A network hub rather than a
switch may be advantageous for particular applications, such as gaming or streaming, even though it’s not the
best option for contemporary networks.
Does Network Hub Have an IP Address?
Network hubs generally do not have an IP address, as they are designed to be transparent and forward
information between connected devices on the same network. This means that any device can send data through
a hub without communicating directly with the hub itself. Additionally, a hub is typically unaware of the IP
addresses of the devices it connects, making assigning an address unnecessary.
Advantages of Network Hubs
 It is less expensive.
 It does not impact network performance.
 Hub support different network media.
Disadvantages of Network Hubs
 It cannot find the best/ shortest path of the network.
 No mechanism for traffic detection.
 No mechanism for data filtration.
 Not capable of connecting to different network topologies like token ring, ethernet, etc.

What is a Router?

The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to receive, analyze, and forward data
packets between computer networks. A router examines a destination IP address of a given data packet, and it
uses the headers and forwarding tables to decide the best way to transfer the packets. There are some popular
companies that develop routers; such are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc. Some important
points of routers are given below:

o A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network) environments. For
example, it is used in offices for connectivity, and you can also establish the connection between
distant networks such as from Bhopal to
 o It shares information with other routers in networking.
o It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
o Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like switches and hubs.

A router works on the third layer of the OSI model, and it is based on the IP address of a computer. It uses
protocols such as ICMP to communicate between two or more networks. It is also known as an intelligent
device as it can calculate the best route to pass the network packets from source to the destination
automatically.

A virtual router is a software function or software-based framework that performs the same functions as a
physical router. It may be used to increase the reliability of the network by virtual router redundancy protocol,
which is done by configuring a virtual router as a default gateway. A virtual router runs on commodity servers,
and it is packaged with alone or other network functions, like load balancing, firewall packet filtering, and wide
area network optimization capabilities.

Why Routers?

A router is more capable as compared to other network devices, such as a hub, switch, etc., as these devices are
only able to execute the basic functions of the network. For example, a hub is a basic networking device that is
mainly used to forward the data between connected devices, but it cannot analyze or change anything with the
transferring data. On the other hand, the router has the capability to analyze and modify the data while
transferring it over a network, and it can send it to another network. For example, generally, routers allow
sharing a single network connection between multiple devices.

How does Router work?

A router analyzes a destination IP address of a given packet header and compares it with the routing table to
decide the packet's next path. The list of routing tables provides directions to transfer the data to a particular
network destination. They have a set of rules that compute the best path to forward the data to the given IP
address.

Routers use a modem such as a cable, fiber, or DSL modem to allow communication between other devices and
the internet. Most of the routers have several ports to connect different devices to the internet at the same time.
It uses the routing tables to determine where to send data and from where the traffic is coming.
A routing table mainly defines the default path used by the router. So, it may fail to find the best way to forward
the data for a given packet. For example, the office router along a single default path instructs all networks to its
internet services provider.

There are two types of tables in the router that are static and dynamic. The static routing tables are configured
manually, and the dynamic routing tables are updated automatically by dynamic routers based on network
activity.

Features of Router

o A router works on the 3rd layer (Network Layer) of the OSI model, and it is able to communicate with
its adjacent devices with the help of IP addresses and subnet.
o A router provides high-speed internet connectivity with the different types of ports like gigabit, fast-
Ethernet, and STM link port.
o It allows the users to configure the port as per their requirements in the network.
o Routers' main components are central processing unit (CPU), flash memory, RAM, Non-Volatile
RAM, console, network, and interface card.
o Routers are capable of routing the traffic in a large networking system by considering the sub-network
as an intact network.
o Routers filter out the unwanted interference, as well as carry out the data encapsulation and
decapsulation process.
o Routers provide the redundancy as it always works in master and slave mode.
o It allows the users to connect several LAN and WAN.
o Furthermore, a router creates various paths to forward the data.

Applications of Routers

There are various areas where a router is used:

o Routers are used to connect hardware equipment with remote location networks like BSC, MGW, IN,
SGSN, and other servers.
o It provides support for a fast rate of data transmission because it uses high STM links for connectivity;
that's why it is used in both wired or wireless communication.
o Internet service providers widely use routers to send the data from source to destination in the form of
e-mail, a web page, image, voice, or a video file. Furthermore, it can send data all over the world with
the help of an IP address of the destination.
o Routers offer access restrictions. It can be configured in a way that allows for few users to access the
overall data and allows others to access the few data only, which is defined for them.
o Routers are also used by software testers for WAN communications. For example, the software
manager of an organization is located in Agra, and its executive is located at a different place like Pune
or Bangalore. Then the router provides the executive the method to share his software tools and other
 applications with the manager with the help of routers by connecting their PCs to the router using
WAN architecture.
o In wireless networks, by configuring VPN in routers, it can be used in the client-server model, which
allows sharing the internet, video, data, voice, and hardware resources. As shown in the below picture:

o In modern times, routers have the facility of inbuilt USB ports within the hardware. They have enough
internal storage capacity. External storage devices can be used with routers to store and share data.
o Routers are used to set up the operation and maintenance center of an organization, which is known as
the NOC center. All equipment at a distant location are connected by routers on optical cable at a
central location, which also offer redundancy through the main link and protection link topology.

Types of Routers

There are various types of routers in networking; such are given below:

1. Wireless Router: Wireless routers are used to offer Wi-Fi connectivity to laptops, smartphones, and other
devices with Wi-Fi network capabilities, and it can also provide standard ethernet routing for a small number of
wired network systems.

Wireless routers are capable of generating a wireless signal in your home or office, and it allows the computers
to connect with routers within a range, and use the internet. If the connection is indoors, the range of the
wireless router is about 150 feet, and when the connection is outdoors, then its range is up to 300 feet.

Furthermore, you can make more secure wireless routers with a password or get your IP address. Thereafter,
you can log in to your router by using a user ID and password that will come with your router.

2. Brouter: A brouter is a combination of the bridge and a router. It allows transferring the data between
networks like a bridge. And like a router, it can also route the data within a network to the individual systems.
Thus, it combines these two functions of bridge and router by routing some incoming data to the correct systems
while transferring the other data to another network.

3. Core router: A core router is a type of router that can route the data within a network, but it is not able to
route the data between the networks. It is a computer communication system device and the backbone of
networks, as it helps to link all network devices. It is used by internet service providers (ISPs), and it also
provides various types of fast and powerful data communication interfaces.

4. Edge router: An edge router is a lower-capacity device that is placed at the boundary of a network. It allows
an internal network to connect with the external networks. It is also called as an access router. It uses an
External BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to provides connectivity with remote networks over the internet.

There are two types of edge routers in networking:

o Subscriber edge router

 o Label edge router
The subscriber edge router belongs to an end-user organization, and it works in a situation where it acts on a
border device.

The label edge router is used in the boundary of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) networks. It acts as a
gateway between the LAN, WAN, or the internet.

5. Broadband routers: Broadband routers are mainly used to provide high-speed internet access to computers.
It is needed when you connect to the internet through phone and use voice over IP technology (VOIP).

All broadband routers have the option of three or four Ethernet ports for connecting the laptop and desktop
systems. A broadband router is configured and provided by the internet service provider (ISP). It is also known
as a broadband modem, asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), or digital subscriber line (DSL) modem.

Benefits of Router

There are so many benefits of a router, which are given below:

o Security: Router provides the security, as LANs work in broadcast mode. The information is
transmitted over the network and traverses the entire cable system. Although the data is available to
each station, but the station which is specifically addressed reads the data.
o Performance enhancement: It enhances the performance within the individual network. For example,
if a network has 14 workstations, and all generate approximately the same volume of traffic. The traffic
of 14 workstations runs through the same cable in a single network. But if the network is divided into
two sub-networks each with 7 workstations, then a load of traffic is reduced to half. As each of the
networks has its own servers and hard disk, so fewer PCs will need the network cabling system.
o Reliability: Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down when the server has stopped, or there
is a defect in the cable, then the router services, and other networks will not be affected. The routers
separate the affected network, whereas the unaffected networks remain connected, without interrupting
the work and any data loss.
o Networking Range: In networking, a cable is used to connect the devices, but its length cannot exceed
1000 meters. A router can overcome this limitation by performing the function of a repeater
(Regenerating the signals). The physical range can be as per the requirement of a particular installation,
as long as a router is installed before the maximum cable range exceeds.

Routing Protocols

Routing protocols specify a way for the router to identify other routers on the network and make dynamic
decisions to send all network messages. There are several protocols, which are given below:

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): It is used to calculate the best route for the given packets to reach the
destination, as they move via a set of connected networks. It is identified by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) as Interior Gateway Protocol.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): It helps manage how packets are routed on the internet via exchange of
information between edge routers. It provides network stability for routers if one internet connection goes down
while forwarding the packets, it can adapt another network connection quickly to send the packets.

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP): It specifies how routing information will be exchanged between
gateways within an independent network. Then, the other network protocols can use the routing information to
determine how transmissions should be routed.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): In this protocol, if a router is unable to find a path
to a destination from the tables, it asks route to its neighbors, and they pass the query to their neighbors until a
router has found the path. When the entry of routing table changes in one of the routers, it informs its neighbors
only about the changes, but do not send the entire table.
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): It decides how routing information can be exchanged between two
neighbor gateway hosts, each of which has its own router. Additionally, it is commonly used to exchange
routing table information between hosts on the internet.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP): It determines how routers can share information while transferring
traffic among connected group of local area networks. The maximum number of hops that can be allowed for
RIP is 15, which restricts the size of networks that RIP can support.

Difference between Bridge and Router

Bridge Router

A bridge is a networking device that is used

A router is also a networking device that
to connect two local area networks (LANs)
sends the data from one network to another
by using media access control addresses
network with the help of their IP addresses.
and transmit the data between them.

A bridge is able to connect only two A router is capable of connecting the LAN
different LAN segments. and WAN.

A bridge transfers the data in the form of A router transfers the data in the form of
frames. packets.

It sends data based on the MAC address of It sends data based on the IP address of a
a device. device.

The bridge has only one port to connect the The router has several ports to connect the
device. devices.

The bridge does not use any table to The router uses a routing table to send the
forward the data. data.

Difference between Hub, Switch, and Router

There are three primarily networking devices that connect the computers from one to another. These devices are
hub, switch, and router. These all have the ability to connect one computer to another, but there is some
difference between them. The difference between a hub, switch, and router are given below:

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that is used to connect computers or other networking devices
together. A hub does not use any routing table to send the data to the destination. Although it can identify basic
errors of networks like collisions, it can be a security risk to broadcast all information to the multiple ports. As
the hub is a dumb device, it does not need an IP address. Furthermore, Hubs are cheaper than a switch or router.

Switch: A switch is a hardware device that also connects computers to each other. A switch is different as
compared to a hub in that way; it handles packets of data. Whenever a switch receives a packet, it decides the
device to which the packet can be sent, and sends it to that device only. A hub broadcasts the packet to all
computers, but the switch does not circulate the packet to all devices, which means bandwidth is not shared with
the network, and thus it increases the efficiency of the network. That's why switches are more preferred as
compared to a hub.

Router: A router is more different from a switch or hub. It is mainly used to route the data packets to another
network instead of transmitting the data to the local networks only. A router is commonly found in homes and
offices as it allows your network to communicate with other networks through the internet. Basically, a router
provides more features to your networks like firewall, VPN, QoS, traffic monitoring, etc.

What is a Firewall?

A firewall can be defined as a special type of network security device or a software program that monitors and
filters incoming and outgoing network traffic based on a defined set of security rules. It acts as a barrier between
internal private networks and external sources (such as the public Internet).

The primary purpose of a firewall is to allow non-threatening traffic and prevent malicious or unwanted data
traffic for protecting the computer from viruses and attacks. A firewall is a cybersecurity tool that filters
network traffic and helps users block malicious software from accessing the Internet in infected computers.

Firewall: Hardware or Software

This is one of the most problematic questions whether a firewall is a hardware or software. As stated above, a
firewall can be a network security device or a software program on a computer. This means that the firewall
comes at both levels, i.e., hardware and software, though it's best to have both.

Each format (a firewall implemented as hardware or software) has different functionality but the same purpose.
A hardware firewall is a physical device that attaches between a computer network and a gateway. For example,
a broadband router. On the other hand, a software firewall is a simple program installed on a computer that
works through port numbers and other installed software.

Apart from that, there are cloud-based firewalls. They are commonly referred to as FaaS (firewall as a service).
A primary advantage of using cloud-based firewalls is that they can be managed centrally. Like hardware
firewalls, cloud-based firewalls are best known for providing perimeter security.

Why Firewall

Firewalls are primarily used to prevent malware and network-based attacks. Additionally, they can help in
blocking application-layer attacks. These firewalls act as a gatekeeper or a barrier. They monitor every attempt
between our computer and another network. They do not allow data packets to be transferred through them
unless the data is coming or going from a user-specified trusted source.
Firewalls are designed in such a way that they can react quickly to detect and counter-attacks throughout the
network. They can work with rules configured to protect the network and perform quick assessments to find any
suspicious activity. In short, we can point to the firewall as a traffic controller.

Some of the important risks of not having a firewall are:

Open Access

If a computer is running without a firewall, it is giving open access to other networks. This means that it is
accepting every kind of connection that comes through someone. In this case, it is not possible to detect threats
or attacks coming through our network. Without a firewall, we make our devices vulnerable to malicious users
and other unwanted sources.

Lost or Comprised Data

Without a firewall, we are leaving our devices accessible to everyone. This means that anyone can access our
device and have complete control over it, including the network. In this case, cybercriminals can easily delete
our data or use our personal information for their benefit.

Network Crashes

In the absence of a firewall, anyone could access our network and shut it down. It may lead us to invest our
valuable time and money to get our network working again.

Therefore, it is essential to use firewalls and keep our network, computer, and data safe and secure from
unwanted sources.

Brief History of Firewall

Firewalls have been the first and most reliable component of defense in network security for over 30 years.
Firewalls first came into existence in the late 1980s. They were initially designed as packet filters. These packet
filters were nothing but a setup of networks between computers. The primary function of these packet filtering
firewalls was to check for packets or bytes transferred between different computers.

Firewalls have become more advanced due to continuous development, although such packet filtering firewalls
are still in use in legacy systems.

As the technology emerged, Gil Shwed from Check Point Technologies introduced the first stateful inspection
firewall in 1993. It was named as FireWall-1. Back in 2000, Netscreen came up with its purpose-built
firewall 'Appliance'. It gained popularity and fast adoption within enterprises because of increased internet
speed, less latency, and high throughput at a lower cost.

The turn of the century saw a new approach to firewall implementation during the mid-2010. The 'Next-
Generation Firewalls' were introduced by the Palo Alto Networks. These firewalls came up with a variety of
built-in functions and capabilities, such as Hybrid Cloud Support, Network Threat Prevention, Application and
Identity-Based Control, and Scalable Performance, etc. Firewalls are still getting new features as part of
continuous development. They are considered the first line of defense when it comes to network security.

How does a firewall work?

A firewall system analyzes network traffic based on pre-defined rules. It then filters the traffic and prevents any
such traffic coming from unreliable or suspicious sources. It only allows incoming traffic that is configured to
accept.

Typically, firewalls intercept network traffic at a computer's entry point, known as a port. Firewalls perform this
task by allowing or blocking specific data packets (units of communication transferred over a digital network)
based on pre-defined security rules. Incoming traffic is allowed only through trusted IP addresses, or sources.
Functions of Firewall

As stated above, the firewall works as a gatekeeper. It analyzes every attempt coming to gain access to our
operating system and prevents traffic from unwanted or non-recognized sources.

Since the firewall acts as a barrier or filter between the computer system and other networks (i.e., the public
Internet), we can consider it as a traffic controller. Therefore, a firewall's primary function is to secure our
network and information by controlling network traffic, preventing unwanted incoming network traffic, and
validating access by assessing network traffic for malicious things such as hackers and malware.

Generally, most operating systems (for example - Windows OS) and security software come with built-in
firewall support. Therefore, it is a good idea to ensure that those options are turned on. Additionally, we can
configure the security settings of the system to be automatically updated whenever available.

Firewalls have become so powerful, and include a variety of functions and capabilities with built-in features:

o Network Threat Prevention

o Application and Identity-Based Control
o Hybrid Cloud Support
o Scalable Performance
o Network Traffic Management and Control
o Access Validation
o Record and Report on Events

Limitations of Firewall

When it comes to network security, firewalls are considered the first line of defense. But the question is whether
these firewalls are strong enough to make our devices safe from cyber-attacks. The answer may be "no". The
best practice is to use a firewall system when using the Internet. However, it is important to use other defense
systems to help protect the network and data stored on the computer. Because cyber threats are continually
evolving, a firewall should not be the only consideration for protecting the home network.

The importance of using firewalls as a security system is obvious; however, firewalls have some limitations:

o Firewalls cannot stop users from accessing malicious websites, making it vulnerable to internal threats
or attacks.
o Firewalls cannot protect against the transfer of virus-infected files or software.
o Firewalls cannot prevent misuse of passwords.
o Firewalls cannot protect if security rules are misconfigured.
o Firewalls cannot protect against non-technical security risks, such as social engineering.
 o Firewalls cannot stop or prevent attackers with modems from dialing in to or out of the internal
network.
o Firewalls cannot secure the system which is already infected.
Therefore, it is recommended to keep all Internet-enabled devices updated. This includes the latest operating
systems, web browsers, applications, and other security software (such as anti-virus). Besides, the security of
wireless routers should be another practice. The process of protecting a router may include options such as
repeatedly changing the router's name and password, reviewing security settings, and creating a guest network
for visitors.

Types of Firewall

Depending on their structure and functionality, there are different types of firewalls. The following is a list of
some common types of firewalls:

o Proxy Firewall
o Packet-filtering firewalls
o Stateful Multi-layer Inspection (SMLI) Firewall
o Unified threat management (UTM) firewall
o Next-generation firewall (NGFW)
o Network address translation (NAT) firewalls

Difference between a Firewall and Anti-virus

Firewalls and anti-viruses are systems to protect devices from viruses and other types of Trojans, but there are
significant differences between them. Based on the vulnerabilities, the main differences between firewalls and
anti-viruses are tabulated below:

Attributes Firewall Anti-virus

Anti-virus is defined as the special type of

A firewall is defined as the system software that acts as a cyber-security
which analyzes and filters incoming or mechanism. The primary function of Anti-
Definition
outgoing data packets based on pre- virus is to monitor, detect, and remove any
defined rules. apprehensive or distrustful file or software
from the device.

Firewalls can be hardware and

software both. The router is an Anti-virus can only be used as software.
Structure example of a physical firewall, and a Anti-virus is a program that is installed on
simple firewall program on the system the device, just like the other programs.
is an example of a software firewall.

Because Anti-virus comes in the form of

Because firewalls come in the form of software, therefore, Anti-virus can be
Implementation hardware and software, a firewall can implemented only at the software level.
be implemented either way. There is no possibility of implementing
Anti-virus at the hardware level.

Responsibility A firewall is usually defined as a Anti-viruses are primarily responsible for

network controlling system. It means detecting and removing viruses from
 that firewalls are primarily responsible computer systems or other devices. These
for monitoring and filtering network viruses can be in the form of infected files
traffic. or software.

Anti-viruses are generally considered less-

Because the firewall supports both
scalable than firewalls. This is because anti-
types of implementations, hardware,
Scalability virus can only be implemented at the
and software, therefore, it is more
software level. They don't support
scalable than anti-virus.
hardware-level implementation.

Anti-virus is mainly used to scan, find, and

A firewall is mainly used to prevent
remove viruses, malware, and Trojans,
network related attacks. It mainly
which can harm system files and software
Threats includes external network threats?for
and share personal information (such as
example- Routing attacks and IP
login credentials, credit card details, etc.)
Spoofing.
with hackers.

What is an IP Address?





Imagine every device on the internet as a house. For you to send a letter to a friend living in one of these houses,
you need their home address. In the digital world, this home address is what we call an IP (Internet Protocol)
Address. It’s a unique string of numbers separated by periods (IPv4) or colons (IPv6) that identifies each device
connected to the internet or a local network.
An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique string of numbers assigned to each device connected to
a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It serves as an identifier that allows
devices to send and receive data over the network, ensuring that this data reaches the correct destination.
Types of IP Address
IP addresses can be classified in several ways based on their structure, purpose, and the type of network they are
used in. Here’s a breakdown of the different classifications of IP addresses:
1. Based on Addressing Scheme (IPv4 vs. IPv6)
IPv4:
This is the most common form of IP Address. It consists of four sets of numbers separated by dots. For example,
[Link]. Each set of numbers can range from 0 to 255. This format can support over 4 billion unique
addresses. Here’s how the structure is broken down:
 Four Octets: Each octet represents eight bits, or a byte, and can take a value from 0 to 255. This range is
derived from the possible combinations of eight bits (2^8 = 256 combinations).
 Example of IPv4 Address: [Link]
o 192 is the first octet
o 168 is the second octet
o 1 is the third octet
o 1 is the fourth octet
Each part of the IP address can indicate various aspects of the network configuration, from the network itself to
the specific device within that network. In most cases, the network part of the address is represented by the first
one to three octets, while the remaining section identifies the host (device).
 IPv4 Address Format

IPv6:
IPv6 addresses were created to deal with the shortage of IPv4 addresses. They use 128 bits instead of 32,
offering a vastly greater number of possible addresses. These addresses are expressed as eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits. The groups are separated by colons.
 Example of IPv6 Address: [Link]
o Each group (like 2001, 0db8, 85a3, etc.) represents a 16-bit block of the address.
2. Based on Usage (Public vs. Private)
Public IP Addresses
A Public IP address is assigned to every device that directly accesses the internet. This address is unique across
the entire internet. Here are the key characteristics and uses of public IP addresses:
 Uniqueness: Each public IP address is globally unique. No two devices on the internet can have the same
public IP address at the same time.
 Accessibility: Devices with a public IP address can be accessed directly from anywhere on the internet,
assuming no firewall or security settings block the access.
 Assigned by ISPs: Public IP addresses are assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs). When you
connect to the internet through an ISP, your device or router receives a public IP address.
 Types: Public IP addresses can be static (permanently assigned to a device) or dynamic (temporarily
assigned and can change over time).
Example Use: Public IP addresses are typically used for servers hosting websites, email servers, or any device
that needs to be accessible from the internet. For instance, if you host a website on your own server at home,
your ISP must assign a public IP address to your server so users around the world can access your site.
Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses are used within private networks (such as home networks, office networks, etc.) and are not
routable on the internet. This means that devices with private IP addresses cannot directly communicate with
devices on the internet without a translating mechanism like a router performing Network Address Translation
(NAT). Key features include:
 Not globally unique: Private IP addresses are only required to be unique within their own network.
Different private networks can use the same range of IP addresses without conflict.
 Local communication: These addresses are used for communication between devices within the same
network. They cannot be used to communicate directly with devices on the internet.
 Defined ranges: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has reserved specific IP address ranges
for private use:
o IPv4: [Link] to [Link], [Link] to [Link], [Link] to
[Link]
o IPv6: Addresses starting with FD or FC
 Example Use: In a typical home network, the router assigns private
IP addresses to each device (like smartphones, laptops, smart TVs)
from the reserved ranges. These devices use their private IPs to
communicate with each other and with the router. The router uses
 NAT to allow these devices to access the internet using its public IP
address.

3. Based on Assignment Method (Static vs. Dynamic)

Static IP Addresses:
 These are permanently assigned to a device, typically important for servers or devices that need a constant
address.
 Reliable for network services that require regular access such as websites, remote management.
Dynamic IP Addresses:
 Temporarily assigned from a pool of available addresses by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
 Cost-effective and efficient for providers, perfect for consumer devices that do not require permanent
addresses.
How Do IP Addresses Work?
Here’s how IP addresses work:
1. Unique Identification
Every device connected to a network, such as computers, smartphones, and servers, is assigned an IP address.
This address is used to identify the device on the network, similar to how a home address identifies a specific
location.
2. Communication Protocol
The Internet Protocol (IP), part of the broader suite of internet protocols, uses these addresses to facilitate the
routing of data packets between devices. Each piece of data sent over a network is broken into smaller units
called packets. Each packet includes both the sender’s and the recipient’s IP addresses.
3. Data Routing
When a device sends information to another device over the internet:
 The data is divided into packets.
 Each packet contains the IP address of the device it is destined for.
 Routers within the network read the destination IP address on each packet and determine the best path for
the packet to travel. Routers communicate with each other to update and maintain records of the fastest,
most efficient routes for data.
4. Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 LAN: On local networks, IP addresses can be assigned manually by an administrator (static IP) or
automatically by a DHCP server. Devices within the same network communicate directly using their local
IP addresses.
 WAN: For devices on different networks, the data must travel through multiple routers across the internet.
Each router makes independent decisions about the best route for the packets based on the destination IP
address.
5. Network Address Translation (NAT)
Most devices on a home or small business network share a single public IP address when accessing the internet,
even though each device has its own private IP address within the local network. NAT is a process where
multiple local IP addresses are mapped to a single public IP address. This conserves IP addresses and adds a
layer of security by hiding internal IP addresses from the external network.