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Unit 1Chapter 1

Review of

E
Two line
number
heading PL
concepts
M
SA

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:

• identify and classify different types of numbers
• find common factors and common multiples of numbers
• write numbers as products of their prime factors
• work with integers used in real-life situations
• calculate with powers and roots of numbers
• understand the meaning of indices
• use the rules of indices
• revise the basic rules for operating with numbers
• perform basic calculations using mental methods and with a calculator
• round numbers in different ways to estimate and approximate answers.

1
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GETTING STARTED KEY WORDS

1 A lot of the work in this chapter is revision. Look through the chapter to base
see what is covered.
composite number
a Are there any parts of this chapter that you could confidently skip?
Explain why. cube
b If you only had to do three topics in this chapter, which would you cube root
choose? Why?
exponent
2 Look at this completed  8 1
a b c
2
cross-number puzzle. d e f factor
2 3 8 6 4 0 9 6
a Write a set of clues for the index

E
g

puzzle. Each clue should 7 0 4 1 1

h i j k l
include at least one of the 9 9 3 2 4 4 7 index notation
concepts from this chapter. 4 0 0 integer
m n o
b Find the sum of the three 3 6 2 7 2 7
p q irrational number
greatest numbers. 1 2 8 3 0

3
Write the answer in words.

PL
Write each of the following using only
numbers and brackets if needed.
a nine cubed
b twelve squared
c seven to the power of five
u
0
0
6 0 2

d the reciprocal of three to the power of two

v

5
r

e the reciprocal of three-quarters to the power of zero

f nine to the power of half
g fourteen billion, ten thousand and nineteen
s
2 4 7
9
3
t
0
1 0 0
multiple
power
prime factor
prime number
rational number
reciprocal
square number
square root
M
4 Look at this  Problem involving
decision diagram calculation
for problems
involving
calculation. Is an approximate Do you need an
answer good exact answer?
enough?
SA

Use mental Use a Use a written

strategies calculator method

Estimate the
solution.

a Give an example of a problem where an approximate answer is

good enough.
b How do you decide which method to use when an exact answer
is needed?
c Estimates are useful for all of the methods in this decision tree.
How could you convince someone that it is important to estimate
even if you can use a calculator?

2
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1 Review of number concepts

The statue shown in the photograph is a replica of a 22 000-year-old bone found in the
Congo Basin. The real bone is only 10 cm long and it is carved with groups of notches
that represent numbers. One column lists the prime numbers from 10 to 20. It is one
of the earliest examples of a number system using tallies. What do you think ancient
civilisations used tallies for?
Our modern number system is called the Hindu-Arabic system because it was
developed by Hindus and spread by Arab traders who brought it with them when
they moved to different places in the world. The Hindu-Arabic system is decimal.
This means it uses place value based on powers of ten. Any number at all, including
decimals and fractions, can be written using place value and the digits from 0 to 9.

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1.1 Different types of numbers
Make sure you know the correct mathematical words for the types of numbers in
the table.

Number
Natural
number

Odd number

Even number

Integer
Definition

PL
Any whole number from 1 to infinity,
sometimes called ‘counting numbers’.
0 is not included.
A whole number that cannot be divided
exactly by 2.
A whole number that can be divided
exactly by 2.
Any of the negative and positive whole
numbers, including zero.
Example
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

1, 3, 5, 7, …

2, 4, 6, 8, …

… −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

M
Prime number A whole number greater than 1 which 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, …
has only two factors: the number itself
and 1.
Square The product obtained when an integer 1, 4, 9, 16, … TIP
number is multiplied by itself.
Fraction A number representing part of a whole 1 __
__ 1 __
1 __ 13
1 ___ ‘Find the product’
a ​​   ​​, ​​   ​​, ​​   ​​, ​​   ​​, ​​   ​​ means ‘multiply’.
SA

number, written in the form __

​​   ​​, where a 2 4 3 8 3
b So, the product of
and b are non-zero integers. 3 and 4 is 12,
Decimal A number that used place value and a 0.5, 0.2, 0.08, 1.7 i.e. 3 × 4 = 12.
decimal point to show a fraction.

The set of real numbers is made up of rational numbers and irrational numbers.
a
Rational numbers can be written as fractions in the form ​​ __ ​​ where a and b are non-zero MATHEMATICAL
b
integers. The set of rational numbers includes all integers, all fractions, all terminating CONNECTIONS
decimals and all recurring decimals.
You will deal with
Irrational numbers cannot be written as fractions. The set of irrational numbers rational and irrational
consists of non-terminating,
_ non-recurring decimals. The square root_of a non-square numbers in more
3
number (such as √​​ 2 ​​), the cube root of a non-cube number (such as ​​√ 12 ​​) and p are all detail in Chapter 9.
irrational numbers.

3
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LINK
_
Some numbers, for example √​​ − 1 ​​and other roots of negative numbers, are
not real numbers. They are neither rational nor irrational. Mathematicians call
these imaginary numbers and you may learn about them if you study maths
beyond Cambridge IGCSE.

Exercise 1.1
1
1 Here is a set of numbers: {−4, −1, 0, ​​ __ ​​, 0.75, 3, 4, 6, 11, 16, 19, 25} MATHEMATICAL
2

E
List the numbers from this set that are: CONNECTIONS
a natural numbers b even numbers c odd numbers You will learn much
d integers e negative integers f fractions more about sets in
g square numbers h prime numbers i neither square nor prime. Chapter 9. For now,
just think of a set as
2

3
List:
a the next four odd numbers after 107

d the first five square numbers PL

b four consecutive even numbers between 2008 and 2030
c all odd numbers between 993 and 1007

e four decimal fractions that are smaller than 0.5

f

State whether the following will be odd or even.

1
four common fractions that are greater than ​​ __ ​​ but smaller than __
2
3
​​   ​​.
4
a list of numbers or
other items that are
often placed inside
curly brackets.

TIP
M
a the sum of two odd numbers
b the sum of two even numbers Remember that a
‘sum’ is the result of
c the sum of an odd and an even number an addition. The term
d the square of an odd number is often used for any
e the square of an even number calculation in early
f an odd number multiplied by an even number mathematics, but
SA

its meaning is very

specific at this level.
INVESTIGATION

4 There are many other types of numbers. Find out what these numbers are TIP
and give an example of each.
a Perfect numbers Being able to
communicate
b Palindromic numbers
information
c Narcissistic numbers (in other words, numbers that love themselves!) effectively is a key
21st-century skill. As
you work, think about
what you are being
asked to do in this
task and how best to
present your answers.

4
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1 Review of number concepts

Using symbols to link numbers

Mathematicians use numbers and symbols to write mathematical information in the
shortest, clearest way possible.

Exercise 1.2
1 Rewrite each of these statements using mathematical symbols.
a 19 is less than 45
b 12 plus 18 is equal to 30

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1 TIP
c 0.5 is equal to ​​ __ ​​
2
0.8 is not equal to 8.0 Remember:
d
= is equal to
e −34 is less than 2 times −16
≠ is not equal to
f therefore the number x equals the square root of 72
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
PL
a number (x) is less than or equal to negative 45
p is approximately equal to 3.14
5.1 is greater than 5.01
the sum of 3 and 4 is not equal to the product of 3 and 4
the difference between 12 and −12 is greater than 12
the sum of −12 and −24 is less than 0
the product of 12 and a number (x) is approximately −40
, is less than
< is less than or

__
equal to
. is greater than
> is greater than or
equal to
∴ therefore
​​√ the positive
square root of
M
2 Say whether these mathematical statements are true or false.
a 0.599 > 6.0 b 5 × 1999 is approximately equal to 10 000
1
c 8.1 = 8​​ ___ ​​ d 6.2 + 4.3 = 4.3 + 6.2
10
e 20 × 9 > 21 × 8 f 6.0 = 6
SA

g −12 . −4 h 19.9 < 20

_
i 1000 . 199 × 5 j ​​√ 16 ​= 4​
k 35 × 5 × 2 ≠ 350 l 20 ÷ 4 = 5 ÷ 20
m 20 − 4 ≠ 4 − 20 n 20 × 4 ≠ 4 × 20

INVESTIGATION

3 Work with a partner.

a Look at the symbols used on the keys of your calculator. Say what
each one means in words.
b List any symbols that you do not know. Try to find out what each
one means.

5
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1.2 Multiples and factors

Multiples
A multiple of a number is found when you multiply that number by a positive integer.
You can think of the multiples of a number as the ‘times table’ for that number.
For example, the multiples of 3 are 3 × 1 = 3, 3 × 2 = 6, 3 × 3 = 9 and so on.
The first multiple of any number is the number itself.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

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a What are the first three multiples of 12?
b Is 300 a multiple of 12?
Answers
a 12, 24, 36 Multiply 12 by 1, 2 and then 3.



b

Yes, 300 is a multiple
of 12.

Exercise 1.3
PL
12 × 1 = 12
12 × 2 = 24
12 × 3 = 36
Divide 300 by 12. If it goes exactly, then 300 is
a multiple of 12.
300 ÷ 12 = 25
M
1 List the first five multiples of:
a 12 b 3 c 5 d 8
e 9 f 10 g 12 h 100
2 Use a calculator to find and list the first ten multiples of:
a 29 b 44 c 75 d 114
SA

e 299 f 350 g 1012 h 9123

3 List:
a the multiples of 4 between 29 and 53
b the multiples of 50 less than 400
c the multiples of 100 between 4000 and 5000.
4 Here are five numbers: 576, 396, 354, 792, 1164. Which of these are multiples of 12?
5 Which of the following numbers are not multiples of 27?

324  783  816  837  1116

The lowest common multiple (LCM)

The lowest common multiple of two or more numbers is the smallest number that is a
multiple of all the given numbers.

6
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1 Review of number concepts

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Find the lowest common multiple of 4 and 7.
Answer
M4 = 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 List several multiples of 4.
TIP
M7 = 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42 List several multiples of 7. M4 means the
LCM = 28 Find the lowest number that appears multiples of 4.
in both sets. This is the LCM.

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MATHEMATICAL
Exercise 1.4 CONNECTIONS
1 Find the lowest common multiple of: Later in this chapter
a 2 and 5 b 8 and 10 c 6 and 4 you will see how
d 3 and 9 e 35 and 55 f 6 and 11 prime factors can be

Factors
Give a reason for your answer.

PL
Is it possible to find the highest common multiple of two or more numbers?

A factor is a number that divides exactly into another number with no remainder.
For example, 2 is a factor of 16 because it goes into 16 exactly 8 times. 1 is a factor of
every number. The largest factor of any number is the number itself.
used to find LCMs.
M
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
a 12 b 25 c 110
Answers
a F12 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 Find pairs of numbers that multiply
to give 12: TIP
SA

1 × 12 F12 means the factors

2×6 of 12.
3×4

b F25 = 1, 5, 25 Write the factors in numerical order.

1 × 25
5×5
Do not repeat the 5.

c F110 = 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110 1 × 110

2 × 55
5 × 22
10 × 11

7
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Exercise 1.5
1 List all the factors of:
a 4 b 5 c 8 d 11 e 18
f 12 g 35 h 40 i 57 j 90
k 100 l 132 m 160 n 153 o 360

2 Which number in each set is not a factor of the given number?

a 14   {1, 2, 4, 7, 14} b 15   {1, 3, 5, 15, 45}
c 21   {1, 3, 7, 14, 21} d 33   {1, 3, 11, 22, 33}
e 42   {3, 6, 7, 8, 14}

E
3 State true or false in each case.
a 3 is a factor of 313 b 9 is a factor of 99
c 3 is a factor of 300 d 2 is a factor of 300
e 2 is a factor of 122 488 f 12 is a factor of 60

4
g 210 is a factor of 210

PL h 8 is a factor of 420

What is the smallest factor and the largest factor of any number?

The highest common factor (HCF)

The highest common factor of two or more numbers is the highest number that is a
factor of all the given numbers.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
M
Find the highest common factor of 8 and 24.
Answer
F8 = 1, 2, 4, 8 List the factors of each number.
F24 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 Underline factors that appear in both sets.
HCF = 8 Pick out the highest underlined factor (HCF).
SA

Exercise 1.6
1 Find the highest common factor of each pair of numbers.
a 3 and 6 b 24 and 16 c 15 and 40 d 42 and 70
e 32 and 36 f 26 and 36 g 22 and 44 h 42 and 48

2 Not including the factor provided, find two numbers less than 20 that have: MATHEMATICAL
a an HCF of 2 b an HCF of 6 CONNECTIONS
3 What is the highest common factor of two different prime numbers? You will learn how
Give a reason for your answer. to find HCFs using
prime factors later in
the chapter.

8
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1 Review of number concepts

APPLY YOUR SKILLS TIP

4 Simeon has two lengths of rope. One piece is 72 metres long and the Recognising the type
other is 90 metres long. He wants to cut both lengths of rope into the of problem helps
longest pieces of equal length possible. How long will the pieces be? you to choose the
correct mathematical
5 Ms Sanchez has 40 canvases and 100 tubes of paint to give to the
techniques for solving
students in her art group. What is the largest number of students she
it.
can have if she gives each student an equal number of canvasses and an
equal number of tubes of paint? Word problems
involving HCF usually
6 A jeweller has 300 blue beads, 750 red beads and 900 silver beads, which
involve splitting
are used to make bracelets. Each bracelet must have the same number

E
things into smaller
and colour of beads. What is the maximum number of bracelets that can
pieces or arranging
be made with these beads?
things in equal
groups or rows.

1.3 Prime numbers

PL
Prime numbers have exactly two different factors: one and the number itself.
Composite numbers have more than two factors.
The number 1 has only one factor so it is not prime and it is not composite.

MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
Later in this chapter you will learn how to write integers as products of prime
factors. One of the reasons why it is important for 1 to NOT be defined is
M
prime is to make sure that the prime factorisation of any number is unique.

Finding prime numbers

Over 2000 years ago, a Greek mathematician called Eratosthenes made a simple tool
for sorting out prime numbers. This tool is called the ‘Sieve of Eratosthenes’ and the
diagram shows how it works for prime numbers up to 100.
SA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cross out 1, it is not prime.

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Circle 2, then cross out other

multiples of 2.
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Circle 3, then cross out other
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 multiples of 3.
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Circle the next available number
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 then cross out all its multiples.
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Repeat until all the numbers in
the table are either circled or
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 crossed out.
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 The circled numbers are the
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 primes.

9
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Other mathematicians over the years have developed ways of finding larger and larger
prime numbers. Until 1955, the largest known prime number had less than 1000 digits.
Since the 1970s and the invention of more and more powerful computers, more and
more prime numbers have been found. The graph below shows the number of digits in
the largest known primes since 2000.
You should try to memorise the prime numbers between 1 and 100.
Number of digits in largest known prime number against year found 90 000 000

80 000 000

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70 000 000

60 000 000

Number of digits
50 000 000 LINK

PL 40 000 000

30 000 000

20 000 000

10 000 000
Today anyone can
join the search for
Mersenne prime
numbers. This project
links thousands of
home computers to
search continuously
for larger and larger
prime numbers
while the computer
M
0 processors have
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 spare capacity.
Year

Source: https://www.mersenne.org/primes/

INVESTIGATION LINK
SA

Why do mathematicians find prime numbers exciting? Prime numbers are

One reason why prime numbers are interesting and intriguing is because there used in codes and
is a lot about them that we don’t know and that mathematicians have not codebreaking. The
been able to prove. larger the prime you
use, the harder it is to
1 Goldbach’s conjecture (1742) is one of the oldest and best-known break the code. This
unsolved problems in number theory. is why it is more and
a What is Goldbach’s strong conjecture? more important to
b A Peruvian mathematician, Harald Helfgott, has published a largely find larger and larger
accepted proof of Goldbach’s weak conjecture. Find out more about this. primes.

10
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1 Review of number concepts

INVESTIGATION CONTINUED
2 The Mersenne prime number search relies on massive computing power
to find large primes. There is no other way to work out where the nth
prime number will be or what the distance between large primes will
be. Riemann’s hypothesis (1859) claims you can accurately pinpoint
the distribution of prime numbers. An Indian mathematician, Dr Kumar
Eswaran published a proof for this hypothesis in 2016, but it has received
mixed responses and is not yet fully accepted.
a Riemann built his ideas on the prime number theorem. Find out what
this is and express it in simple language.

E
b Is there a proof for the existence of infinitely-many prime numbers?

3 And just for fun … What is an emirp? Find some examples to show what
these are.

Exercise 1.7
1

3 a
b
PL
Which is the only even prime number?

How many odd prime numbers are there that are less than 50?

List the composite numbers greater than four, but less than 30.
Try to write each composite number on your list as the sum of two prime
numbers. For example: 6 = 3 + 3 and 8 = 3 + 5.
M
4 Twin primes are pairs of prime numbers that differ by two. List the twin prime
pairs up to 100.

5 Is 149 a prime number? Explain how you decided.

Prime factors
SA

Prime factors are the factors of a number that are also prime numbers.
TIP
Every composite whole number can be broken down and written as the product of its
prime factors. You can do this using tree diagrams or using division. Both methods are Remember, a product
shown in Worked example 5. is the answer to a
multiplication. So to
write a number as the
product of its prime
factors you write it
like this:
12 = 2 × 2 × 3.

11
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WORKED EXAMPLE 5

Write the following numbers as the product of prime factors.

a 36 b 48
Answers
Using a factor tree
36 48 
Write the number as
two factors.
TIP
Prime numbers only
 If a factor is a prime

E
12
4 12 have two factors:
3 number, circle it. 1 and the number
itself. As 1 is not a
If a factor is a
prime number, do
composite number,
2 2 3 4 not include it when
3 4 split it into two factors.
expressing a number
Keep splitting until

2 2 2 2
you end up with
two primes.

36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
Using division
2 36
2 18
3 9

PL
48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3

2 48 Divide by the smallest prime number that will

2 24
2 12
into the number exactly.
Continue dividing, using the smallest prime
as a product of
prime factors.

Write the primes in ascending order with × signs.

go
M
3 3
1
2 6 number that will go into your new answer
3 3 each time.
1
Stop when you reach 1.
36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 Write the prime factors in ascending order with
× signs.
SA

TIP
Choose the method that works best for you and stick to it. Always show your
method when using prime factors.

TIP
Exercise 1.8
1 Express the following numbers as the product of prime factors. When you write your
number as a product
a 30 b 24 c 100 d 225 e 360
of primes, group all
f 504 g 650 h 1125 i 756 j 9240 occurrences of the
same prime number
together.

12
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1 Review of number concepts

Using prime factors to find the HCF and LCM

When you are working with larger numbers you can determine the HCF or LCM by
expressing each number as a product of its prime factors.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6

Find the HCF of 168 and 180.

Answer
168 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 First express each number as a product of

E
prime factors. Use tree diagrams or division to
do this.
180 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 Underline the factors common to both numbers.
2 × 2 × 3 = 12 Multiply these out to find the HCF.
HCF = 12

WORKED EXAMPLE 7

Find the LCM of 72 and 120.

Answer
PL
72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 First express each number as a product of
prime factors. Use tree diagrams or division to
do this.
MATHEMATICAL
CONNECTIONS
You can also use
prime factors to find
the square and cube
roots of numbers
if you don’t have a
calculator. You will
M
120 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 Underline the largest set of multiples of each
factor. deal with this in
more detail later in
2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 360 List these and multiply them out to find the
this chapter.
LCM.
LCM = 360
SA

Exercise 1.9
1 Find the HCF of these numbers by using prime factors.
a 48 and 108 b 120 and 216 c 72 and 90 d 52 and 78
e 100 and 125 f 154 and 88 g 546 and 624 h 95 and 120

2 Use prime factorisation to determine the LCM of the following numbers.

a 54 and 60 b 54 and 72 c 60 and 72 d 48 and 60
e 120 and 180 f 95 and 150 g 54 and 90 h 90 and 120

3 Determine both the HCF and LCM of the following numbers.

a 72 and 108 b 25 and 200 c 95 and 120 d 84 and 60

13
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APPLY YOUR SKILLS TIP

4 A radio station runs a phone-in competition for listeners. Every 30th caller Recognising the type
gets a free airtime voucher and every 120th caller gets a free mobile of problem helps
phone. How many listeners must phone in before one receives both an you to choose the
airtime voucher and a free phone? correct mathematical
techniques for
5 Li runs round a track in 12 minutes. Jaleel runs round the same track in
solving it.
18 minutes. If they start together, how many minutes will pass before they
both cross the start line together again? Word problems
involving LCM usually
include repeating

E
6 The number p can be written as a product of the three prime numbers x, y and z, events. You may be
where x, y and z are all different. asked how many
a How many factors does the number p have? items you need to
‘have enough’ or
Another number q can be written as the product of four different primes. when something will
b How many factors does q have? happen again at the

PL
The number r can be written as a product of n different prime numbers.
c How many factors does r have?

1.4 Working with directed numbers

When you use numbers to represent real-life situations like temperatures, altitude,
depth below sea level, profit or loss and directions (on a grid), you sometimes need
to use the negative sign to indicate the direction of the number. For example, you can
same time.
M
show a temperature of three degrees below zero as −3 °C. Numbers like these, which
have direction, are called directed numbers. So if a point 25 m above sea level is at
+25 m, then a point 25 m below sea level is at −25 m.

TIP
SA

Once a direction is chosen to be positive, the opposite direction is taken to

be negative. So:
• if up is positive, down is negative
• if right is positive, left is negative
• if north is positive, south is negative
• if above 0 is positive, below 0 is negative.

14
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1 Review of number concepts

Exercise 1.10
1 Express each of these situations using a directed number.
a a profit of $100 b 25 km below sea level
c a drop of 10 marks d a gain of 2 kg
e a loss of 1.5 kg f 8000 m above sea level
g a temperature of 10 °C below zero h a fall of 24 m
i a debt of $2000 j an increase of $250
k a time two hours behind local time l a height of 400 m

E
Calculating with directed numbers
In mathematics, directed numbers are also known as integers. You can represent the set
of integers on a number line like this:
–10 –9 –8 –7 – 6 –5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

PL
The further to the right a number is on the number line, the greater its value.

LINK
Directed numbers are important when describing temperatures. The Celsius
(or centigrade) temperature scale places the temperature at which water
freezes at zero. Positive temperatures indicate ‘above freezing’ and are
warmer. Negative temperatures are ‘below freezing’ and are colder.
MATHEMATICAL
CONNECTIONS
You will use similar
number lines when
solving linear
inequalities in
M
When you calculate with negative and positive integers, you need to pay attention to Chapter 14.
the signs and remember these rules:
• Adding a negative number is the same as subtracting the number. 3 + −5 = −2
TIP
• Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number. 3 − −5 = 8
• Multiplying or dividing the same signs gives a positive answer. −3 × −5 = 15 and Your calculator will
−20 ÷ −4 = −5 have a [+/−] key that
SA

allows you to enter

• Multiplying or dividing different signs gives a negative answer. 3 × −5 = 15 and
negative numbers.
15 ÷ −3 = −5.
Make sure you know
which key this is.
Exercise 1.11
1 Copy the numbers and fill in , or . to make a true statement.
a 2 8 b 4 9 c 12 3 d 6 −4

e −7 4 f −2 4 g −2 −11 h −12 −20

i −8 0 j −2 2 k −12 −4 l −32 −3

m 0 −3 n −3 11 o 12 −89 p −3 0

15
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2 Arrange each set of numbers in ascending order.

a −8, 7, 10, −1, −12 b 4, −3, −4, −10, 9, −8
c −11, −5, −7, 7, 0, −12 d −94, −50, −83, −90, 0
3 Write down the missing integer in each of these calculations.
a 7+ =3 b −1.7 + = 8.3 c −7 + = −21
d 8− = 11 e 4− = 6.7 f −8 − = −13
g 12 ÷ = −2 h −18 ÷ = 3 i ÷ 3 = −9
j −3 × = 12 k × 4 = −16 l × −4 = 20

E
APPLY YOUR SKILLS
4 Study the temperature graph carefully.
TIP
10 The difference
8

PL between the
highest and lowest
temperature is also
Temperature (°C)

called the range of

4
temperatures.
2

–2

–4
M
Sunday M T W T F S Sunday M T W T F S Sunday
14 21 28
Day of the week

a What was the temperature on Sunday 14 January?

b By how much did the temperature drop from Sunday 14 to Monday 15?
c What was the lowest temperature recorded?
SA

d What is the difference between the highest and lowest

temperatures?
e On Monday 29 January the temperature changed by −12 degrees.
What was the temperature on that day?
5 Manu has a bank balance of $45.50. He deposits $15.00 and then
withdraws $32.00. What is his new balance?
6 A bank account is $420 overdrawn.
a Express this as a directed number.
b How much money needs to be deposited for the account to have a
balance of $500?
c $200 is deposited. What is the new balance?
7 A diver 27 m below the surface of the water rises 16 m. At what depth is
the diver now?

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1 Review of number concepts

APPLY YOUR SKILLS CONTINUED

8 On a cold day in New York, the temperature at 6 a.m. was −5 °C. By noon,
the temperature had risen by 8 °C. By 7 p.m. the temperature had dropped
by 11 °C from its value at noon. What was the temperature at 7 p.m.?
9 Local time in Abu Dhabi is four hours ahead of local time in London.
Local time in Rio de Janeiro is three hours behind local time in London.
a If it is 4 p.m. in London, what time is it in Abu Dhabi?
b If it is 3 a.m. in London, what time is it in Rio de Janiero?
c If it is 3 p.m. in Rio de Janeiro, what time is it in Abu Dhabi?

E
d If it is 8 a.m. in Abu Dhabi, what time is it in Rio de Janeiro?
10 A fuel tank at a workshop should be refilled when the gauge shows 0;
however, there is a 100 litre reserve in the tank, so the level can drop
below 0 if the tank is not filled on time.
a On 3 March, the gauge indicated 412 litres above the 0 mark.

PL
On 31 March the level had dropped to −66 litres. Calculate the mean
rate of fuel use per day.
b On 1 April, the tank was topped up. The workshop owner estimates
that this amount of fuel would be enough for 30 days, after which the
level should be 0. How much fuel was added to the tank?

1.5 Powers, roots and laws of indices

M
You know that 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
You can write this in index notation as:
24 = 16
4 index
2 is the base
4 is the index
base
2
The index is also called a power or an exponent.
SA

Square numbers and square roots

A number is squared when it is multiplied by itself. For example, the square of 5 is
5 × 5 = 25. The symbol for squared is 2. So you can write 5 × 5 as 52.
MATHEMATICAL
CONNECTIONS
The square root of a number is the number that_was multiplied by itself to get the
square number. The symbol for square root is ​​√  ​​. In Section 1.1 you
_ learned that the
You know that 25 = 52, so √​​ 25 ​ = 5​. product obtained
when an integer is
multiplied by itself is
a square number.

17
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You also know that −5 × −5 = 25. However, the mathematical convention is that_ the
square root sign only refers to the positive square root. This is why if you enter √​​ 25 ​​ in MATHEMATICAL
your calculator you will always get the positive answer, 5. CONNECTIONS
If you want_ to indicate both the positive and negative square roots of 25 you need to
To solve equations
write ​± ​√ 25 ​​. like x2 = 25, you
need to find both the
positive and negative
Cube numbers and cube roots square roots, so if
x2 = 25, _ then
A number is cubed when it is multiplied by itself and then multiplied by itself again. ​x = ± ​√ 25 ​= 5 and −5​.
For example, the cube of 2 is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8. The symbol for cubed is 3. So 2 × 2 × 2 can

E
also be written as 23.
The cube root of a number is the number_ that was multiplied by itself _ to get the cube
3 3
number. The symbol for cube root is ​​√  ​​. You know that 8 = 23, so ​​√8 ​ = 2​.

Finding powers and roots

TIP
PL
You should know the squares of numbers from 1 to 15 (and their roots) and the cubes
of numbers from 1 to 5 as well as they cube of 10. For other numbers, you can use
your calculator to square or cube numbers quickly using the x2 and x3 keys or the
key. Use the or 3 keys to find the roots.

Not all calculators have exactly the same buttons. x xy and all
M
mean the same thing on different calculators. Make sure you know how to find
powers and roots on your calculator.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

Use your calculator to find:

SA

_ 3
_
a 192 b 93 c ​​√324 ​​ d ​​ √512 ​​
Answers
a 192 = 361 Enter 1 9 x2 =

b 93 = 729 Enter 9 x3 =
_
c ​​√ 324 ​ = 18​ Enter 3 2 4 =
3
_
d ​​ √ 512 ​ = 8​ Enter 3 5 1 2 =

If you don’t have a calculator, you can use the product of prime factors method to find
square and cube roots of numbers. This method is shown in Worked example 9.

18
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1 Review of number concepts

WORKED EXAMPLE 9

Without using a calculator find:

_ 3
_
a ​√324 ​​ b ​√512 ​​
Answers

⏟ ⏟ ⏟
a ​324 = ​2 × ​
2 × ​3 × ​
3 × ​3 × ​​ 
3 Group the factors into pairs,
2 3 3 and write down the square
root of each pair.
2 × 3 × 3 = 18 Multiply the roots together to

E
get the square root of 324.
_
​​√ 324 ​= 18​

b 512
​ = ​2 × 2 ​

× 2 × ​2 × 2 ​

× 2 × ​2 × 2 ​​ 

×2 Group the factors into threes,
2 2 2 and write the cube root of
each group.

a
2 × 2 × 2 = 8 Multiply together to get the

Exercise 1.12
1
3
√
_
​​ 512 ​= 8​

32
cube root of 512.

Write down the value of:

b 72
PL c 112 d 122 e 1002
M
f 142 g 13 h 33 i 43 j 103

2 Calculate:
a 212 b 192 c 322 d 682 e 63
f 93 g 1003 h 183 i 303 j 2003

3 Find a value of x to make each of these statements true.

SA

a x × x = 25 b x×x×x=8 c x × x = 121
d x × x × x = 729 e x × x = 324 f x × x = 400
g x × x × x = 8000 h x × x = 225 i x×x×x=1
__ _ __
j ​
​ x ​ =
√ 9​ k ​
​ 1 ​ =
√ x​ l ​
​ x ​ = 81​
√
_
3 _ 3 _ 3
​√x ​= 2​
m ​ n ​
​√x ​= 1​ o ​
​√64 ​ = x​

4 Use a calculator to find the following roots.

_ _ _ _ _
a ​
​√9 ​​ b ​​√64 ​​ c ​​√1 ​​ d ​​√4 ​​ e ​​√100 ​​
_ _ _ _ _
​√0 ​​
f ​ g ​​√81 ​​ h ​​√400 ​​ i ​​√1296 ​​ j ​​√1764 ​​
3
_ 3
_ 3
_ 3
_ 3
_
​√8 ​​
k ​ l ​​√1 ​​ m ​​√− 27 ​​ n ​​√64 ​​ o ​​√1000 ​​
3
_ 3
_ 3
_ 3
_ 3
_
​√− 216 ​​
p ​ q ​​√512 ​​ r ​​√729 ​​ s ​​√− 1728 ​​ t ​​√5832 ​​

19
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5 Use the given product of prime factors to find the square root of each number.
Show your working.
a 324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
b 225 = 3 × 3 × 5 × 5
c 784 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7
d 2025 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5
e 19 600 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7
f 250 000 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5

6 Use the given product of prime factors to find the cube root of each number.

E
Show your working.
a 27 = 3 × 3 × 3
b 729 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
c 2197 = 13 × 13 × 13

7
d
e
f
1000 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5
15 625 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5

_ 2
​​(​√25 ​  )​​​  ​​
a ​
_
​√9 ​+ √​ 16 ​​
e ​
_
​ 100 − 36 ​​
√
i ​
_ _
_ 2

f ​​√9 + 16 ​​
_
PL
32 768 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2

Calculate:

b ​​​(​√49 ​  )​​​  ​​

j ​​√100 ​− √​ 36 ​​
_
_
_ 3
c ​​​(​√64 ​  )​​​  ​​
3

g ​​√36 ​+ √​ 64 ​​
_
k ​​√25 ​× ​√4 ​​
_

_
3

_
_ 3
d ​​​(​√32 ​  )​​​  ​​

h ​​√36 + 64 ​​
_
l ​​√25 × 4 ​​
M
___ _

√ 36 ​√36 ​
_ _ _
___ ____
​9×
√
m ​ 4 ​​ n ​​√9 ​× √​ 4 ​​ o ​​ ​   ​ ​​ p ​​   ​​
4 4

TIP
Brackets act as grouping symbols. Work out any calculations inside brackets
before doing the calculations outside the brackets.
SA

_
Root signs work in the same way as a bracket. If you have  ​​√25 + 9 ​​, you must
add 25 and 9 before finding the root.

8 Find the length of the edge of a cube with a volume of:

a 1000 cm3 b 19 683 cm3 c 68 921 mm3 d 64 000 cm3

9 If the symbol ★ means ‘add the square of the first number to the cube of the
second number’, calculate:
a 2★3 b 3★2 c 1★4 d 4★1 e 2★4
f 4★2 g 1★9 h 9★1 i 5★2 j 2★5

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1 Review of number concepts

REFLECTION
You have covered many of the concepts in this chapter earlier in your study
of mathematics.
• Which concepts did you remember really well?
• Why do you think you remembered these so well?
• Did you find any new ways of doing things or better ways of explaining
things as you worked through this chapter? Share your ideas with a
partner.

E
Other indices and roots
You have seen that square numbers are all raised to the power of two
(5 squared = 5 × 5 = 52) and that cube numbers are all raised to the power of three
(5 cubed = 5 × 5 × 5 = 53). You can raise a number to any power. For example,

to finding roots of numbers.

52 = 25 ​​√25 ​= 5​

yx
3
53 = 125 ​​√125 ​= 5​
4
54 = 625 ​​√625 ​= 5​
_

_ PL
5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 54. You read this as ‘5 to the power of 4’. The same principle applies

You can use your calculator to perform operations using any roots or squares.
The key calculates any power.
So, to find 75, you enter 7 yx 5 and get a result of 16 807.
M
The x
key calculates any root.
4
_
So, to find ​​√81 ​​, you enter 4 x
81 and get a result of 3.
Make sure that you know which key is used for each function on your calculator
and that you know how to use it. On some calculators these keys might be second
functions.
SA

MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
You will work with higher powers and roots again when you deal with indices
in algebra in Chapter 2, standard form in Chapter 5 and rates of growth and
decay in Chapters 17 and 18.

Index notation and products of prime factors

Index notation is very useful when you have to express a number as a product of its
prime factors because it allows you to write the factors in a short form.

21
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WORKED EXAMPLE 10

Express these numbers as products of their prime factors in index form.

a 200 b 19 683
Answers
These diagrams are a reminder of the factor tree and division methods for
finding the prime factors.
a 200
b
3 19 683

E
3 6561
3 2187
2 100
3 729
3 243
3 81
2

2
50

5
25

5
PL 3
3
3
27
9
3
1
M
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 =3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3
200 = 23 × 52 19 683 = 39

Exercise 1.13
1 Evaluate.
SA

6
_ 4
_
a 24 × 23 b ​​3​​  5​× ​√64 ​​ c ​​3​​  4​+ ​√256 ​​
_ _ _3
f ​​8​​  4​ ÷ (​​ ​√32 ​)​​​  ​​
5 4 5
d ​​2​​  4​× ​√7776 ​​ e ​​√625 ​ × ​2​​  6​​

2 Which is greater and by how much?

4
_ 6
_ TIP
a 80 × 44 or 24 × 34 b ​​√625 ​ × ​3​​  6​or  ​√729 ​ × ​4​​  4​​
Remember that
3 Express the following as products of prime factors, in index notation. anything raised to
the power of zero is
a 64 b 243 c 400 d 1600 e 16 384
equal to 1.
f 20 736 g 59 049 h 390 625

4 Write several square numbers as products of prime factors, using index notation.
What can you say about the index needed for each prime?

22
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1 Review of number concepts

The laws of indices

The laws of indices are a set of mathematical rules that allow you to multiply and divide
numbers written in index notation without having to write them in expanded form.
Make sure that you remember these three important rules.
To multiply different powers of the same number, add the indices.
For example, 32 × 35 = 32 + 5 = 37 and 4−2 × 43 = 4−2 + 3 = 4.
To divide different powers of the same number, subtract the indices.
​4​​  3​
For example, 36 ÷ 32 = 36 − 2 = 34 and ___
​​  7 ​​ = 43 − 7 = 4−4
​4​​  ​

E
To find the power of a power you multiply the indices.
For example, (33)2 = 33 × 2 = 36 and (42)−3 = 42 × −3 = 4−6
In general terms:
​​a​​  m​× ​a​​  n​= ​a​​  m + n​​    ​​
a​​  m​ ÷ ​a​​  n​= ​a​​  m − n​​    ​​​(​a​​  m)​​​​  n​= ​a​​  mn​​

Zero and negative indices

Power of 5

Value
1
In this table, each value is __

54

625
53

125
52

25
PL
Do you remember how to work with zero and negative indices? Read through this
information to refresh your memory.

​​   ​​of the one to its left. For example, 54 ÷ 5 = 53.

5

51

5
50

1
5−1
__ 1
​​   ​​
5
5−2
1
​​ ___ ​​
25
5−3
1
​​ ____ ​​
125
5−4
1
​​ ____ ​​
625
M
÷5
The pattern in the table shows that 50 = 1. This is true for any number to the power of 0.
We can say a0 = 1 (where a ≠ 0, because 00 is undefined.).
You can also see from the table that a number with a negative index is equal to its
SA

1
reciprocal with a positive index. For example: 5−2 = ___
​​  2 ​​.
​5​​  ​
This is true for all negative indices.
1
We can say ​​a​​  −m​ = ____
​  m ​​ (where a ≠ 0).
​a​​  ​

Exercise 1.14
1 Decide whether each statement is true or false. If it is false, work out the
correct answer.
​3​​  8​
a 43 × 45 = 48 b ​​ ___2 ​​ = 34 c 45 ÷ 42 = 43 d (83)2 = 85
​3​​  ​
​2​​  10​ 5
e 340 = 1 f 74 × 73 = 77 g ​​ _____  ​​ = 2 h 1010 ÷ 105 = 102
​2​​  5​
7​ ​​  −2​
i (5−2)4 = 52 j (−24)2 = −26 k ​​ _____  ​ = 7​ l −(52)0 = 1
​7​​  −3​

23
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2 Simplify. Leave your answers in index notation.

a 103 × 104 b 310 × 3−5 c 2 × 25 × 2−1 d 100 × 10−3
​10​​  5​ ​12​​  6​ ​3​​  −4​
e ​​ _____4 ​​ f ​​ _____6 ​​ g ​​ _____  ​​ h 4−3 ÷ 44
​10​​  ​ ​12​​  ​ ​3​​  3​
i (34)3 j (5−2)2 k (42)−3 l (43)0

1
3 Substitute a = 2, b = 3 and c = ​​ __ ​​to find the value of each expression.
2
a a−1 + b−1 b (ab)−2 c (a2c)−1 d a−1b−1c

4 Evaluate.

E
a 3−1 b 4−1 c 2−1 d 4−2 e 2−4

5 Express each value with a negative index.

1 1 1 1
a ​​ __ ​​ b ​​ __ ​​ c ​​ __ ​​ d ​​ ___3 ​​
4 5 7 ​3​​  ​

7
e
1
e ​​ _____4 ​​
​10​​  ​

Evaluate.

a ​​​(__
​   ​)​​​  ​​
4
9
−2
1
f ​​ ___8 ​​
​2​​  ​

(−3)2 × ​​​(__
​   ​)​​​  ​​
1
2
1
g ​​ ___2 ​​
​7​​  ​

−2
b 80 × 103
​(10 − 6)​​  3​
f ​​ _________  ​​
​2​​  3​

Rewrite each expression in the form of 3x (in other words, as a power of 3).
PL c 122 × 4−3

​3​​  2​
g ​​2​​  3​ + ___
​   ​ + 2​
3
d
1
h ​​ _______2 ​​
2 × ​3​​  ​

(23)−2

h ​​​(−3)​​​  2​ + (​​ __
​   ​)​​​  ​​
1
2
−3
M
1
a 3 b 9 c 729 d ​​ ___ ​​
27
_
1 1
e ​​ __ ​​ f 1 g ​​ ____ ​​ h ​− ​√81 ​​
3 243

Fractional indices LINK

_1
Do you remember what a fractional index such as ​​5​​ ​ 2​​​ means?
SA

Fractional indices
You can use the laws of indices to show the meaning of fractional indices. and roots are
​​5​​  ​ 2​​​ × ​​5​​  ​ 2​​​ = ​​5​​  ​(​ 2​  + ​ 2​)​​​ = 51 = 5 used in many
_1 _1 _1 _1

_ _ different financial
You also know that √​​ 5 ​× ​√5 ​ = 5​ calculations involving
_
_1
So, ​​5​​  ​ 2 ​​​ = √​ 5 ​ investments,
insurance policies
​​5​​  ​ 3 ​​​ × ​​5​​  ​ 3 ​​​ × ​​5​​  ​ 3 ​​​ = ​​5​​  ​(​ 3 ​  + ​ 3 ​  + ​ 3 ​)​​​ = 51 = 5
_1 _1 _1 _1 _1 _1
and economic
3
_ 3
_ 3
_ decisions.
And ​​√5 ​​ × ​​√5 ​​ × ​​√5 ​​ = 5
_1 3
_
So, ​​5​​  ​ 3 ​​​ = ​​√5 ​​
In general terms, for unit fractions:
_1 _ _1 3 _ _1 n _
​​a​​  ​ 2 ​​= √​ a ​​  ​​a​​  ​ 3 ​​= ​√a ​​ ​​a​​  ​ n ​​= ​√a ​​

24
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1 Review of number concepts

You can use the rule for finding the power of a power to show the meaning of
fractional indices where the numerator is not 1 (non-unit fractions).
_1 3
​​​(​4​​  ​ 4​​)​​​  ​ = ​4​​  ​(​ 4​  × ​ 1​)​​ = ​4​​  ​ 4​​​
_1 _3 _3

_1 2
This shows that a number such as ​​5​​ ​ 3​​​can be written with a unit fraction index as ​​​(​5​​  ​ 3​​)​​​  ​​.
_2

1
You already know that you can write a unit fraction (such as __
​​   ​​) as a root.
3 TIP
_1 2
_2
So ​​5​​  ​ 3 ​​ = (​​ ​5​​  ​ 3 ​​)​​​  ​ = (​​ ​√ ​5 )​​​  ​​
_2 3

_2
Multiplication is
It is simpler to input the value in root form into your calculator than to enter 5​​ 
​​ ​ 3​​​. commutative, so
m
In general terms, for non-unit fractions: (​​​ ​a​​  _​ 1n ​)​​​​  ​​is the same as

E
_
1 n ___
m __ ___ ​​​(​a​​  m)​​​​  ​ n ​​​ = ​​ √​a​​  m​ ​​
​​a​​  ​  n ​​= ​​(​a​​  ​ n ​​)​​​  ​= ​​(​√a ​)​​​  m​= ​√​a​​  m​ ​​
__
m _1 n n

WORKED EXAMPLE 11

Work out the value of:

a
Answers

b 2
​​ ​  
​
  
_
2
​2​7​​  ​ 3 ​​

​27​​  ​ 3 ​​ = (​​ ​√ 27 ​)​​​  ​

_
2

​ 5​​  1.5​ =
= 9
 ​
​  =​  ​(3)​​  2​​

​  =​  (​​ √​ 25 ​​ ​​

​ ​  
​

)​​​  ​​
3
_ 2

_
3
​25​​  ​ 2 ​​
_3
b 251.5

PL
__ 3
2
​​ __ ​​ = 2 × __
3

​​   ​= 3 × __
1
1
​​   ​​, so you square the cube root of 27.
3

Change the decimal to a fraction.

M
​​   ​   ​​, so you need to cube the
​ = ​(5)​​  ​ 3 2 2
​ = 125 square root of 25.

Exercise 1.15
SA

1 Rewrite each expression using a root symbol.

_1 _1 _1 _1
a 2​​ 5​​  ​ 2​​​ b ​​3​​  ​ 3​​​ c ​​40​​  ​ 5​​​ d ​​6​​  ​ 2​​​
_1 _3 _2 _2
e ​​3​​  ​ 8​​​ f ​​2​​  ​ 4​​​ g ​​12​​  ​ 3​​​ h ​​5​​  ​ 9​​​

2 Write each expression using index notation.

_ 3
_ 3
_ 4
_
a ​​√5 ​​ b ​​√8 ​​ c ​​√13 ​​ d ​​√11 ​​
_2 _4 _3 _7
​​​(​√9 ​ )​​​  ​​ f ​​​(​√6 ​ )​​​  ​​ g ​​​(​√32 ​)​​​  ​​ h ​2 ​​(​√12 ​)​​​  ​​
3 3 4 5
e

3 Use a calculator to evaluate.

_1 _1 _2 _3
a 2​​ 5​​  ​ 2​​​ b ​​27​​  ​ 3​​​ c ​​8​​  ​ 3​​​ d ​​16​​  ​ 4​​​
_2 _1 _1 _4
e ​​216​​  ​ 3​​​ f ​​0.125​​  ​ 3​​​ g ​​46​​  ​ 2​​​ h ​​125​​  −​ 3​​​
_1 _4 _2
i 3​​ 2​​  − ​ 5​​​ j ​​8​​  ​ 3​​​ k ​​216​​  ​ 3​​​ l ​​256​​ 0.75​​

25
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ MATHEMATICS: CORE & EXTENDED COURSEBOOK

APPLY YOUR SKILLS

4 The number of calories a mammal uses when they are at rest can be
_ 3
worked out using the formula ​C = 70 × ​m​​  ​ 4 ​​​, where m is the mass of the
animal in kilograms.
a Express the formula using a root sign.
b A cat has a mass of 5.5 kilograms. Work out how many calories it
consumes while it is at rest.
c How many calories would a 5000 kg elephant consume at rest?

E
1.6 Order of operations
At this level of mathematics you are expected to carry out calculations involving more

• deal with powers and roots next

PL
than one operation (+, −, × and ÷). When you do this you have to follow a sequence of
rules so that there is no confusion about what operations you should do first. The rules
for the order of operations are:
• complete operations in grouping symbols first

• do division and multiplication next, working from left to right

• do addition and subtraction last, working from left to right.
Many people use the letters BODMAS to remember the order of operations.
The letters stand for:
M
Brackets
Orders
Divide Multiply
SA

Add Subtract
BODMAS indicates that indices (powers of ) are considered after brackets but before
MATHEMATICAL
all other operations.
CONNECTIONS

Grouping symbols You will apply the

order of operation
The most common grouping symbols in mathematics are brackets. Here are some rules to fractions,
examples of the different kinds of brackets used in mathematics: decimals and
algebraic expressions
(4 + 9) × (10 ÷ 2) as you progress
[2(4 + 9) − 4(3) − 12] through the course.
{2 − [4(2 − 7) − 4(3 + 8)] − 2 × 8}

26
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1 Review of number concepts

When you have more than one set of brackets in a calculation, you work out the
innermost set first.
Other symbols used to group operations are:
5 − 12
• fraction bars, e.g. ​​ ______ ​​
3−8
_
• root signs, such as square roots and cube roots, e.g. √​​ 9 + 16 ​​

WORKED EXAMPLE 12

Simplify.

E
a 7 × (3 + 4) b (10 − 4) × (4 + 9) c 45 − [20 × (4 − 3)]
Answers
a 7 × 7 = 49 b 6 × 13 = 78 c 45 − [20 × 1] = 45 − 20 = 25

WORKED EXAMPLE 13

Calculate.

Answers
4 + 28
​​ ______ ​​
17 − 9

a (4 + 28) ÷ (17 − 9)
= ​​√9 ​​ + √​​ 64 ​​
= 32 ÷ 8
b

b
PL _

______
_
​√36 ÷ 4 ​+ √​ 100 − 36 ​​

________
​​√36 ÷ 4 ​​+ √​​ 100 − 36 ​​
__ ___
M
= 4
=3+8
= 11

Now that you know what to do with grouping symbols, you can apply the rules for
order of operations to perform calculations with numbers.
SA

Exercise 1.16
1 Calculate. Show the steps in your working.
a (4 + 7) × 3 b (20 − 4) ÷ 4 c 50 ÷ (20 + 5)
d 6 × (2 + 9) e (4 + 7) × 4 f (100 − 40) × 3
g 16 + (25 ÷ 5) h 19 − (12 + 2) i 40 ÷ (12 − 4)
j 100 ÷ (4 + 16) k 121 ÷ (33 ÷ 3) l 15 × (15 − 15)

2 Calculate.
a (4 + 8) × (16 − 7) b (12 − 4) × (6 + 3) c (9 + 4) − (4 + 6)
d (33 + 17) ÷ (10 − 5) e (4 × 2) + (8 × 3) f (9 × 7) ÷ (27 − 20)
g (105 − 85) ÷ (16 ÷ 4) h (12 + 13) ÷ 52 i (56 − 62) × (4 + 3)

27
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ MATHEMATICS: CORE & EXTENDED COURSEBOOK

3 Simplify. Show the steps in your working.

TIP
a 5 × 10 + 3 b 5 × (10 + 3) c 2 + 10 × 3
d (2 + 10) × 3 e 23 + 7 × 2 f 6 × 2 ÷ (3 + 3) A bracket ‘type’ is
15 − 5 16 − 4 always twinned with
g ​​  ______ ​​ h (17 + 1) ÷ 9 + 2 i ​​ ______ ​​ another bracket of
2×5 4−1
the same type or
j 17 + 3 × 21 k 48 − (2 + 3) × 2 l 12 × 4 − 4 × 8 shape. This helps
m 15 + 30 ÷ 3 + 6 n 20 − 6 ÷ 3 + 3 o 10 − 4 × 2 ÷ 2 mathematicians to
understand the order
4 Simplify. of calculations even
more easily.
a 18 − 4 × 2 − 3 b 14 − (21 ÷ 3) c 24 ÷ 8 × (6 − 5)

E
d 42 ÷ 6 − 3 − 4 e 5 + 36 ÷ 6 − 8 f (8 + 3) × (30 ÷ 3) ÷ 11

5 Simplify. Remember to work from the innermost grouping symbols to the

outermost.
a 4 + [12 − (8 − 5)] b 6 + [2 − (2 × 0)]

6
c
e
g

a
8 + [60 − (2 + 8)]
200 × {100 − [4 × (2 + 8)]}
[(30 + 12) − (7 + 9)] × 10

Calculate.
20 − 4 ÷ 2
_
​√100 − 36 ​​
d ​
PL
31 − 10
b ​​ _______ ​​
14 − 7
_
e ​​√8 + 8 ​​
d
f
h
200 − [(4 + 12) − (6 + 2)]
{6 + [5 × (2 + 30)]} × 10
1000 − [6 × (4 + 20) − 4 × (3 + 0)]

100 − 40
c ​​ ________
_
5×4
 ​​

f ​​√90 − 9 ​​
M
7 State whether the following are true or false.
a (1 + 4) × 20 + 5 = 1 + (4 × 20) + 5 b 6 × (4 + 2) × 3 . (6 × 4) ÷ 2 × 3
c 8 + (5 − 3) × 2 , 8 + 5 − (3 × 2) d 100 + 10 ÷ 10 . (100 + 10) ÷ 10

8 Insert brackets into the following calculations to make them true.

SA

a 3 × 4 + 6 = 30 b 25 − 15 × 9 = 90 c 40 − 10 × 3 = 90
d 14 − 9 × 2 = 10 e 12 + 3 ÷ 5 = 3 f 19 − 9 × 15 = 150
g 10 + 10 ÷ 6 − 2 = 5 h 3 + 8 × 15 − 9 = 66 i 9 − 4 × 7 + 2 = 45
j 10 − 4 × 5 = 30 k 6÷3+3×5=5 l 15 − 6 ÷ 2 = 12
m 1 + 4 × 20 ÷ 5 = 20 n 8 + 5 − 3 × 2 = 20 o 36 ÷ 3 × 3 − 3 = 6
p 3×4−2÷6=1 q 40 ÷ 4 + 1 = 11 r 6 + 2 × 8 + 2 = 24

9 Place the given numbers in the correct spaces to make a correct number sentence.
a 0, 2, 5, 10 − ÷ =
b 9, 11, 13, 18 − ÷ =
c 1, 3, 8, 14, 16 ÷( − )− =
d 4, 5, 6, 9, 12 ( + )−( − )=

28
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1 Review of number concepts

Using your calculator

A calculator with algebraic logic will apply the rules for order of operations
automatically. So, if you enter 2 + 3 × 4, your calculator will do the multiplication first
and give you an answer of 14. (Check that your calculator does this!)
When the calculation contains brackets you must enter these to make sure your
calculator does the grouped sections first.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14

Use a calculator to find:

E
a 3+2×9 b (3 + 8) × 4 c (3 × 8 − 4) − (2 × 5 + 1)
TIP
Answers
Your calculator might
a 21 Enter 3 + 2 × 9 =
only have one type
of bracket (
b 44 Enter

c 9 Enter

why these are different?

Exercise 1.17
(

(
(
3

3
2
+

×
×

PL
8

8
5
)

–
+
×

4
1
4

)
)
=

=
–

Experiment with your calculator by carrying out several calculations, with and
without brackets. For example: 3 × 2 + 6 and 3 × (2 + 6). Do you understand
and ) . If there
are two different
shaped brackets in
the calculation, such
as [4 × (2 − 3)], enter
the calculator bracket
symbol for each type.

TIP
M
1 Use your calculator to find the answers.
Some calculators
a 10 − 4 × 5 b 12 + 6 ÷ 7 − 4 have two ‘−’ buttons:
c 3 + 4 × 5 − 10 d 18 ÷ 3 × 5 − 3 + 2 – and (–) .
e 5−3×8−6÷2 f 7+3÷4+1 The first means
g (1 + 4) × 20 ÷ 5 h 36 ÷ 6 × (3 − 3) ‘subtract’ and is
used to subtract one
i (8 + 8) − 6 × 2 j 100 − 30 × (4 − 3)
SA

number from another.

k 24 ÷ (7 + 5) × 6 l [(60 − 40) − (53 − 43)] × 2 The second means
m [(12 + 6) ÷ 9] × 4 n [100 ÷ (4 + 16)] × 3 ‘make negative’.
o 4 × [25 ÷ (12 − 7)] Experiment with
the buttons and
2 Use your calculator to check whether the following answers are correct. make sure that your
If the answer is incorrect, work out the correct answer. calculator is doing
what you expect it
a 12 × 4 + 76 = 124 b 8 + 75 × 8 = 698 to do!
c 12 × 18 − 4 × 23 = 124 d (16 ÷ 4) × (7 + 3 × 4) = 76
e (82 − 36) × (2 + 6) = 16 f (3 × 7 − 4) − (4 + 6 ÷ 2) = 12

3 Each ★ represents a missing operation. Work out what they are.

a 12 ★ (28 ★ 24) = 3 b 84 ★ 10 ★ 8 = 4
c 3 ★ 7(0.7 ★ 1.3) = 17 d 23 ★ 11 ★ 22 ★ 11 = 11
e 40 ★ 5 ★ (7 ★ 5) = 4 f 9 ★ 15 ★ (3 ★ 2) = 12

29
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ MATHEMATICS: CORE & EXTENDED COURSEBOOK

4 Calculate.
_ _
7 × ​√16 ​
__________ ​5​​  2​× √​ 4 ​
__________ 2 + ​3​​  2​ _
a ​​   ​​ b ​​  1 + ​6​​  2​− 12 ​​ c ​​ _______________
    ​​
​2​​  3​ + ​7​​  2​− 1 ​5​​  ​+ 4 × 10 − √​ 25 ​
2

​6​​  2​− 11  ​​ 3​ ​​  ​−_

2
_______ 3 ​3​​  2​− 5+6
___________
​    
d ​ e ​​   ​​ f ​​ __________  ​​
2​(17 + 2 × 4)​ 2 × ​ 81 ​
√ ​ 4 ​× 5
√
_
36 − 3 × ​√16 ​ ​​
___________
− 30 + ​[18 ÷ (​3 − 12)​+ 24]​
______________________
​   
g ​ h ​​         ​​
15 − ​3​​  2​÷ 3 5 − 8 − ​3​​ 2​

5 Use your calculator to find the answer. Give your answers to 3 significant figures.
_ TIP
0.345 12.32 × 0.0378 ​√16 ​× 0.087
a ​​ _____________ ______________
c ​​ ___________

E
   ​​ b ​​     _ ​​  ​​ If you have forgotten
1.34 + 4.2 × 7 ​ 16 + 8.05 ​
√ ​2​​  2​− 5.098
how to round to
6 Use your calculator to evaluate. Give your answers to 3 significant figures. significant figures,
_ _ 3
_ read through Worked
a ​
​√64 × 125 ​​ b ​​√​2​​  3​ × ​3​​  2​ × 6 ​​ c ​​√​8​​  2​ + ​19​​  2​ ​​
_ ___________ ___________ example 16 in
3
d √
​​ ​41​​  2​ − ​36​​  2​ ​​ ​√3. ​
e ​    2​​  2​ − 1. ​17​​  3​ ​​ f ​​√  
1. ​45​​  3​ − 0. ​13​​  2​ ​​ Section 1.7.

g
1 __
__
4 4 4
1
√
__________

​​√8 ​− √​ 1 ​​

​​​(__
15 _
​​ ________
48 + 2 ​√7 ​
__

g ​​   ​ ​ ​   ​ + ​   ​+  ​ 

1
__
​  ​ ​ ​​
4

 ​​
√ 1
__

​   ​)​​​  ​ + (​​ ​√144 ​   )​​​  ​​

5
6
2 ____ 3
b

e
​ 2. ​
h ​   

Evaluate. Give your answer to 2 decimal places if necessary.

a
3
_ _
√
3

4
PL _____________
75​​  2​ + _

_
1
​   ​ × 1. ​7​​  3​ ​​
2

_2
​√ 16 ​ × ​​8​​  −​ 3​​​

3
77 29
​​ ___ ​ × ___
14 11
_
​   ​​

____ 2
h ​​√205379 ​ − 6 ​​(​√343 ​   )​​​  ​​
c (−3)3 + 2−4

19.23 × 0.087
i ​​ _____________
   ​​
  
_
f ​​(0.467)​​  2​× √​ 900 ​​

2.​45​​  2​ − 1.​03​​  2​
MATHEMATICAL
CONNECTIONS
When you work with
indices and standard
form in Chapter 5,
you will need to
M
apply these skills and
use your calculator
SELF ASSESSMENT effectively to solve
Draw up a flow chart like this one to assess your own learning. problems involving
any powers or roots.
Some sentence stems are provided below each box to help you get started.
How do I What did I What can I
SA

describe my do well? improve?

understanding?

I understood this easily I was very good at … To improve I can …

because … I was proud of … Next time I will …
I struggled a bit with __ My best work was … I need to revise …
because …
I am still not sure of …
I am confident that I can …
I would give myself [ ] out
of ten for this work.

30
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1 Review of number concepts

1.7 Rounding and estimating LINK

In many calculations, particularly with decimals, you will not need to find an exact We use ‘rounding’
answer. Instead, you will be asked to give an answer to a stated level of accuracy. in all subjects where
For example, you may be asked to give an answer correct to 2 decimal places, or to 3 numerical data is
significant figures. collected. Masses in
physics, temperatures
in biology, prices in
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 economics: these all
need to be recorded
Round 64.839906 to: sensibly and will
a the nearest whole number

E
be rounded to a
b 1 decimal place degree of accuracy
appropriate for the
c 3 decimal places.
situation.
Answers
a 64.839906 4 is in the units place.

c
64.839906

= 65 (to nearest whole number)

64.839906
64.839906

= 64.8 (1 d.p.)
PL The next digit is 8, so you will round up
to get 5.
To the nearest whole number.

8 is in the first decimal place.

The next digit is 3, so the 8 will remain
unchanged.
Correct to 1 decimal place.
M
64.839906 9 is in the third decimal place.
64.839906 The next digit is 9, so you need to
round up.
= 64.840 (3 d.p.) When you round 9 up, you get 10,
so carry one to the previous digit and
write 0 in the place of the 9.
Correct to 3 decimal places.
SA

When a number has many digits or decimal places it is useful to round it to

significant figures (s.f.). The first significant digit of a number is the first non-zero
digit, when reading from left to right. The next digit is the second significant digit,
the next the third significant and so on. All zeros after the first significant digit are
considered significant.
If you are rounding to a whole number, write the appropriate number of zeros
after the last significant digit as place holders to keep the number the same size.

TIP
Rounding to 1 significant figure does not mean you will only have one digit.
When 13 432 is rounded to 1 significant figure it is 10 000 and not 1.

31
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ MATHEMATICS: CORE & EXTENDED COURSEBOOK

WORKED EXAMPLE 16

Round:
a 1.076 to 3 significant figures
b 0.00736 to 1 significant figure
c 23 512 435 to 2 significant figures
Answers
a 1.076 The third significant figure is the 7. The next digit is
6, so round 7 up to get 8.

E
= 1.08 (3 s.f.) Correct to 3 significant figures.

b 0.00736 The first significant figure is the 7. The next digit is

3, so 7 will not change.
= 0.007 (1 s.f.) Correct to 1 significant figure.

Exercise 1.18
1
23 512 475

= 24 000 000 (2 s.f.)

PL
The second significant figure is 3. The next digit is
5, so 3 will round up to 4.
Include the zeros and state the level of accuracy.

Round each number to 2 decimal places.

M
a 3.185 b 0.064 c 38.3456 d 2.149 e 0.999

2 Round each number to the nearest 100.

a 456 b 53 438 c 3012.567 d 38.299 e 10 060

3 Round each number to the nearest 10 000.

SA

a 629 534 b 100 999 c 9016 d 12 064 e 155 179

4 Express each number correct to:

i 4 significant figures ii 3 significant figures iii 1 significant figure
a 4512 b 12 305 c 65 238 d 320.55
e 25.716 f 0.000765 g 1.0087 h 7.34876
i 0.00998 j 0.02814 k 31.0077 l 0.0064735

5
5 Change ​2 ​ __ ​​to a decimal using your calculator. Express the answer correct to:
9
a 3 decimal places b 2 decimal places

c 1 decimal place d 3 significant figures

e 2 significant figures f 1 significant figure

32
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1 Review of number concepts

Estimating to get an approximate answer

To estimate the answer to a calculation, you need to round the numbers before you
do the calculation. Although you can use any accuracy, often the numbers in the
calculation are rounded to 1 significant figure:
3.9 × 2.1 is approximately equal to 4 × 2 = 8
Notice that 3.9 × 2.1 = 8.19, so the estimated value of 8 is not too far from the real value!

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Estimate the value of:

E
_
a ​​  4.6_+ 3.9
_________  ​​ b ​
​√42.2 − 5.1 ​​
√
​ 398 ​
Answers
a 4.6____
+ 3.9 5+4 Round the numbers to 1 significant figure.
​​ _________
 ​​is approximately equal to _____
​​  ____ ​​

b
√
​ 398 ​

Check the estimate:

4.6_
√
+ 3.9
​ ​_________
9
= ​​ ___ ​​ = ___
20 10

 ​= 0.426 (3 s.f.)​

​ 398 ​
__________
4.5
√
​ 400 ​

​​   ​​ = 0.45

PL
​​√42.2 − 5.1 ​​is approximately equal to √​​ 40 − 5 ​​
___
= ​​√35 ​​
______
If you use a calculator you will find the exact
value and see that the estimate was good.

Begin by rounding each value to

1 significant figure.
M
___ Notice that if you round 35 up to 36 you get
is approximately equal to √​​ 36 ​​ a square number and you can easily take the
=6 square root.

A good starting point for the questions in the Exercise 1.19 is to round the numbers
to 1 significant figure. Remember that you can sometimes make your calculation even
SA

simpler by modifying your numbers again.

Exercise 1.19
1 The calculator displays show the answers that a student got for each calculation.
Write an estimate for each calculation and say whether the calculator answer is
sensible or not.
a (7.1)2 ÷ 9.9
b 4 × p × 32
c 5 × 7.9
d 50 × 7.9
e 3 × 292.5
_____

f ​ √9.78
6.28 × ​​ _____
0.53
 ​ ​​

33
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ MATHEMATICS: CORE & EXTENDED COURSEBOOK

2 Estimate the value of each of the following. Show the rounded values that you
use. TIP
23.6 4.3 7.21 × 0.46 When you are asked
a ​​ _____ ​​ ____________
b ​​      ​​ c ​​ ___________
 ​ ​
6.3 0.087 × 3.89 9.09 to estimate values,
_ always show the
4.82 × 6.01 ​​ ​ 48 ​
√
___________ rounded values that
​ ___________
d ​ e ​​  2.54 + 4.09 ​​ f (0.45 + 1.89)(6.5 − 1.9)
2.54 + 1.09 you use so anyone
looking at your work
23.8 + 20.2 109.6 − 45.1 _
knows what you
g ​​ ___________ ​​ ____________
h ​​     ​​ ​(2.52)​​  2​× ​√ 48.99 ​​
i ​
4.7 + 5.7 19.4 − 13.9 have done.
___________ _ _

E
​√ 223.8
j ​    × 45.1 ​​ ​√ 9.26 ​× ​√ 99.87 ​​
k ​ l (4.1)3 × (1.9)4

3 Work out the actual answer for each part of question 2, using a calculator.
How good were your estimates? How could you improve them?

INVESTIGATION
Making decisions about accuracy

each problem.
1
PL
There will be times when you have to decide how to round values to estimate.
The place that you round to depends on the level of accuracy needed to solve

What would you round to in the following situations? Give reasons for
your answers.
a A real-life problem involving whole numbers, for example bricks or
numbers of people.
M
b Problems involving money amounts.
c Calculations using numbers in the millions.
d Scientific calculations with original values to four places.
e Problems involving irrational numbers (such as p).
2 What have these students done to estimate?
SA

1
Zaf 7.6 × 0.518 is approximately equal to 8 × ​​ __  ​​ = 4
2
2
17.73 x 5.7 2x6
Marwan is approximately equal to 12
1 8.7 1

a Why is each strategy useful?

b Why do you use the = symbol in some parts of the estimation but
state 'is approximately equal to' in others?
3 What situations can you think of where it is helpful to make sure your
estimate is:
a an overestimate
b an underestimate?

34
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1 Review of number concepts

PEER ASSESSMENT

Tell … Ask … Give … (TAG) feedback is a way of assessing each other’s work.
To use this method, read through your partner’s answers to Exercise 1.19.
Use the guidelines in the table to help you give a TAG feedback on their work.

Tell your partner Ask a constructive or Give them a positive

something they thoughtful question suggestion for
did well improvement
I liked the way you … Why did you … One suggestion

E
would be …
I could easily under- Did you consider …
stand because you … Remember to …
Would it help if you …
The strongest part of Think about …
When does …
your work was …
I’m confused by …
Have you thought
You did … really well.

SUMMARY

Do you know …?
about …

PL If you … it might …

Numbers can be classified as natural numbers, integers, prime numbers and square numbers.
A multiple is obtained by multiplying a number by a natural number. The LCM of two or more numbers
is the lowest multiple found in all the sets of multiples.
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A factor of a number divides into it exactly. The HCF of two or more numbers is the highest factor found
in all the sets of factors.
Prime numbers have only two factors, 1 and the number itself. The number 1 is not a prime number.
A prime factor is a number that is both a factor and a prime number.
All natural numbers that are not prime can be expressed as a product of prime factors.
Integers are also called directed numbers. The sign of an integer (− or +) indicates whether its value is above
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or below 0.
When you multiply an integer (a) by itself you get a square number (a2). If you multiply it by itself again
you get a cube number (a3).
The number you multiply to get a square is called the square
_ root and the number you _multiply to get a cube
3
is called the cube root. The symbol for square root is  ​​√  ​​. The symbol for cube root is ​​√  ​​.
You can express numbers as powers of their factors using index notation. For example, 23 means 2 × 2 × 2.
The base is 2 and the index is 3.
Any number to the power of 0 is equal to 1: a0 = 1.
1
A negative index can be written as a reciprocal fraction with a positive index: ​​a​​  −m​ = ​  ___m ​​.
​a​​  ​
_1 n _
Fractional indices can be rewritten as roots: ​​a​​  ​ n ​​= ​√a ​​.
__
m n _ n _
For non-unit fractional indices: ​​a​​  ​  n ​​= ​​(​√a ​)​​​  m​= ​√​a​​  m​ ​​.
​a​​  m​
The laws of indices are: am × an = am + n; ___ ​​  n ​= ​a​​  m−n​​ and (am)n = amn.
​a​​  ​

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Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.