`NASS MODULE mobilised to participate in national development.

Civic education
involves teaching of the values that can be cherished by the
Introduction society is typical of and in all educational systems and not a
There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are unique to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was the odd case in that it did not
accepted and cherished by that society. Educational values in have this kind of emphasis in its education as much as Zimbabwe
other words are behaviour change in all the domains of education was the odd case in relation to national service.
that is the psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A skilled
artisan or accountant with no sense of his position in society at the
family level or at work or society in general is a social misfit and a
drain to national wealth because of the need to either hospitalise The meaning of National and Strategic Studies
him because he has AIDS, incarcerate him because he is a National and strategic Studies is an initiative with the prime focus
criminal and a danger to that society. A strong sense of belonging of moulding and refocusing Zimbabwean citizens in a desire to
or identity, responsibility and accountability are the things that can enable them to retain and cherish patriotism, self discipline,
be defined as patriotism. Economic giants today and in the past sovereignty and contribute to the development of the country in all
are and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of respects of a Zimbabwe/ African environment. The NASS
belonging has eluded both young and old and this is due to the programme has been designed to produce a Zimbabwean citizen,
selfishness, greed and the collapse of the extended family due to college graduate, with a high level of knowledge and commitment
western values. A culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary to contribute to the development of the country by exercising
attitude pervades all sectors of the society in the banking,  Patriotism
retailing, manufacturing and civil service .The need to change  Professionalism
attitudes and the need to inculcate correct values is not only  Good behaviour
urgent but also imperative now and in the future.  A commitment to National Development
For the above attributes to be exercised, all Zimbabweans must
Nass-Definition be proud citizens, must be of paramount importance to the nation
NASS can be defined, as civic educations designed to make all by contributing to the well being of Zimbabwe socially, politically,
Zimbabweans who go through tertiary education become economically and otherwise.
responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefore be

1
Nass And The Future
The future of National And Strategic Studies is clear and
beneficial that it will be a happy return of the future to have:
Components of Nass
 An uncorrupted society
 A generation with the will to commit themselves to their country
 A Zimbabwe free of poverty as a result of Entrepreneurial
Development and indigenisation
 A vibrant national cadre able to shrug off intrusions by History Legal & International Entrepreneurship
Parliamentary studies Relations
imperialistic forces of any nature
 Solution to our own programmes /problem as a country and not  Pre-colonial
wait for prescriptions from other wait  Colonial
 A Zimbabwe -ideally sound  Independent
-Build on collective effort  Post independence
-Bound by a desire to be us A- Zimbabwe history and heritage – is a module designed to
The purpose of Nass enable the students to appreciate an understanding of the
Nass therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the beginnings of Zimbabwe as a nation and the various indigenous
attitude of the participants with respect to their national identity resources that form our heritage. It seeks to create an awareness
and with respect to translating the political gains of the second of the underlying factors that resulted in the present Zimbabwe.
Chimurenga into economic gains of the third, fourth Chimurenga. B- Legal And Parliamentary Affairs- is a module designed to
have an awareness of Zimbabwe’s legal system, statutes and how
these affect their existence as citizens.
C- International relations- is a module designed to enable
students to have an understanding of the effects of International
Relations and to effectively articulate Global issues and make a
critical analysis of the role of International Organisations or
institutions.

2
D- Entrepreneurship and Development skills- this module is Historical evidence
designed to enable students to have knowledge and understand The historians have the oral traditions to try to explain the history
the need to be self-sufficient by developing their skills for of the Great Zimbabwe State. However, there is little that we
entrepreneurship and subsequent removal of the employee normally get from the oral traditions because the Shonas have no
mentality. written records. Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa
State by the Portuguese and records found in Arab writings have
an account of the Changamire and Mutapa States. However, the
archaeological evidence is there in the form of clothing found at
PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY
the Great Zimbabwe and some of the evidence including bones,
copper iron tools. Historians to show the social, economic and
political activities of the people at Great Zimbabwe have used
these. The structure at the ruins consists of 2 complexes “ the
acropolis” or temple area and the external enclosure, which

Great Zimbabwe Mutapa State Rozvi State Ndebele State

consists of a large number of stone buildings. Exactions in the
external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead and brassware,
The Great Zimbabwe State- “which means House of stones” seashells, ironware, iron axes and hoes.
Was most powerful before the 14 th century, which is 1500. It was
called the State because it could raise an Army and forces the
payment of tribute and was involved in international relations. The Social and political organisations
State was built by a group of people known as the Shona people By 1200 a ruling class had emerged, which was strong enough to
who had much wealth in the form of livestock. The stone capital organise almost the whole population to build a high surrounding
became known as the Great Zimbabwe, which became the centre wall, made of granite blocks. The Great Zimbabwe rulers
of social, political, economical and religious. The king was called exercised power to a number of chiefdoms that paid tribute to the
the Mambo. Mambo at Great Zimbabwe. Other chiefdoms may have been
independent but connect through marriage and trade. The ruling
class controlled the trade.
Purpose of the stone structure

3
  Security sister Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa hence she is
 Religion often referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa
 Prestige monument Empire stretching from the Angwa and Manyame Rivers, north to
 Occupy slave labour the Zambezi and west to the Musengezi and Mukumbura rivers.
Causes of the decline of the or collapse of the State Mutapa language and Customs
The State had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of The people had the same Shona language, customs and culture
resources. There was increased emigration. Shortages of similar to the peoples of the Great Zimbabwe State. The term
resources, that is salt, civil Wars, declining soil fertility and some Shona was not used until the 19th century. Nowadays the term
dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he Shona is representative of a number of related dialects in
had failed to succeed and left to the north and formed the Mutapa Zimbabwe one of which is Katanga. They believed in a god whom
State. they called ‘Mwari” who is claimed to have spoken through the
spirits of the ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit
THE MUTAPA STATE mediums, that is the Mondoros. Religious ceremonies were held
The founder of the Mutapa State was Nyatsimba Mutota who left to honour the spirit mediums where music dancing and feasting
Great Zimbabwe in search of salt or after a succession dispute occurred (bira). The senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the
according to oral history. Mutota went to the Zambezi Valley northeast, Nehanda in the central and Chaminuka in the west.
where he defeated some weak communities who were already The cultural level of the society was closely knit with the family
settled there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people. Mutota being the nucleus of the society as well as being the foundation of
as a result earned the title “Munhumutapa” a praise name, which the nation. The basis of this arrangement was a high degree of
means Lord of Conquering. Before the succession dispute, King morality with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution, divorce
Chibatamatosi, Mutota’s father had ordered Mutota to find salt. and almost all known present day social ills being unknown. The
Prince Mutota travelled north leading a large Army. He built his law was highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less
capital a “ Zimbabwe” on the slope of Chikato Hill near the Utete defined in terms of commerce. Criminals or murderers were even
River. Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the injured and the
the escapement north of Guruve. Mutota formed an alliance with culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of
the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the death of Mutota, his, murder. When a person was murdered life had to be paid by with
son, Nyanhehwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his half life and invariably a young woman from the murderer’s family had

4
to be given to the victim’s family. Inevitably this created a bond disputes and rebellions. They increased their demand for gold
between the two considering that at birth or death there are things and ivory on the puppets and caused them to increase the tax
that no one could or can do except the relative of a woman. burden upon their people. The people were compelled to trade
The Mutapa Economy with these foreigners and to pay tribute in the form of ivory, gold
The trade with the Swahili and the Portuguese has some serious and Asian and European goods. The Mutapa lost favour with the
negative repercussions on the Mutapa State and its citizens. people a thing, which encouraged breaks away. Dombo, the
Firstly, it interfered with the local activities, especially agriculture. founder of the Rozvi State grabbed this opportunity and broke
Labour available for farming was diverted, as people were away and eventually attacked and destroyed the Mutapa State. In
required to engage in trade related activities seen during the rainy addition, the guns, which the Mutapa obtained from the trade,
season. The traders expected the Mutapa people to hunt for ivory encouraged Wars. The vassal chiefs equipped with guns felt
and mine for gold even during the rainy season when people were strong enough to rebel against the Mutapa. Even individuals
supposed to be busy with their farming. Secondly, the trade led to claimants to the thrown used these guns to get to the thrown.
serious exploitation of the Mutapa people and their resources. Thus they did not only lead to rebellions and break ways, but also
The Mutapa laboured very hard to obtain ivory and gold; Activities, to revolutions overthrowing the ruling individuals. The Portuguese
which were very dangerous and yet they got items not worth the themselves used force on several occasions to establish their
labour and risk involved in terms of value. The Mutapa traded out trade. The Barreto Fernandez and Pereira expeditions were an
their precious gold and ivory in ignorance, as they did not know attempt to colonise the Mutapa State. Through their agents, the
their economic value. Thus they received worthless European Vashambadzi, the Portuguese and the Swahili were able to
products mainly consumer goods which were of no developmental penetrate the Mutapas. Not only were they able to get to the
value. Meanwhile, the trade depleted their ivory stock and gold hidden mines but they also put the people in a position of no
reserves. Thirdly, upon realising that the Mutapas were not choice but trade. The credits they got to the people bound and
welcoming them the Portuguese decided to interfere with Mutapa compelled them to trade to pay off the credits. The Portuguese
politics. Through their agents, the degradador they infiltrated the mercenary agents the Achihanda raided those who failed.
society and began to assume position of authority in the land.
They caused dispute for succession and managed to get their The Portuguese began to settle in the interior establishing trading
puppets like Gatsi Rusere and Mavura Mhande into power. This posts like Sena and Tete. They then obtained land concessions
interference weakened the Mutapa’s position and encouraged from their Mutapa friends. Some got the land by trickery means.

5
They began to engage in farming, opening maize and rice activity. The walls of mines could fall in anytime and yet the
plantations (Prazeros). On these Prazos they enslaved the lighting system was poor. It was difficult to drain out water from
Mutapa people to work for them especially those that failed to the mines during the rainy season or upon reaching the water
meet their credit obligations. These settlers also got involved in table. Traditionally people used to mine during the dry season but
womanising leading to emergence of a coloured race in the the Swahili and Portuguese forced the people to mine in summer
Mutapa. Their goods also encouraged. because of their increased demand for gold. This interfered with
other activities especially farming. Also in a bid to get more gold
Greed among the Mutapa people as others got wealthier while the Swahili and Portuguese entered the Mutapa and began to
others remained poor. The rich African class exploited the poor, interfere with the Mutapa politics. They caused confusion in the
as they were required to hunt, mine and trade on their behalf. State resulting in the weakening and decline of the State.
Lastly, the invasion of Muslin and Christian religious threatened Hunting (Mutapa)
the existence of traditional religions. The traders were also In the Mutapa State hunting was a traditional practice as it was a
actively involved in the spreading of their religions and source of meat and hides for clothing and trade. They hunted for
denouncing local religions and social systems. Father Silveira at both small and big game. In the hunting they used iron spears,
one time succeeded in recruiting the Mutapa and his people for arrows and knobkerries. The dog was an important hunting
Christianity denouncing such traditional marriage systems animal. They also used nets (mambure) and fibre string snares
especially polygamy. for trapping animals. Hunting was a man’s activity and even the
Mining (Mutapa) Mutapa hunted on occasions. Hunting however became more
The Mutapa mined for gold, iron, copper and silver. Copper was trade oriented with the increasing demand for ivory and skins.
for the making of jewellery and for trade. Silver was for the Men were required to pay tribute in the form of precious skins and
Portuguese trade and was mined at Chikoa. Iron was mined ivory. This was a dangerous activity but the people were
mainly for making of iron tools for use by the Mutapa people in compelled by the tribute credit obligations to take the risk.
farming, hunting and for War. Gold was for making jewellery and Tribute system (Mutapa)
for trade with the Swahili and the Portuguese. The demand was The Mutapa, like most African States, charged a loyalty tribute on
so high that even the King began to demand tribute in the gold its subjects, which was the only way the Mutapa could realise who
and other goods obtainable through the gold trade with the Swahili was under her control and who had to be attacked. It was a way
and Portuguese. The mining was also a laborious and dangerous they were able to measure the extent of their authority. In the

6
Mutapa there were various levels of tribute payment. Every The Rozwi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs. By
Household had to pay tribute to the King through the village head. 1830-1860 the State existed by name only.
The villages then paid through the sub chiefs who in turn paid Decline and collapse of the State
through the chiefs and provincial rulers. Also the defeated vassal The collapse of the Rozwi State was a result of Mfecane or “ time
chiefdoms had to pay tribute to the King; examples of such of trouble” caused by Nguni tribes who had fled from Tshaka or
dominions included the Kings of Uteve, Barwe and Manyika. broken away from the Zulu State in the present day Natal.
Zwangendaba crossed the limpopo with his group and fought the
Mutapa political structure Rozwi ruler Chirisamuru. The State was further weakened when
The king or Mambo led the State; they had many advisors and Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and defeated the Rozwi.
Ministers to govern the State. Some of the emperors’ wives were Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and
also officials, greeting visitors and handling their business and as finished the remnants of the Rozwi State between 1837-1840
members of his royal court they became very powerful.
Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery THE NDEBELE STATE
and clothes made from cotton and silk. Most people wore skin Origin
aprons. A large Army was maintained which travelled long The Ndebele State was a product of the Mfecane. The Khumalo
distance, patrolling and collecting taxes and cattle and brought clan were a small dominion under the Ndwandwe of Zwide.
new communities into the empire. Around 1817 Zwide killed Matshobana, chief of the Khumalo;
accusing him of conspiring with the Mthethwa to fight the
THE ROZWI STATE Ndwandwe. In his place his son Mzilikazi was made chief of the
The State arose from the plundered wealth by the Rozwi under Khumalo clan. Mzilikazi and his Khumalo Warriors were part of
Changamire Dombo (1634) believed to be having been a powerful the Ndwandwe Army which pursued Tshaka’s Zulu regiments in
ruler. He was very wealthy and claimed that; that his father was a 1818. At the Mhlatuse River battle Mzilikazi decided to change
Mwari and his mother a virgin. The Rozwi capital was at sides and he joined Tshaka as a way of avenging the death of his
Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo. By 1680 he was at his peak father against Zwide. Since Mzilikazi had voluntarily joined
and his state was spread between the Zambezi and the Limpopo Tshaka, he was given some privileges. He was allowed to
rivers and even into areas like Mozambique such as the Sena. continue ruling his Khumalo people and remained in charge of the
Khumalo Army. He was also made a general of Tshaka’ s armies.

7
 was determined to punish Mzilikazi. The Pedi people nearby were
Mzilikazi’s Revolt 1821 also a threat to the Khumalo; furthermore the area was not good
As a trusted induna and general, Mzilikazi carried out raids on for the cattle especially after the 1823/24 droughts.
behalf of Tshaka. He surrendered the booty obtained from these Emhlahlandlela 1826
raids to Tshaka who then rewarded his general as he pleased. Between 1826 and 1830 the Khumalo, now called the Ndebele,
Mzilikazi felt that it was not fair to have to fight and take all War settled in Northern Transvaal at a place called Emhlahlandlela.
risks to enrich Tshaka. He felt that he and his Khumalo people From here they carried out raids as far as Botswana, Lesotho and
could make it alone without Tshaka and become rich and Zimbabwe to enlarge their State. The Sotho people nicknamed
powerful. He felt the need to labour to create his own State Mzilikazi’s people ‘Matabele – men of long shields’, which the
independent of Tshaka. Thus, in 1821 he went to raid a Ndebele adopted as a name for themselves. This was a good
neighbouring Sotho tribe and collected a large booty, which he raiding and cattle rearing area. Also here Mzilikazi met the
decided to keep it for himself. His own people advised him to missionary, Robert Moffat at Kuraman Mission and the two
hand over the booty or risk severe punishment from Tshaka, but became friends. However, it was still too near to Zululand and
he would not listen. Tshaka sent messengers to remind him of his Dingane, who had succeeded Tshaka in 1828, and also wanted to
obligations, but Mzilikazi ill treated the messengers instead and punish Mzilikazi. In 1830 the Zulu Army attacked the Ndebele.
sent them back. Tshaka then sent an Army to punish the chief, The Khoisan, Kora and Kwena groups also bothered the Ndebele.
but Mzilikazi beat off the expedition. A second Army was sent The Rolong and Griqua Warriors who captured Ndebele cattle
which defeated Mzilikazi and sent him fleeing with only three also raided [Link] 1832
hundred soldiers, women and children. The Ndebele then settled the headwaters of Morico in
Journey to Bulawayo (Ekuphumuleni 1822/23) Hurutsheland in about 1832. Mosega was close to Kuraman and
From Zululand the Khumalo moved northwards attacking and also a good cattle country. However, the Ndebele were attacked
raiding Sotho tribes they came into contact with, looting for cattle, by Tswana-Griqua and Kora-Griqua force in 1834. In 1836
women and children to strengthen their State. In about 1822/23 Potgieter’s Boer attacked them and they decided to move on.
they reached the upper Olyphant River and settled in Nzundza Crossing the Limpopo
area at a place they called Ekuphumuleni (a place of rest). From Mosega the Ndebele split into two groups. The Induna,
Although it was a good raiding ground Ekuphumuleni was not Gundwane Ndiweni that contained the Ndebele cattle, women and
suitable for permanent settlement. It was too close to Tshaka who children led the first group. It also had most of Mzilikazi’s sons

8
including Nkulumane and Lobengula. The group took a direct was the Northeastern part of Zimbabwe never experienced any
route crossing the Motloutse and Shashe Rivers. They went to Ndebele raids. They only heard stories of the Ndebele but never
the Mzingwane valley which they followed until they came to a came in contact with them. The area was too far from the
place near Matopo Hills in Western Zimbabwe. The second group Ndebele capital so the Army could not wonder that far without
under Mzilikazi assisted by senior Indunas including Maqhekani exhausting and weakening itself.
Sithole took a westward direction. They went to the Ngwato Ndebele Social System
territory towards Lake Ngami on the edge of the Kalahari Desert. At Bulawayo the Ndebele State became divided into three social
They then moved towards Zambia to raid the Kololo in Balozi. It strata. The State had a caste system, which kept each group
was here that Mzilikazi heard of the installation of Nkulumane as separate from the other. Intermarriage was not allowed to ensure
King of the other group. Mzilikazi rushed to Matopo and had purity especially of the highest clans. Each group had specific
Ndiweni and other Indunas killed at Ntabayezinduna. The fate of socio-economic roles commensurate with its social level and
Nkulumane is not known. Some say he was sent back to political power. On the top of the strata was the Zansi class, that
Zululand and others say that he was secretly killed. is, the class that had come from Zululand with Mzilikazi. The
Ndebele Sphere of Influence original 300 Warriors, women and children who had fled from
The Ndebele established their Headquarters in Western Zululand and their off springs. This group constituted the
Zimbabwe at Bulawayo. From here they influenced the Khumalo class. These were aristocracy of the society. From the
surrounding areas directly or indirectly. The sphere of influence royal Khumalo class came all the kings and other Nguni elements
could be divided into four zones: The area within 80km of occupied such top positions as Army generals and Indunaenkulu.
Bulawayo was under the direct administration of the Ndebele Their royalty was not to be contaminated with intermarriages with
settlement inhabited by the people who had come with Mzilikazi lower classes. Any such unions produced off springs that did not
and the Rozvi people who had been assimilated into the Ndebele qualify to be Zansi but were regarded to be of lower classes, after
State. The second area was the areas around Bulawayo not Zansi was the Enhla class. These were the Sotho and Tswana
under direct Ndebele administration but whom the Ndebele had elements that had been absorbed before crossing the Limpopo.
defeated. These Shona and Kalanga elements paid tribute to These could only rise to such positions as Indunas and advisors
the Ndebele kings. The third area included those parts of but were regarded as being lesser than the Zansi and hence could
Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa, which had not been not occupy any top political or military posts. However they were
defeated but were subject to occasional Ndebele raids. Lastly, regarded as being higher than the lower class the Hole. The Hole

9
class was the lowest and servant/ commoner class in the society. cattle were the most important. In fact the State rested on cattle
This group constituted the Shona and Kalanga people that had production. Raiding and tribute payment were done mainly as
been defeated and had adopted Ndebele custom, religion and means of acquiring more cattle. Cattle were so important that
language. They were distinct from the other group by their they were only slaughtered during important occasions only such
totems. Their totems were derived from names of animals as the inxwala ceremony, death and wedding ceremonies and to
(Shumba – Sibanda, Nzou – Ndlovu, Shoko – Ncube, Mhofu – appease ancestral spirits. Cattle were regarded as a permanent
Mpofu including Dube, Mpala, Nyoni, Nyathi, Siziba etc). This food source providing milk and meat, which were the major
group being the lowest occupied the lowest servant position but components of a Ndebele diet. Milk was consumed fresh or sour.
however through merit and military performance could rise to Meat was consumed fresh or dried. Cattle were also a source of
being Indunas. Even thought these groups were distinct and hides for making clothing and shields. They provided draught
separate, together they made what became known as the power for transportation (this was however a work for donkeys),
Ndebele State. The State could have been incomplete without pulling carts and sledges and even ridden upon. They were also
any one of these classes. They complemented each other and important for payment of fines, tribute and lobola. They were lent
made a conglomerate State bringing together customs, religions, to the poor (ukulagisa) to enable them to use for draught power
languages, economies and politics from their respective and obtain milk or trade for goats and then raise their herd of
backgrounds. It is this socio-economic conglomerate, which cattle. The king to reward his Indunas and soldiers and also to
became a formidable State which even the whites had to be feed the Army and visitors used them. Cattle were therefore
contend with. central to the Ndebele economy and thus were regarded as a
The Ndebele Economic Systems symbol of wealth. A man was measured by the size of his herd.
The economy of the Ndebele was a mixed economic system. Those who occupied high social and political positions were
Their main economic branches were pastoralism, raiding, tribute feared in the society because they had very large herds of cattle.
payment, cultivation and trade. They also had subsidiary Raiding-Another important aspect of the Ndebele was raiding.
economic Activities, which included pottery, basketry, smiting, and Though more of a military activity / raiding was of great
mat making, fishing, hunting and gathering. Pastoralism-the importance to the Ndebele State. It was a means to obtain more
Ndebele kept a number of domestic animals including cattle, wealth for the State. It was a means to obtain cattle, grain and
goats, pigs, sheep and donkeys. These animals were kept for captives to expand and strengthen the State. The Ndebele State
their meat, milk, skins and draught power. Of these animals, right from South Africa had grown around raiding. The majority of

10
the population and wealth of the State had been acquired through crops were also important for the payment of tribute and for trade.
raiding. Raiding was the main reason for the creation of a The old people, women and children mainly did crop cultivation
standing Army, which provided employment for most of the young since the men were in military service. Trade - was one of the
and able-bodied men and women. The Ndebele raided Sotho economic activities of the Ndebele State. However it was not
communities for cattle and captives. In Zimbabwe they raided done on a wide scale. The Ndebele traded on a small scale with
Shona communities not only for cattle and captives but also for the Shona and the Whites of South Africa with the Shona they
grain since cultivation was not very important in their society. traded for iron tools mainly since they were not miners
Tribute Payment-this was also of Great economic significance in themselves. With the whites they traded mainly for guns. The
Ndebele Society. This was a way by which the subjects and Ndebele also had a rudimentary internal trade system. This
citizens of the Ndebele Society thanked their king for the involved barter trade among the Ndebele people themselves.
protection and safety provided by his armies. It was also a way Subsidiary Economic Activities
they demonstrated their loyalty to his authority. Tribute payment The Ndebele also had a number of subsidiary economic activities.
was required from all Ndebele subjects whether under direct or These were mainly done as pass time activities to supplement the
indirect control. To avoid being raided vassal States and tribes main economic bases. They practised pottery using mud as well
had to pay tribute to the Ndebele King. This was to be in the form as basketry and mat making using reads and grass woven with
of cattle, grain and women. Like raiding it was a means to obtain wood fibre. Some went fishing using nets, mats and fishing
cattle, grain and slaves and thus a means to strengthen the States spears. Hunting and gathering were also very important in this
economy. Cultivation-crop production though not pivotal to the society. They hunted for small and large game using spears and
economy was also an important aspect of the economy. It was dogs. This was mainly a man’s job. Women were mainly
not pivotal mainly because that State had grown in transit so there responsible for gathering for wild fruits, insects, roots and tubers.
was not much time to develop a sedentary economy. They grew Men also gathered wild honey.
crops as millet, sorghum, rapoko, melons, beans and pumpkins. Ndebele Religion
Crop production was important as a source of food to implement The Ndebele religion was mainly a by-product of their migration.
pastoralism. Millet and Sorghum were mainly for making It had aspects of all the tribe, which made it up. Firstly they
isitshwala (sadza) to be consumed with meat, milk or vegetables. believed in a creator God (Nkulunkulu) and the idea reinforced by
They were also important for the brewing of beer (utshwala), the Sotho/Tswana belief in a creator God (Mlimu). Also they
which was an important intoxicating drink in the society. The practised ancestral worship a concept they had brought from

11
Zululand and reinforced by the Shona worship of Mudzimu – however ruled with the help of an advisory Council. The Council
Madhlozi in Ndebele. These could be contacted through spirit was divided into two Houses, the Mphakhathi and Zikhulu. The
mediums. They also adopted the Venda rainmaking religion, the Umphakhathi was the higher body consisting of selected and
Njelele cult with headquarters at Matopo. This was similar to the trusted indunas. It discussed more delicate issues affecting the
Ndebele first fruit ceremony inxwala when they thanked the State. It sat in judgement and discussed relations with foreigners.
ancestors and God for rain and farm products. In rainmaking they However, the King was powerful enough to dominate the
asked the ancestors and God for rain. In all these religious Mphakhathi. The second much lower House was the iZikhulu.
activities the king was the Chief Priest since he was regarded as This constituted all other chiefs and men of Great wisdom and
god himself. His royalty had been bestowed on him by the gods thus was a much large House. It discussed general issues
and the ancestors therefore he was bound to be closer to them affecting the State.
spiritually. When the whites came they introduced Christianity to
the Ndebele. However, the Ndebele did not turn to Christianity The State was divided into four main provinces led by indunas
openly until the death of Lobengula, and the 1896 defeat by the eNkulu. Each province was divided into smaller units each under
whites. an induna (chief). The chief’s roles included rounding up
suspected criminals on rebels using a police gang, limited
Ndebele Political System distribution of captives and State cattle, and taking part in the
The Ndebele State had a centralised political system. All power King’s Advisory Council.
rested on the king who ruled the State a complex network of
Indunas (chiefs) and enforced his power and maintained peace The Ndebele State had a large standing Army whose main tasks
and order through a powerful military marline. The king was top were raiding, collecting tribute and herding the King’s cattle when
most figures with absolute power. He raised the amabhuto not raiding. The soldiers were in age regiments stationed in
(soldiers), co-ordinated military strategy, distributed captives and regimentary towns after the Zulu fashion. The youngest the
cattle, allocated land, got rid of opponents, called on the ancestors Majaha was stationed at Bulawayo. Each town was headed by an
for rain and organised and oversaw the annual inxwala (first fruits) induna who was both a political and military leader. The towns
ceremonies. He was the Commander in General of the forces, took the name of the regiment for example, Imbizo, Mahlokohloko,
the Chief Judge and Chief Priest. Like Tshaka he had power over Mhlahlandlela and many others.
life and death of his subjects. His decision was final. The King

12
The Lineage System country had the more it was feared in Europe. Wealth and power
In the Ndebele State the Khumalo where the ruling supposed to were expressed in for the number of colonies. Even power states
come from his House. At the death of the King, the eldest son such as Italy who had nothing to sell took up colonies because of
with his eldest wife of royal lineage was supposed to take over. this, the defeat of France in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. The
Sons of wives not royal lineage were not eligible for Kingship as humiliation suffered by France after the 1870 Franco-Prussian
they were regarded as being of commoner blood. Thus when War forced her to take up colonies in Africa (even useless desert
Mzilikazi died in 1869 there was a problem over succession as lands) to prove that she was still powerful and to save face i.e.
Nkulumane the eligible heir was nowhere to be found. Lobengula, she wanted to restore her national pride. Some European
the eldest then, had a mother from the Enhla class, therefore did countries with no capital to invest in industries demanding raw
not qualify to inherit the throne. It was not until 1871 that materials just entered the race in order to be left out i.e. for
Lobengula through bribery and alliance with the Nyangas of the prestige reasons e.g. Italy, Spain.
land managed to take over the throne.
Strategic Reasons
THE PARTITION & COLONISATION OF AFRICA Africa was colonised for the convenience of European states.
Reasons for the partition / colonisation Europeans colonised Africa to safe guard their possessions and
Economic Reasons trade routes e.g. the British occupation of the Cape and Egypt
Need for raw materials to feed the new industries of Europe e.g. was to safeguard her routes to India through which her ships
groundnuts for oil, rubber, cotton, minerals etc, need for new sailed from the Mediterranean Sea into India and the Suez Canal
markets to absorb European manufactured goods, which had over respectively
flooded the European market, to profitably invest their surplus Humanitarian reasons
capital, investing in new business in Europe was becoming less The Europeans claimed that occupation of Africa would enforce
and less profitable, governments wanted to create employment for the abolition of the trade in humans i.e. slave trade, Missionary
their population which had been affected by the industrialisation. work i.e. the White Man’s burden when Africa resisted Christianity,
Political & Prestige Reasons the Missionaries sought help from their governments in Europe to
The struggle for supremacy in Europe extended in the scramble annex land and thus protect their mission stations and work.
for colonies and colonies became a yardstick used to measure Annexation they hoped would make the people governable and
power / strength of the mother country. The more colonies a obedient. Missionaries attracted their governments to the lands

13
they had invaded first, they also facilitated the signing of treaties Modern guns/weapons gave the Europeans an enormous
through translation and persuading the Kings who trusted them to advantage over the Africans who were mainly using backward
sign treaties through translation and persuading the Kings who weapons that technological advantage in terms of weapons
trusted them to sign treaties e.g. J.S. Moffat and Reverend encouraged the Europeans to rush to Africa, technological
Charles Helm in the Ndebele state. improvement also resulted in improved medicine e.g. quinine
which enabled Europeans settle in Africa without being wiped out
Adventures, Hunters & Explorers by malaria.
They toured Africa and wrote exaggerated and glittering reports Berlin Conference of 1884-1885
about Africa’s wealth. This forced the capitalist class to encourage Acted as a catalyst in the occupation of Africa as it resulted in a
their governments to colonise Africa. Some hunters e.g. Baines rush for colonies. A conference which was called and facilitated by
signed concessions with Lobengula. Livingstone encouraged the Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany Chancellor to discuss how
occupation of Malawi to stop Ngoni slave Traders & Activities. Europeans states divide Africa without fighting each other for the
Chartered Companies e.g. Royal Niger colonies. The purpose of the Berlin Conference was to try and
Co & the BSAC were profit making companies who were given stop Wars against each other in Europe since the industrial
mandates by their governments to annex territories of profitable revolution in Europe had created shortages of raw materials,
areas and governed them as business enterprises, Traders called hence the meeting was held to iron out the possibilities of future
on their governments to take over African states in order to conflicts amongst themselves.
restore “law and Order” in conflict ridden areas so their trading Parties to the Berlin conference
activities would not be disturbed. German, Belgium, England, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain &
Technological Development Holland.
Europe led to the invention and improvement of steamboats, Terms/ Agreement
which could penetrate in the interior of Africa using rivers enabling Effective occupation to be done as proof of any claim laid on an
them to gain access to inland territories and avoiding hostile African state, all major rivers in Africa were declared open
territories. The steamboats were also used to carry large international waterways, signatories agreed to stop the slave
quantities of riffles, machine guns, ammunition and gunpowder trade. King Leopold ii of Belgium recognised as the rightful ruler of
used to conquer African Kingdoms. Congo Free State (D.R.C), a map of Africa was drawn to show
the areas unclaimed and claimed by the various European

14
nations, signatories agreed to stamp out the slave trade. NB: The Results of colonisation
African Chiefs whose continent was the subjects of discussion Colonisation resulted in the loss of political power and new
were not invited to the Berlin Conference to decide the fate of their government destruction of traditional and political structures. The
continent. Native Commissioner took over and replaced chiefs by company
loyalists, expropriation of resources, exploitation of resources,
Contents of protectorate agreements between European new laws, urbanization, loss of land, monetary economy, taxes,
Powers and African chiefs racial discrimination and the destruction of traditional instructions
Parties to the agreement included the African chief and the and cultural imperialism.
European commercial company, subjugation or surrender of title
to land, the location of the land, its size and the general MISSIONARIES IN ZIMBABWE
description, surrender of all political, judicial and political power, Role played by missionaries
creation of monopoly trade area, duration of agreement, that is, in Education through establishment of schools, medicine and
infinity or forever, the rewards for the chiefs and the people, hospital establishment, Trade-some of them were traders and
alleged or claimed improvements of their lives through European encouraged legitimate commerce, Architecture – new types of
civilisation and the surrender of all mineral and other resources. buildings e.g. the rectangular grass thatched Houses at Inyathi
Effects of the conference mission latter copied by the Ndebele King, was different from the
It led to the scramble for Africa by European states as it had laid thatched hut later on buildings made of brick, repairing weapons
the rules of the game, which the states were eager to put in for the Africans e.g. the British loading gun, Improved Agriculture
practice. The nations rushed to Africa to prove their claim through through mew farming techniques, Building of roads, Dressing -
conquest, signing of treaties and effective occupation. Effective clothes and other Europeans products introduced and they
occupation included sending of administrators, soldiers, and symbolised civilization, new religion and culture, whose code of
citizens to settle down and raising their flags. Nations even prove conduct called for the abandoning of polygamy and civil Wars or
claims over area if they had previously not been interested in; this raiding, facilitated the signing of treaties , Rulers and Europeans
was done to prevent rivals from claiming them. By 1900 all African i.e. colonialists used them as a road to colonize the country ,
states except Ethiopia and Liberia had lost their independence. Directed their home governments to occupy the areas where they
wanted to spread the word e.g. John Smith Moffat hated the
Ndebele state and that it will, be a blessing to the world when they

15
are broken up. He encouraged the BSAC to destroy the Ndebele weapons of mass destruction attacked Iraq in 2003 and there was
state in order to loosen the grip on political converts. Some of the a Global outcry against the War, which could have been,
British missionaries who worked in Zimbabwe are: Robert Moffat, prolonged in 2003 and there was a Global outcry against the War,
Charles Helm, and John Smith. Moffat, Francois Carnegie, Father which could have been, prolonged colonisation had the Iraq
Robert Laws, etc resistance not made continued occupation untenable.
Colonisation nevertheless took place many centuries before the
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY UN came into existence but that does not make colonisation any
Slavery is the highest level of degrading another human being. less a crime against humanity. Colonisation was perpetrated by
Slavery is as ancient as human existence. The practice was the very nations that were vociferously opposed to the Iraq
pronounced under the Roman Empire and at that time it also colonisation of Kuwait and yet many serious human rights
assumed its commercial undertones. This practice was perfected violations were perpetrated by the very same colonial powers in
by the former Roman colonies in Europe when they enslaved colonising Africa and other parts of the world. In Tasmania
Africa. Never in the History of mankind were such atrocities, Australia, British settlers wiped out the aborigines on the island to
insensitivity, and cruelty and inhumanity perpetrated by human the last man. The Spanish conquistadors demolished whole
beings upon other human beings. Slavery was the crudest method empires and civilizations in the Americas.
of exploiting other human beings and in its wake came
colonisation, which by definition is slavery with a humane face. SLAVERY IN AFRICA
The latter like slavery leads to the exploitation of other man by The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South
other means other than brute force and so also does neo- America or in the Americas created the need for a disciplined
colonialism. workforce, Inability of the local or native Red–Indian population to
withstand organised disciplined labour and this made African
It is not possible under The United Nations Charter for a nation to labour a necessary alternative, existence of disciplined agricultural
unilaterally attack or annex the territory of another state and and industrial culture in Africa also made African slaves attractive,
where this has happened of late as when Iraq attacked Kuwait the existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa
UN unanimous agreed to reverse the annexure through force of also made African slaves attractive, indigenous or Red-Indians’
arms. To colonise another state is therefore the highest form of inability to withstand European diseases, for example, small
state irresponsibility. The USA under false claims of existence of pox, syphilis, gonorrhoea, etc , The existence of a greedy and

16
gullible or naive chieftainship in Africa, which captured and sold Utrecht Treaty of 1713 gave English Merchants the right to supply
its own kith and kin for a bottle of firewater that is gin. South America with 5 000 slaves every year and a special
Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the company was formed to supply these slaves, Most of the gold and
consolidation of slavery. The trade in Europe did not provide products from the plantations from South America ended up
sufficient profit because of the problem of exchange values. But British towns. The continued enslavement of African peoples
the trade with un industrialised countries in Africa and America between 1646 and 1680 resulted in 70 000 slaves being taken to
was more profitable because of the use values, this system of South America. However, only 46 000 survived the translocation.
trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy and The slave trade was part of the triangular trade between Europe
slavery and colonial conquest, to consolidate accumulation or Africa and South America. This trade was very profitable to the
profit in England, the joint stock company was devised and European companies and the African Royal company which was
several of this new economic tool were formed, e.g. the the slave company paid a dividend of 300% despite loss half the
Adventurous Russia company and the Africa company. According “goods/cargo” that’s despite the death of more than half the slaves
to Nassau, a well known academic of the time, the objectives of en route to the Americas. There is therefore a co-relation between
the Africa company were, “… to kidnap or purchase and work to Europe’s expansion/development and slave labour from Africa.
death the natives of Africa without mercy.” The Eastland Company The methods used by the companies especially British firms, was
had the monopoly and right to trade with the European hinterland. to capture other countries’ export markets through colonisation,
The Levan Company in which Queen Elizabeth I was a major protectionism and the destruction of the native people of Africa.
shareholder became the East Indian Company. Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial revolution without
the plunder, the enslavement and the destruction of the native
The Fuggier Company in Germany was first a merchant company people of Africa
and later became a bank and financed all Germany Wars of the
period, the Fuggier Company in return for financing War was paid SLAVERY & COLONISATION
through the form of trading concessions, colonial land and through Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European
revenue from colonial mines, as contract with Latin America or commerce. The former (the merchants) later supported and
South America increased, the company turned to Africa for cheap financed the political institutions or their governments in their
labour, It was the nearest continent with a population used to Wars of conquest and colonisation and they also participated in
organise labour, which was also disciplined in many respects. The policy making. Colonisation therefore was an economic necessity.

17
 although substantial could not last long and the result was to
African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16 th century exploit the mines and the agricultural potential in Africa and South
but the need to exploit the wealth of South America saw slavery America. In South America where more gold and silver than in
reaching a climax in the 18th century. Slavery however, came to Africa existed, the mines could not be exploited using local so
an end when it stopped serving the purposes and interests of they resorted to stealing people from Africa.
European commerce. The dynamics of European production and
exchange changed and no longer required slave labour. Britain THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 1885 – 1965
banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however, continued or even grew The occupation of Zimbabwe
after this banning. In 1833 slavery was banned but it did not die Cecil Rhodes went to South Africa at the age of seventeen
until a 100 years later and to the shame lingers on in places like suffering from weak lungs with the hope to benefit from Africa’s
the Sudan. Slavery was not abolished because Europe had clean atmosphere. He joined his brother who was growing cotton
repented of its wickedness but because commerce could not in Natal. In 1868 when diamond claims had became one of the
benefit as much from this evil practice. Once slavery was richest mine owners. He became wealthy and powerful that he
abolished, it was replaced with colonisation. The commercial spearheaded the formation of such mining companies as the De
revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond Europe and Beers, Rothschild’s and Consolidated Gold Fields. Rhodes was
this created a conservation class of merchants and landlords’ an advocate of British imperialism. He believed in the superiority
commercial merchants were a class, which could not fully satisfy of the British race and felt that Britain had the duty to spread
their accumulation potential in Europe so they turned to foreign civilisation to all parts of the world. He dreamt of Britain colonising
markets. Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich the whole of Africa and constructing a railway running from Cape
through violence and other dishonest means, was extended and to Cairo. He thus became determined to use his wealth and
practiced in foreign lands through colonisation. The merchants power to make sure that his dream was realised. He took it upon
and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the himself to lead the colonisation of Africa by Britain. It is important
Ashanti Kingdom and Aztec Civilization in Central America. to note that Zimbabwe had many contacts with whites long before
Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the the event of Imperialism. This was through mercantilist trade with
Middle East and this almost destroyed the Arab civilization. The the Swahili and with the Portuguese. During the 19 th century
crusades were less about religion and more about plunder and many explorers and scouts travelled to the Zimbabwean plateau.
theft and robbery. The amount of wealth stolen in this manner These people made numerous reports on their experiences in this

18
land and had them publicised in Europe. It was these reports, encircle the Transvaal to stop her from having a seacoast.
which, like most of Africa, attracted Imperialists to Zimbabwe. In After the discovery of diamonds at Kimberly, the Boers felt
fact there was a mini-scramble for Zimbabwe during the 19 th strong enough that they no longer needed a relationship with
Century. Most important were the Germans from South West the Cape. They sought to expand northwards so as to be able
Africa, Boers, from the Transvaal, the Portuguese from to have a seaport and stop trading via the Cape. To stop this
Mozambique and the British from the Cape Colony. the British had to colonise the land north of the Transvaal and
Reasons for the occupation thus Zimbabwe was colonised.
 Zimbabwe was colonised, like the rest of Africa, out of the How Zimbabwe was colonised
prevailing spirit of imperialism. It was out of a momentum, The colonisation of Zimbabwe was a process, which began slowly
which Europeans found difficult to stop. The colonisers might during the day of Robert Moffat and progressed gradually up until
not have thought fully of what to expect, but just grabbed the the final occupation in 1890. Through the years the colonising
land to stop others from doing so. Out of popular imperialism process was characterised by a competition for this land between
Zimbabwe might have been colonised. the Boers and the British. Here however, we are going to
 Also Zimbabwe, like the rest of Africa was colonised for her concentrate on the events after 1885. The colonising process
economic potential as a source of raw materials and a potential was controlled and their guns were to be surrendered to the King
market for European manufactured goods. She was thought to and also that Rhodes would put notices in European newspapers
be harbouring a lot of mineral wealth. The Boers and the telling white people to keep out of Matabeleland.
British alike hoped for a second Rand from the Zimbabwean Step 1: the Grobler Treaty 1887
plateau. This treaty was signed between Piet Grobler and King Lobengula
 Zimbabwe was also colonised for her good climate and fertile in 1887, representing the Boer republic or the Transvaal. The
soils. Most of the country had a cool climate and a high rainfall treaty was also known as the “Friendship treaty”. It stipulated that
especially in the highveld. This added to fertile soil made it to there would be everlasting peace between the Ndebele and the
be of great farming potential to the whites that hoped to Boer Republics. It was a lie –there was never going to be
produce tropical industrial crops. Also the climate was good everlasting peace since they had deceived Lobengula. The treaty
enough for European habitation especially the coolness. recognised Lobengula as the paramount Chief / King (this
 The British colonised Zimbabwe as part of their plan to prevent statement was true/genuine because Lobengula was the ruling
the Boers of the Transvaal from taking it. They also wanted to King who had conquered the other States) and was supposed to

19
be an ally from then onward. The treaty committed Lobengula to was a missionary who was supposed to be a spiritual man who
provide military assistance to Transvaal or to the Boers whenever should have been honest. Moffat succeeded in persuading
asked (in the face of the British threat) (it was not a balanced Lobengula to cancel the Grobler Treaty and entered into a new
statement because the Boers were not made to provide any agreement with the British. The repudiation of the Grobler treaty
assistance –a sign of selfishness) they were only interested in by Lobengula was done under pressure from the British rivals
their own interests/hidden agendas, there was to be a permanent such as the Boers. Terms of the treaty: Lobengula agreed to be a
representative of Transvaal in Bulawayo-(but they did not ask friend of the British queen and promised not to enter into any
Lobengula to send his representatives to the Transvaal) and agreement without the knowledge and consent of the British High
Lobengula was to protect Boers who visited Zimbabwe. Commissioner at the Cape. Lobengula hoped to gain British
Lobengula was illiterate, he could not identify whom a Boer was / protection. Lobengula had entered into this agreement because
but no clause allowed Lobengula to send his people to the he had regarded Moffat as an old friend, however, little did he
Transvaal under the Boer’s protection. King Lobengula was know that Moffat was no longer a real friend to the Ndebele whom
required to catch and repatriate all criminals who escaped from he now regarded “ as miserable people and thought it would be a
the Transvaal. Hunters and adventurers would be allowed into blessing to the world when the Ndebele are destroyed or broken
Lobengula’s territory without hindrance. The Boer Republic would up” Rhodes was not happy with Moffat Treaty and decided to
appoint a representative who would stay in Lobengula’s Kingdom. come up with a new idea that led to the Rudd Concession.
Lobengula was not allowed to administer justice to the Boers in However the main essence of this treaty could be analysed as
his Kingdom .The content of the whole treaty was in favour of the follows; the British wanted to colonise Zimbabwe because of the
Boers. It gave nothing in return to Lobengula for his concessions. abundance of raw materials and other resources, he wanted to
Step 2:The Moffat Treaty (Feb 1888) stop the Boers from having a seaport to the north of the limpopo,
The British were greatly surprised to learn of the Boer success, so he wanted to realise his imperialistic dream of colonising the
Rhodes decided to act quickly and persuaded Lobengula to whole of Africa from cape to Cairo, he also wanted to stop the
withdraw the gobbler treaty. Rhodes decided to send a missionary Boers from grabbing the territory between the limpopo and the
by the name Rev. John Smith Moffat to go and ask Lobengula to Zambezi ahead of the British.
drop or cancel the Grobler treaty. The Rev. John Smith Moffat Step 3 Rudd Concessions 1888 (October)
was aware of Rhode’s intentions of grabbing Zimbabwe by It is also referred to as the Mineral Concession. The Treaty was
cheating so was behind the British evil motives as well even if he signed between Charles Rudd and Lobengula because the Moffat

20
Treaty, which opened a way to the north, did still not satisfy According to the concession Lobengula was to receive with his
Rhodes. He also thought that Lobengula would change his mind heirs and successors ‘a monthly pension of 100 Pounds. The
or cancel the Treaty if approached by other competitors. So to be King was to be supplied with 1000 Rifles and 100 000 rounds of
more secure he sent three man powerful delegation to Lobengula ammunition and a gunboat to patrol the Zambezi or 500 Pound
to negotiate a mineral concession. The delegation was led by instead’. He in return granted the whites ‘complete and exclusive
Charles Rudd who was an old friend to Cecil John Rhodes since charge over all metals and minerals in my land ---- together with
their days at the Oxford University was therefore, an embodiment/ full power to do all thins they may deem necessary ---- to procure
admirer of Rhode’s self-interest. The second one was Rotchford the same --- and undertake to grant no concessions of land or
Maguire, he was a lawyer and his legal expertise in the legal mining rights without consulting Rhodes’.
language was going to be useful in tricking Lobengula. The third
member was Francis Thompson. He was nicknamed “Matabele” Lobengula had been advised that the only way to get rid of these
because he was fluent in the Nguni Languages Ndebele included vultures souring over his vulnerable State was to grant one of
and had a perfect knowledge of the Ndebele customs and them a concession and this one was to make it its business to
traditions. His presence therefore, meant to influence Lobengula keep out others. Lobengula was made also to believe that
to sign the Treaty. However, Lobengula did not want to meet this Rhodes’ group was the best selection. Thus out of keeping peace
delegation and let alone sign the agreement. It took the delegation with the whites he consented against his will and the will of his
6 weeks to meet Lobengula and also the bribery of his most young Warriors who wanted the whites driven out by force. He
senior indunas Lotshe and Sikombo during negations was clear had to listen to the advice of his trusted indunas and friends
signs that Lobengula was backtracking for the Rudd Concession. thinking that they were genuine yet they were on Rhode’s pay roll.
During negations Rudd lied to Lobengula that not more than 10 The legal language used during the discussions and on the
men will be brought to Matabeleland and assured Lobengula that document was beyond the poor King’s understanding. He had to
their weapons would be surrendered to the Ndebele King when make do with a white interpreter who also had interests in the
they arrive in Zimbabwe. On the strengths of such empty words outcome of the deliberations. He thus signed not knowing what it
and at the advice of Rev. Charles Helm, Lotshe and Sikombo, “deem necessary,” meant for him and his people. The money and
Lobengula put an X mark on this document. By putting the X on guns promised to Lobengula were accepted with the hope of
the document Lobengula signed away his political and economic using them to strengthen the State. Little did Lobengula know that
power. they were just baits to lure the fish. These promises some of

21
which never came (the gunboat never came and was actually Invasion and the occupation of Zimbabwe and the Pioneer
meant for British to use or to keep out Portuguese) were not at all column
equivalent to what Lobengula had given out in economic and After the granting of the Charter in October 1889, Rhodes hurried
developmental value. to S.A. and gathered a gang of mercenaries, which he called the
The British South Africa Company (B.S.A.C) and the Charter Pioneer Column. The group was made up of the 200 settler
1889 volunteers from 1000 applicants from all over Europe and S.A.
With the Rudd Concession, Rhodes quickly formed a company, They were supported by 500 troops. The group was promised
the British South African Company, to operate under and use in 3000acres and 15 gold claim mines. The leader of the Pioneer
the negotiations with the British government for a colonising Column was Starr Jameson although Fredrick Selous guided the
charter. He then proceeded to London for negotiations. In Britain settlers because of his knowledge of the country as a hunter. It
he faced opposition from Philanthropists believed that only Britain was decided to enter the country along the eastern borders of the
not a company should colonise Zimbabwe. A company, they Ndebele and march into Mashonaland so as to avoid a direct
feared, would exploit the Africans but Britain would develop the clash with Ndebele Army. In June 1890 the Pioneer Column
country for the advantage of local people. The other groups crossed the Limpopo River and arrived at fort Tuli (Beitbridge).
feared that the country was going to create a tax burden on the The Pioneer Column proceeded northwards and arrived at Fort
taxpayer. Rhodes convinced the government that he would not Victoria (Masvingo) in august 1890. From there on they further
need the taxpayer’s money since rich mining companies such as proceeded northwards and arrived at Fort Charter. On 12
the De Beers, Rothschilds and the Consolidated Gold Fields September 1890 the Pioneer column finally arrived at Fort
supported him. He also bribed senior officials in the British Salisbury and quickly raised their Union Jack Flag, and started
government to get his way through. The Charter gave Rhodes pegging off large tracts of land using horsebacks.
and the BSAC power to make treaties, promulgate laws, preserve White Settlement in Mashonaland
peace, maintain a police force and acquire new concessions, to Upon reaching Mashonaland, the settlers, did not take long to
make roads, railways, harbours and undertake public works, to establish themselves. They pegged large farms on which tents
own or charter ships, engage with all the intention and ability to were hurriedly put up to provide temporary home. Solid Houses
Act but helplessly bound by the fear of the re-percussions of such of bricks soon replaced these. Towns began to take shape as
move. Houses were built along neatly laid out streets. Africans in these
areas soon found themselves squatting on white farms. They

22
were given two choices, either to move or pay for being allowed to bought the concession from Lippert thus strengthening his
remain on the land. They paid either by providing cheap labour position.
for the whites in their mining and farming or by growing crops and The 1893 Anglo-Ndebele War (the War of dispossession)
paying the white in the form of grain or cattle. This was The causes of the 1893 War between the whites and the Ndebele
encouraged by most of the settlers since they had not yet were borne in the relationship that existed between the two
engaged in full time farming. These squatters were levied a groups. On the other hand Ndebeles’ wanted the whites out of
number of taxes by these white farm owners. Mashonaland while on the other hand the whites wanted the
Ndebele nation destroyed. The whites wanted the Ndebele nation
Many of the settlers began searching for gold and other precious destroyed mainly because:
metals. Where these were found mines were established and Causes
shafts sunk. However, very little gold was found. Most of the The Ndebele nation was a living example of African independence
mines they took were former Shona mines in their trade with the and self rule which challenged their claim that African could not
Portuguese. Moreover, African labour was required in these rule themselves. The Ndebele Nation lay on the direct link
mines and the Shona found themselves providing mining labour. between Salisbury and Mafeking South Africa. The Ndebele
They tried to resist by hiding the mines but with little success. The Nation could be sitting on rich gold deposits, which they hoped for.
settlers negotiated a separate Treaty on the 14 th of September The whites eyed the Ndebele cattle, land and labour resources.
1890 with the Manyika Chief, Mutasa, in which he had granted Ndebele imps were occasionally invading Mashonaland thus
mineral rights and also permitted the stationing of a white resident disrupting white farming and mining Activities. Destroying the
and a police force in his area. Other treaties had also been Ndebele was going to make Rhodes famous in Europe since it
signed with the Shona Chiefs in the area between the Sabi and was regarded as a formidable African power and anyone to
Odzi Rivers. These treaties greatly challenged Lobengula’s claim destroy it would be a hero. Generally expansion into Matabeleland
that he ruled all the Shona people. It thus weakened the Rudd would widen the whites’ economic horizon since they had not got
Concession whose power was based in this claim. Lobengula and much in Mashonaland. Some were already contemplating pulling
his Ndebele people could do nothing to stop the whites. In out.
desperation, Lobengula granted land and mineral rights to a
Johannesburg businessman in an effort to weaken Rhodes’ The Ndebele wanted the whites out of Mashonaland, which they
position. However, Rhodes knew about the transaction and regarded as their traditional raiding ground. This was an attempt

23
to repossess the Shona who they had been dispossessed. Also a trap to find an excuse to attack the Ndebele knowing how much
the Shona were becoming disloyal to the Ndebele King some they depended on the Shona. White hunters and explorers
even stopped paying their annual tribute. Each side however crossed the line at will. Moreover, the boundary was constantly
feared the other and did not want to appear the aggressor. They shifting towards Matabeleland.
tried to contain and restrain their ambitions hoping however for a The Victoria Incident
chance to pounce on the other. It may also be said that they also The events, which led to the final confrontation between the
hoped for a way to solve their differences amicably and reach a Ndebele and white settlers, occurred in the Masvingo (Victoria)
reasonable and acceptable compromise. This compromise to the district. Some Shona leaders thought that with white settler
Ndebele would mean being allowed to continue raiding the Shona. occupation of their areas, Ndebele raids had ended. Some of
However this could not be reached without offending the whites. them even stopped paying their annual tribute to Lobengula.
To the whites the compromise meant a temporary arrangement Lobengula punished several Shona leaders for this. In 1891,
where they would regard the Ndebele as their equal while they Chiefs such as Nemakonde and Chivi were actually killed by
stealthily entered, Matabeleland and had eventually established Lobengula. These Acts were not acceptable to white settlers
their control without bloodshed. A situation where the Ndebele because they frightened the Shona who were their main source of
would accept a protectorate status like Swaziland, Lesotho and cheap labour to work in farms and mines. Following the killing of
Botswana. A tentative compromise reached was the creation of a the Chiefs, Jameson pleaded with Lobengula to keep his army
boundary between Matabeleland and the area under company under strict control to prevent further occurrences. Lobengula
rule. Matabeleland side was not to cross this boundary. The however assured Jameson that the whites had nothing to fear, but
Ndebele imps were not to wonder across this line while white his position regarding the Shona remained unchanged. They
hunters and explorers were also not to cross into the Ndebele were his subjects and he had to punish them whenever they
land. However, this was difficult for the Ndebele since the Shona defied his authority. In 1892 a series of raids occurred in the
were on the other side of the line. Moreover Lobengula was Masvingo area, which was a potentially wealthy agricultural,
failing to restrain the young soldiers who had no respect for the ranching and mining region. In May 1893 some men under
whites and wanted them moved by force. Occasionally they headman Gomala between Tuli and Fort Victoria, cut and carried
wandered across the line. The Shona also became un-loyal to the away about 500 yards of the telegraph wire, possibly to make
Ndebele and he could not help but want to punish them. Also, the snares. Gomala was ordered to either hand over the culprits or
whites really never meant to observe this boundary. It was really pay a fine in the form of cattle. He paid in cattle belonging to

24
Lobengula who demanded their immediate return. Jameson Police force at Fort Victoria was supplemented with 400
returned the cattle. Another Headman, Bere, 15 miles west of volunteers in preparation.
Masvingo, took cattle belonging to Lobengula. Lobengula decided
that the Shona in the Victoria district had to be taught a lesson. A On 14 July, Lobengula’s letter to Lendy arrived and was handed
raiding Army was despatched under the command of Manyawo over by a messenger escorted by Manyawo, Mgandani and other
assisted by the young Commander, Mgandani. The force leaders. They demanded the handing over of Shona refugees but
consisted of 3 000 young Warriors (amajaha) Manyawo and again Lendy refused. Jameson himself arrived on 17 July and
Mgandani were given strict orders to avoid clashes with white held an Indaba (meeting) with the leaders of the raiding expedition
people carrying out their mission. the following day. He told Manyawo and Mgandani that no
refugees would be handed over and ordered them to lead their
The expedition left Bulawayo in June, and Jameson and Lendy, a Army away across the border immediately. Jameson also warned
magistrate at Fort Victoria, were informed of the purpose of the that force would be used if they did not comply. Mgandani also
invasion. However, Jameson’s telegram and Lendy’s letters were vowed that they would be driven if need be. In fact, Jameson had
delivered after the trouble had already started, thus undermining made up his mind that the Ndebele would be driven by force. He
Lobengula’s diplomatic efforts to prevent a War with the whites. ordered Lendy to follow with a mounted patrol after two hours to
On 9 July, Ndebele Warriors were seen burning homes, killing see to it that the orders were complied with. Lendy’s mounted
men and driving away women and girls in the Bere, Zimuto and patrol rode towards the west at about 2.30 pm. Unfortunately the
other areas surrounding Fort Victoria. Farm and mine labourers rear part of the Ndebele party, under Mgandani, was still with the
were also attacked and hundreds of white settlers owned cattle area slowly marching westwards. Lendy caught up with them and
were driven away. The district’s economic activities were brought concluded that Mgandani was defying Jameson’s orders.
to a standstill and many Shona people were either taking to the Somebody fired a shot, possibly one of Lendy’s men, although it
hills or streaming towards the little town centre of Masvingo. The was alleged that the shot came from the Ndebele. In the resultant
leaders of the expedition demanded that they be handed over for skirmish, Mgandani and eleven of his group were killed. The rest
punishment but Lendy would not agree. Jameson, at Salisbury, of the Ndebele fled.
decided to come and see for himself. He gave orders to Lendy to
demand the return of white cattle and the immediate withdrawal of Encouraged by Lendy’s easy victory the whites demanded full-
the expedition or use of force if they did not comply. The small scale War to destroy the Ndebele State once and for all.

25
Jameson shared this view and told Rhodes and the High force. Those who resisted forced labour also had their cattle
Commissioner. Jameson also told Lobengula his version of what confiscated. In Matabeleland cattle were lost during the 1893
had happened and demanded compensation. He warned that any War. The whites went away with 209 070 cattle of Lobengula’s
such event in the future would lead to War. Lobengula believed 250 000 head leaving the Ndebele with only 40 930 heads of
Jameson and promised to pay the damages. Lobengula thus cattle. Of these, more were taken through taxation. Thus in 1896
informed the High Commissioner that he was not going to pay the Africans were fighting to repossess their cattle and prevent
even though he still wished to avoid War. more going to where others had gone. To the Ndebele cattle
The 1893 War were the basis of the economy. Losing cattle in addition to losing
In the effort to prevent War, Lobengula sent an Ambassador to their King and independence were humiliating. Cattle were a
Queen Victoria. Jameson however was already preparing for War national pride, which could not be parted with so easily.
at Salisbury. Volunteers were being recruited and organised into
a military force. He persuaded Rhodes and Henry Loch, the Effects of the War Anglo-Ndebele
British High Commissioner to accept the necessity of a War to The major effect of the War was that it had destroyed the Ndebele
destroy the Ndebele. The Victoria Agreement was reached on 14 Nation, which had been a thorn in the flesh of the settlers and an
August 1893. This was a secret agreement between the BSAC obstacle to their economic ventures. With the Ndebele gone, it
(Jameson) and white settler volunteers under volunteer was was now possible to effectively carry out the whole colonising
entitled to 2 469 hectors of Ndebele land, 20 gold claims and a programme of Central Africa rule, which challenged their claim
share of Lobengula’s cattle. By September 700-800 volunteers that African could not rule themselves. The Ndebele people for the
registered for War. first time were without a King. The whole nation its social and
political structures were in tact, but the King was gone. Stories
Although also preparing for defending his land Lobengula was still were put forward to try and tell the fact of Lobengula. The Whites
willing to avoid War. He welcomed messages from the Queen had it that Lobengula died of small pox while trying to flee to
and Secretary of State that there was going to be a War. In Zambia. Some said that he managed to reach Zambia and died
October 1893 Ripon the Secretary requested through the High there of old age. However, top secret among the Ndebele has it
Commissioner that Lobengula withdraw his forces and send that he, upon realising his hopelessness ordered the people to
Ambassadors to the Cape for negotiations. Lobengula agreed surrender to the white men. He then ordered senior Indunas to kill
and sent his own brother Ingubungubu. Their cattle were taken by him secretly and bury him privately at a place in Lupane district.

26
The truth however is not clear now when looking back and after were left and of these many were still being taken through
such a long time. The Whites may have coined up a story to hide taxation.
their failure to capture Lobengula and to dispel fears among the Why did Lobengula Flee?
Whites that if at large he may decide to attack by surprise. Also, After the defeat at Mbembezi, Lobengula realised that he was no
even though the Ndebele have their top secrete, it is difficult to match of the white and set his kraal on fire and began to flee
accept it without substantial tangible historical evidence. The War northwards. However, upon reaching the Shangani he ordered
drastically altered the Ndebele political and economic way of life. his people to go back and surrender to the white. This paradox
Politically, without a King, they were now subjected to colonial has been a puzzle, which historians have been seeking to solve.
rule. Never in the past had they been servants to anyone. They Lobengula might have had decided to leave Bulawayo, hoping to
now had to contend with having to pay tax to the whites whose establish a new capital somewhere in the north. The Ndebele had
administration was oppressive and biased in favour of the whites. been a State born in the move seeking for a peaceful place to
They laboured in white farms and mines under the command of settle. Since whites had invaded Bulawayo, they had to leave it
Shona policemen whom they despised as their former servants like they did many other places before. However, he might have
and dogs. The Army was destroyed and instead of raiding it had changed his mind upon realising that the State had grown during
to contend with either farming or providing cheap labour in farms its stay at Bulawayo. It was going to be difficult to round up and
and mines. Economically, the Ndebele lost their major economic move such a huge community. When he moved it might have
bases. For the first time they had to develop an agrarian been himself and his fighting force but the rest of the community
economy. Raiding and receiving of tributes had ended and the had not moved with him. He might have then killed himself out of
Ndebele had been squeezed into the drought stricken Gwaai and frustration and not wanting to face the humiliation of seeing his
Shangani reserves. Here they had no option but to engage into people being servants of the whites. He also knew that the whites
farming for subsistence and to source money to pay tax. The were not going to spare his life anyway.
Ndebele had never been a farming people, but relied heavily on
raiding and tribe from Shona for grain. Like in Mashonaland, the THE FIRST CHIMURENGA / MVUKELA
Whites apportioned the best land among themselves and began
prospecting for gold. In Matabeleland they went further to seize Causes of the 1st Chimurenga (1896-7)
Ndebele cattle. Of the 250 000 Ndebele cattle only 40 930 head Another eye sore in the life of the Africans during these early days
of colonialism was forced labour (Chibharo). The whites needed

27
cheap labour in their farms and mines. However, working and Shona rose, it was in attempt to restore this trade with the
living conditions in those work places were very bad. It was also Portuguese. The Ndebele also had enjoyed their raiding and
more profitable to engage in farming than go for wage labour. As tribute economic systems. When they were defeated in 1894, it
a result very few volunteered to go and work. At work places they meant that there was not going to be any raiding and they had to
worked under very hard conditions not fit for humans. The African pay tribute to the whites instead of receiving tribute themselves.
Police constantly used the sjambok. The Ndebele did not like the Thus when they rose in 1896 they were hoping to restore these
idea of having to work under the supervision of Shona police lost activities.
whom they regarded as their servants. Thus in 1896 the two
groups rose in protest against these deplorable working conditions Oppressive administration was one of the evils the Africans fought
and the idea of being forced to work against their will. To facilitate against in 1896. The Government promoted many injustices. The
the recruitment of more labourers the whites came up with a few and unqualified magistrates worked in their own interests to
series of taxes to bind the Africans. In 1894 for example, the hut protect the whites at the expense of the black people. They
tax was introduced. Every male adult was to pay tax amounting to conceded the white settlers’ demands for cheap African labour
10 Shillings. Failure to pay this and other taxes was a crime, and turned a blind eye to the many instances of cruelty towards
which saw one being arrested to go and work for the State. In the African servants. Punishment for whites in comparison to
1895 officials collected 2 611 heads of cattle for hut tax. Africans those dealt out to blacks was minimal. The law was thus biased
lost a number of their cattle on account of the tax. Those that in favour of the whites and any white had authority to exercise any
tried to resist had their homes burnt and cattle seized by force and justice he felt fit on Africans in such cases as desertion, stock
they being taken into forced labour. In 1896 the Africans were theft, and quarrels with the bosses. The blacks were viewed not
rising not only against the taxation but also the injustices, which as subjects of human beings but as objects.
went with it.
Maybe one of the major reasons for the uprisings was the issue of
When the whites came and established themselves in Zimbabwe, natural disasters. The Africans a bad omen does not befall a
they destroyed existing African economic systems in order to person or a nation unless inflicted by any angry spirit. When the
introduce their own. The Shona, for example, had enjoyed a people have wronged the ancestors, the spirits remove their
lucrative external trade with the Portuguese. However, with the protection on them and let evil spells terrorise the people. This
arrival of these settlers the trade died naturally. Thus when the will be a way the ancestors seek attention and appeasement from

28
the living. Through the mediums, the spirits out the form of natural disasters on the land were an expression of Mwari and the
appeasement they so desire. Between 1894 and 1896 a number ancestors’ anger at white colonisation. They ordered the
of natural disasters befell the whole of Zimbabwe. There was a expulsion of the foreigners from Zimbabwe. Chief Priest
severe drought throughout the land between 1895-96. The Mulungulu whose shrines were at the Matopo Hills headed the
crops which survived the drought were destroyed by swarms of Njelele cult. Mkwati whose headquarters were at
locusts the type which had not been seen on the land for a long Ntabazikamambo headed the Mwari cult. These worked closely
time. Added to this a devastating of cattle officials in effort to with political and military leaders during the Ndebele revolt,
eradicate the disease ordered that all cattle showing signs of organising and inspiring people to fight. When the rebellion spread
rinder-pest be killed and people were not allowed to eat the meat to Mashonaland Mkwati extended his influence to this area as
of the dead cattle. This made the Africans even bitter. Natural well. Shona chiefs maintained communication with the Mwari cult
disasters meant one thing to the Africans. It was an expression for religious advice towards the rebellion. Examples of such
of Gods (Mwari/Mlimu)’s anger. Traditional religious authorities chiefs included Mashayamombe, Maromo, and Mutededza and
that blamed the whites for having angered Mwari/Mlimu confirmed even as far as the Sabi Valley area. Mkwati’s Mwari cult was a
this. They warned that unless the whites were fought and driven uniting factor between the Shona and Ndebele during the rising,
out of the land, the Africans would continue to suffer. The whites breaking the tribal barriers. Thus the two groups being
in their gold hunt an farming expeditions had defiled holy places of encouraged by the success or failure of the other. Mwari
the land and thus the gods of the land were angry with their messengers such as Bonda and Tshiwa moved from one region
people for letting the whites remain on the land and continue to to another spreading the Mwari messages. At the same time
defile the land. They thus, through their mediums, called for the Mhondoro mediums were busy in Eastern Zimbabwe. The Kaguvi
immediate expulsion of the whites, if they were to remove the medium, Gumboreshumba worked with many chiefs: Chinamhora,
curse. So when the Africans rose in 1896 it was in response to Chikwaka, Nyandoro, Zvimba, Mangwende, Mashayamombe,
the call from the spirit to correct the wrong by forcefully driving out Rusike, Seke and several others. The Nehanda medium, Charwe
the whites. had influence in the Mazoe valley area upon such chiefs as
The Role Played by Religion Chiweshe, Hwata, Nyamweda, Negomo and Nyachuru.
There were three main religious cults during the uprisings, that is,  Religious leaders gave religious sanction to the risings.
the Mwari and Njelele cults in Matabeleland and the Mhondoro  They helped in organising and mobilising people for action.
cult in Mashonaland. These cults advised the people that the

29
 Their network of spies and messengers spread War was the first time that they had fought a common enemy as a
information between various paramount chiefs, encouraging united people and a War of such magnitude. It was important in
people to fight, telling them of successes in other areas. that it laid the foundation for future Wars of resistance that is the
 They provided medicine to chiefs for various problems on their 2nd Chimurenga. The notable heroes of the first Chimurenga were
lands, that is, locusts, rinderpest, scabies and even success in people like Nehanda, Kaguvi, General Magwegwe and Mkwati of
the War. the Ndebele Army, Chief Chingaira, Mashonganyika, Muzambi,
 They kept the chiefs lighting War fires on top of mountains Maremba, Zvidembo, Mazhindi, Manyongori, Gunduza, Mvenuri
shouting the War cry “Chimurenga” and Guti.
 The Nehanda and Kaguvi mediums warned people against not
taking part in the rebellion. They told people not to touch or COMPANY OCCUPATION/ COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
use white men’s tools especially guns. They encouraged FROM 1894-1923
people, telling them that the bullets of the white men would turn The period between 1880 to 1897 witnessed little economic
into water. development, acute shortage of labour, poor transport, the Anglo-
 It was not until the capture of Gumboreshumba and Charwe in Ndebele War, Jameson’s raid, the 1st Chimurenga, rinderpest,
1896 that the people began to surrender. locusts, among others. In 1898 there was a watershed in the
economic and political development in the country as witnessed
Results of the 1st Chimurenga by the following: labour became more increasingly available as
Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they Africans accepted defeat, railway lines became a feature of the
used which included spears, shields, bows and arrows against the country, the company diverted its resources to farming and
white men’s machine guns, cannons and the seven ponders, appreciated that there was no 2nd Rand in the country. The
disunity and disorganisation among the Africans also contributed company was given a legislated Council, which comprised five
to the defeat as some collaborated with the whites, leaders and executive members with the company administrator as the
spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the chairman. Also the 1st constitutional change took place in 1898 as
Africans directionless and leaderless, Africans lost faith in their a result of the 1st Chimurenga. Again in 1898 strife or friction
spirit mediums in particular and their religion in general leading to started between the company and the settlers over the control of
many Africans being converted to Christianity. However, although the country. The settlers accused the company of sacrificing their
the Africans were defeated, their efforts need to be recognised. It interest to the company’s interests. In 1903 settler representatives

30
in the legislative Council became equal to the company’s  Africans could vote theoretically but practically they could not
representatives. In 1911 the settlers won the majority over the vote because many could not meet the qualifications, which
company. However, the company rule according to the Royal included completion of form in English.
Charter was supposed to end in 1914 but the settlers voted for its  Owning a House worth 75 pounds or an annual salary of 50
continuation for another 10 years because they were benefiting pounds property qualification doubled in 1912 when it
from the company’s investments, however, the possible appeared as many Africans could vote.
termination of the company rule precipitated a debate between  Administration of colonies left in the hands of Native
company and the settlers. The 1st quarrel was over the control of Commissioners, Magistrates of African Chiefs were left with no
the land; the 2nd was over the administrative deficits. In 1918 the political power except collecting taxes and providing labour
judicial committee of the Council had ruled that the land belonged force.
to the settlers and this was a settler victory. Company rule was to  Settlers for failing to present settler’s interests accused
end in 1923. The country was either to join SA or was to obtain company Government.
Responsible Government. In 1919 Charles Coghlan formed the  Company rule ended in 1923 and settlers were given option of
Responsible Government Association, which became the joining South Africa or to form a responsible government and
Responsible Government Party to fight for the Responsible they chose the latter
government, however the BSAC favoured a union with SA. A  The Country came under settler rule on 1 October 1923.
referendum was held on October 22, 1922 to decide on the Expropriation and exploitation of Resources
responsible government or a Union with SA. On October 1, 1923 The company introduced many laws to deprive Africans of their
Southern Rhodesia attained responsible government. resources especially exploitation and control of African labour
 Conquest of the Ndebele in 1894 led to the government of force.
Zimbabwe resulted in company rule under British Land Grabbing
responsibility. 1894 a Land Commission was set up to create reserves for the
 Leader Star Jameson the 1 Administrator of the Colony and
st
Ndebele. The commission created the 1st two reserves of Gwaai
ruled with the assistance of a Legislative Assembly chosen by and Shangani, which form reserves, were rocky, infertile, and poor
the Whites and Company. soil texture, in regards to poor soils. The fertile land was to be
taken by settlers.

31
Order in Council – 1898 Government ordered reserves to be into reserves it reduced the number of aces and cattle owned by
created all over the country. each family. Not more than 8 hectors and not more than 6 cattle. It
1914 Land Commission set to identify land suitable for reserves also stipulated good farming methods e.g. contour digging. Agric
and settlers and in 1912 all people who had not moved to extension officers were sent to teach Africans good farming
reserves areas were forced to pay extra tax of grazing fees. methods.
1930 Land Apportionment Act was passed in order Results
to divide land between whites and blacks, all good
land reserved for whites and poor land to the More Africans failed to get land and migrated to towns, Workers
Africans. Out of the 96 000 000 acres in the also cut of from land, and Poverty In sensed nationalism,
country share between a population of 1081 000
Africans and 50 000 whites, land was allocated as Expropriation of Cattle/Loss of Cattle, Settlers took cattle from
follows:
Africans by force e.g. after defeat of the Ndebele in 1893-4 213 of
 Approximately 48,1 million acres to whites
their cattle were confiscated by BSAC and Cattle were also lost to
 Approximately 21,1 million acres to Africans
the settlers through payment of tax and fines for petty offences.
 Approximately 7 million acres was set aside for the purchases
Taxation System
 The rest of the land was declared land set aside for the unborn
Introduced to milk African’s wealth, in order to finance company
settlers and parks.
activities. Also to force Africans to pay hat tax, dog tax, wife tax,
 The land Apportionment Act resulted pin the following: -
grazing tax etc
 Africans became overcrowded in reserves
Forced Labour
 Many Africans failed to get land.
Was introduced by settlers as a way of exploiting African labour
 There was over grazing and soil erosion and the quality of
force and force Africans to work, there was direct and indirect
African cattle was greatly reduced such that they failed to fetch
labour force, direct labour force involved settler’s agents going
high prices at the market.
into villages and recruiting labour force through force, the
 Poor crop yield destroyed competition between Africans and
government introduced the Rhodesian native labour bureau in
Settlers.
1903 to recruit labour force from Southern Rhodesia, Northern
 Many Africans became poor and easily exploited.
Rhodesia and Nyasaland through force recruits were forced to
Land Husbandry Act 1951
sign long contracts and were worst paid, indirect forced labour
Was passed in order to redress some of the negative effects of
included the following ,taxation in order to force people to work
the LAA like soil erosion and poor crop yield so as to avoid an
as they needed money to pay tax , Workers were controlled and
eminent hunger disaster. It was also used to force more Africans

32
forced to stay at work through a pass system, workers were the constitution and others were not/rejected it as inadequate.
controlled through compound system , workers were controlled NDP was banned in 1961. In 1961-Zimbabwe’s African peoples
through contract system and the master and servants Union (ZAPU) was formed with the same leadership as NDP.
ordinance who made it a criminal offence for workers to run They encouraged Acts of arson and sabotage. Members agreed
away before the contract expired , the ticket system was used to remain as ZAPU even if it was banned. However, ZAPU split
to make Africans work for longer periods. when Joshua Nkomo suspended some members, e.g. Malianga,
Mugabe, Sithole and Takawira. In 1963-Zimbabwe African
How Africans expressed their discontentment against poor National Union (ZANU) was formed under the leadership of
working conditions & ill treatment Ndabanengi Sithole and its first Secretary was R.G. Mugabe.
In 1955 – there was the development or formation of the City 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed
Youth League by impatient young politicians such as George in December. 1962 September ZAPU was banned. The People
Nyandoro, James Chikerema, Edson Sithole, among others. It Caretaker Council was formed by the late Joshua Nkomo in.
organised protest marches. In 1957- New ANC (African National 1963. 1963 August ZANU is formed due to disillusionment with
Congress) was a merger between old ANC and the City Youth the politics of tolerance and accommodation and Ndabanengi
League led by Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule. It Sithole leads the party. 1964 ZANU is banned and all prominent
organised mass resistance against the Land Husbandry Act nationalists including the PCC leadership are either imprisoned or
urging Peasants not to cooperate with he settler government. In forced into exile. 1964 saw the beginning of violent African
towns it organised mass protests and demonstrations. In 1960- resistance to colonialism with many Acts of sabotage. Of note is
January-National Democratic Party (NDP) was formed with the Action by self styled General Chedu who led 100 youths
Michael Mawema as President holding on for Joshua Nkomo who calling themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation Army. The same year
was elected President and the leadership of the party consisted of ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to
Ndabanengi Sithole, Herbert Chitepo, Robert Mugabe, Bernard colonialism and the Crocodile group drew first blood when they
Chidzero, George Silundika, Jason Moyo, Leopold Takawira, attacked a police station and killed a white farmer in Chimanimani
Josiah Chinamano, and Enoch Dumbutshena etc. They (Melsetter). 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler
demanded one-man one vote and majority rule, held mass government. 1965 November 11th Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Front
demonstrations. In 1961-Constituion allowed the Blacks into made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence. This made the
Parliament and this divided the NDP, as some were happy with country an illegal state and although Britain still claimed to be the

33
legitimate ruler they failed to bring to justice the settler regime. At Army (ZIPRA). Training also took place outside Africa in places
about the same time the little island of Anquila in the Pacific made like Cuba, China and Russia. 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally
a UDI and Britain did not hesitate to reign in the rebels. UD led the trained ZANLA combatants clashed with the security and all seven
nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain members of the group were killed. December Aboard a British
self-determination and the Smith regime went on an all campaign Warship HMS Tiger the British government negotiates with the
to stifle African aspirations and institutionalised apartheid or racial Rhodesians and offers them the choice of a broad based
segregation as the system of governance and social and government and a referendum to decide the future of blacks.
economic life. The same year a state of emergency was declared. Smith rejected the offer. August ZIPRA in alliance with the South
Such a declaration had the effect of suspending some or all civil African National Congress’s armed wing Umkhonto Wesizwe
liberties and allowed the state to take extra judicial measures to deployed four groups of 20 combatants each group. The majority
deal with the crisis. What followed were many years of state of combatants were killed in and around Wankie district.
terrorism and murder to which the Africans respondent by Rhodesia’s air force began to violate Zambian airspace and
intensifying the armed resistance – the second Chimurenga War. another large group of about 150 combatants was deployed by
In short the Africans reacted through the following: the alliance and again was decimated. The South African
Dissertation, faking illness, go slow in order to reduce profits, government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the Smith
Absenteeism, destruction of machinery and tools, accidental injury government passed the law and Order Maintenance Amendment
of bosses, nicknamed mines and Warned job seekers, forging, Bill – 7 September 1967. The law provided for a death sentence
faking and altering passes to make them appear as if they finished on any one caught with arms of War. In October; the British
contracts, also changed wages written on passes, strikes, premier Harold Wilson convenes another conference on another
demonstrations and killed NLB agents Warship HMS Fearless and Smith again rejects the proposals.
Late 1969 / early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mozambique
PROSECUTION OF THE WAR fighting the Portuguese in Mozambique formed an alliance with
By 1963 the Nationalist had secured external bases in ZANLA and with more experience they provided training and
independent African countries like Egypt, Tanzania and Zambia to logistical support which proved invaluable and led to the opening
train their armed wings. ZANU’s armed wing became the of the eastern front. Mass mobilisation became the preferred tool
Zimbabwe National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and ZAPU’s armed of the armed resistance and this met with Great success.
wing became known as the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Rhodesia and Portugal began joint operations in 1968. Dambaza

34
Chikerema, Nathan Shamurarira and others break from ZAPU and sign the declaration of unity by Kaunda on pain of loosing Front
form a separate armed resistance organisation called the Front for line States support. Except for Joshua Nkomo the rest of the
the Liberation of Zimbabwe (FROLIZI), citing the need to signatories were not genuine African leaders: Chierema signed for
circumvent what they perceived as tribal limitations within ZANU the non – existent FROLIZI and Sithole had declared while on trail
and ZAPU. The group gradually fizzled out and the leadership in Salisbury that he had no connection with terrorist and
either joined ZANU or went back to Rhodesia. 1971 / 1972 The subversives in ZANLA with the death / assassination of Herbert
British present proposals known as the Pearce Proposals, which Chitepo on 18 March 1975 in Zambia which led to the arrest of
among other things had fifty-year framework for majority rule and many ZANU leaders. It was during this period that the Mgagao
an end to racial discrimination. Lord Pearce was sent to conduct Declaration in Tanzania was made – if we cannot live as free man
the referendum and in December of that year ZANU and ZAPU then we would rather die as free man. This set the tone for
arrange the formation of the African National Congress under continued armed resistance by ZANLA and the document put the
Bishop Abel Muzorewa to oppose the proposals and this they signatories to the Declaration of Unity on the side of the Smith
successfully do. December ZANLA scores military successes with regime. The imprisoned leaders then appointed Robert Mugabe
the attack on Alternate farm in Centenary. 1971 / 1972 the keeps as the provisional leader of the party. Chitepo was the ZANU
or cantonment camps – Nazi style so called protected villages are chairman and became the chairman of Dare Rechimurenga an
introduced in order to deny guerrillas access to food and a political organisation formed after the banning and jailing of the
base from the rural peasants. 1973 Muzorewa claims the ANC as nationalists leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the War
his brainchild and negotiates with Ian Smith and agrees to while the leadership was in prison. 1974 internal rivalry rock both
conditions similar to those rejected in the Pearce Commission. ZANU and ZAPU. In ZANU a group calling themselves ‘Vashandi
April in a coup in Portugal General Espinoza deposed the premier led by such people as Rugare Gumbo, Henry Hamadziripi among
Salazar and brought immediate independence to Mozambique, others cause major headaches for the party. December the OAU
Angola and Guinea Bissau. John Vorster, the South Africa’s Boer demand that ZANLA and ZIPRA unite and the Zimbabwe People’s
premier with Zambia’s President Kenneth Kaunda initiated Army (ZIPA) is formed with a joint command of eighteen shared
Détente policy of accommodation, which on Vorster party was to equally and the War picks up momentum in Gaza and Manica
neutralise the armed struggle by promoting internal reactionary provinces on the ZANLA front. March 1976, Ian Smith and Joshua
African nationalists in Zimbabwe. Muzorewa; Nkomo and Sithole Nkomo separate peace negotiations and as a result of mounting
are flown from prison in Rhodesia to Lusaka and are forced to criticism of these talks by African leaders especially Julius

35
Nyerere and Samora Machel and following Smith’s no majority Rhodesia Front. The talks could not reconcile the demands of the
rule in a thousand years speech Nkomo discontinued talks with parties especially on land but both groups’ gains hope that they
Smith. 1976 March, American secretary of state Henry Kissinger would win and be able to maintain their claims and positions from
initiates the Geneva talks. ZANU and ZAPU from the Patriotic a legalized position.
front to oppose the talks. The talks are adjourned in December Post Independence Developments (1980)
and never resume. The joint command and ZIPA also collapse 1980 March 1under internationally supervised elections,
during that year. 1976 September 26 Smith announces Muzorewa won three seats in parliament, ZANU (PF) swept the
acceptance of majority rule as long as the Army ad police remain board with 57 seats out of the 80 common seats and ZAPU (PF)
under white control and began to negotiate with the internal black got 20 seats from all of Matabeleland and ZANU –Ndonga got
collaborators or those who had abandoned the armed struggle one seat. Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating
were opposed to it e.g. Ndabanengi Sithole, Abel Muzorewa and to New Zealand, Australia, and Britain etc where they continue to
Chief Chirau. In 1976 Ian Smith made bombing raids on camps in reminisce nostalgically about how Britain sold them out. On 18
Mozambique, Rhodesians killed many refugees and guerrillas at April 1980 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert
Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mozambique and Freedom camp Mugabe as premier. The new prime Minister formed a government
Mulunguish and Chifombo in Zambia. On 3 March 1978 the so – of national unity and offered Joshua Nkomo the position of
called Internal Settlement was reached between anti-War and President a titular or ceremonial head of the state position but he
reactionary black groups in Rhodesia. April 1979 the ANC ‘s declined to accept although several ministries were headed by his
Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime Minister in sham elections other fellow ZAPU colleagues and the whites also headed several
and temporarily the Zimbabwe-Rhodesia hybrid state existed key ministries. 1980 Notorious security units of the Smith regime
and it was not recognised by any state except South Africa. It was flee to South Africa and carry out Acts of sabotage like blowing up
during this period that some of the most gruesome murders were air force planes. 1981 Some former ZIPRA units rebelled at
perpetrated against refugees and the armed resistance with the Entumbane in Bulawayo and other places and the new Army
authority and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s quickly brings the rebellion under control. Massive arms caches
government. 1979 October the British under International belonging to ZIPRA and which were supposed to have been
pressure convened the Lancaster House talks. The parties to the surrendered to the new Army are discovered and ZAPU properties
talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front (ZANU and with caches are confiscated by the state and ZAPU is removed
ZAPU) and the internal group Muzorewa’s ANC and Smith’s from the government of national unity. In 1982 some former

36
ZIPRA elements went to the bush and for five years waged an  Indigenisation – enabling the native Africans to own and
armed insurrection in which many people of Shona extraction control business.
were killed in Matabeleland and the Midlands died at the hands of  Expanding trade with the region and the world at large.
dissidents as these rebels come to be called in follow up military 1981 Zimbabwe Conference on Reconstruction (ZIMCORD) was
action by units of the Zimbabwean Army, many more civilians are convened and donors pledged about one and half Billion USA $ in
killed. The apartheid South African regime takes advantage of the aid and loans. 1986 The fie-year economic development plan is
dissident problem and its agents and saboteurs and against launched in an attempt to restructure the economy to meet the
provocateurs is apprehended in Zimbabwe. South Africa needs of the whole population instead of the needs of a few
unleashes a War of military destabilisation of all frontline states settlers. 1991 Following a severe drought and pressure from
with rebel movements RENAMO in Mozambique and UNITA in western donors and the Breton Woods Financial Institutions the
Angola wrecking havoc to the economies of all Frontline states. government adopts the foreign initiated Structural Adjustment
1987 December 12 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Plan. The Programme required Zimbabwe to liberalise trade, that
Zimbabwe’s first non-executive President Mr. Canaan Banana, a is allow free movement of goods from outside, restrict or cut
unit€€€y agreement is signed between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF. A government expenditure in health, education and defence, and
new party ZANU PF is crated and Joshua Nkomo became a co- evaluate or allow the local currency to float. Serious economic
vice President with Simon Muzenda. All dissident Activity stops problems begin to develop and come to head by 1996. 1998 due
and they are incorporated into society and no charges to be to ESAP food rating took place in the major towns due to the
preferred against them and similarly no charges are preferred negative effects of ESAP. 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defence
against any member of the Fifth Brigade. 1980 saw the end of all Forces are deployed to the DRC to help the beleaguered Kabila
formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and immoral practice regime. 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 –
continued and exists unabated to date. The new government year non compulsory acquisition of land clause in the Lancaster
made strides to correct the colonial evils in the following areas; - agreement, a Land Donor Conference is organised and many
 Universal free primary and secondary education foreign donors pledge to assist Zimbabwe but not a cent is
 Free medical and health care remitted by the end of 1999. 1999 The labour leadership breaks
 Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler colonialists to ranks with government and threatens to form a political party
which they have to date spurned. under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in September the
 Land distribution under the willing buyer basis same year this Actual happens in the form of the movement for

37
Democratic Change. War veterans receive lump and monthly wages, beaten by supervisors, heavily taxed, no pensions, lack of
gratuities and in the build up to the 2000 elections. The labour representation, no unions or representation in parliament, job
leadership cum opposition party sides more and more to the right colour bar, workers given derogatory names.
and is seen supporting settler colonial interests in land, commerce CAUSES OF THE THIRD CHIMURENGA
and industry and receives massive monetary and moral support The First And Second Chimurenga were armed resistance against
from the same quarter. This alliance also receives massive settler colonialists and their passive kith and kin in their homeland
external assistance from foreign interests like the USA and UK who condoned the racism and exploitation they practices against
governments directly or indirectly though such organisations as the black native. The Third Chimurenga is a legal and political
the Westminster foundation etc. February 2000 a new draft assertion of the claims arising out of the victory in the second
constitution is taken to the people in a referendum and the labour Chimurenga was fought for nothing or was fought and lost at the
leadership cum opposition together with civic organisations Lancaster House negotiation table and neither position is
mobilise the electorate to reject it because it allegedly it confers acceptable to those who fought the War or the majority of the
too much power on the President but really because of the ‘no people of Zimbabwe and suggestions of any of the two positions
compensation for land compulsory acquired for settlement’ clause is a declaration of War. The 2nd Chimurenga brought one-man
in the draft constitution. 2000 February realising the near success one vote and that is democracy. The latter is a tool for economic
of the landed white class in derailing the land redistribution by translation and is not an end in itself but a mean to end
using political parties they funded and helped to found, Veterans Democracy that allows the constitution of historical or traditional
of Zimbabwe’s 2nd Chimurenga and landless peasants occupied social and economic inequalities is a hollow democracy and is as
white owned farms and forced government to make appropriate false, as evil and as unacceptable as colonialism or slavery. The
legislation to fast track land distribution through the Land Third Chimurenga therefore is making democracy make political
Acquisition Act 2000. Thus beginning the Third Chimurenga. sense by using it to bring about economic emancipation to the
Problems faced by Workers/Forms of ill treatment historically disadvantaged through the mechanism of law made in
Long working hours and low wages, lived in dirty overcrowded, this country and with the objective of undoing colonial injustices
badly built lit accommodation, given poor/rotten food and suffered and wrongs. The major causes of this was are as follows:
from malnutrition, no medical treatment and mine forced workers
forced to work under control of the police, no protective clothing,
no compensation if injured, cheated so that they would not receive THE LANCASTER HOUSE AGREEMENT

38
The agreement was very faulty in that it maintained and sought to Western Nations participated in this conference and pledged
legalise the criminal gains of colonialism with respect to social and hundreds of millions of dollars for the land reform programme in
economic privileges of former colonisers at the expense of the Zimbabwe. Not a single cent was remitted and government was
native Africans especially with respect to land. The “willing seller, compelled to opt for the Third Chimurenga as events clearly
willing buyer clause”, in the agreement together with the no revealed that all major so-called donors were interested in
compulsory acquisition of land for twenty years clause’ not only maintaining the status quo in terms of land ownership and social
limited but it also restricted and proscribed the legislative inequality in Zimbabwe. 2000 June in parliamentary elections the
competency and sovereignty of the new state. The clauses also new opposition party almost upset the ruling ZANU (PF) party and
suspend for twenty years the translation of victory in armed wins 57 seats for ZANU PF. 2000/2001 the opposition near
combat into social and economic victory. From 1980 to 2000 No success gives impetus to Britain to ostracise the Mugabe regime
willing seller offered government useful land in regions 1,2 and 3 and begins to talk about regime change and forces its friends to
most of the little land made available was in regions 4 and 5. impose sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the economy in order to
make the electorate vote Mugabe out of power. Inflation rises
Continued economic marginalisation steadily and local white employs and other parties on the whole to
From 1980 to 2000 few Africans in Zimbabwe had the opportunity do everything to make economic intolerable for and arm twist the
to be entrepreneurs due to institutionalised conditions in the electorate bring about regime change and remove Mugabe and
financial sector that tended to work against blacks especially with ZANU PF out of power and derail the land redistribution
respect to collateral security. Affirmative Action by the government programme.
and by individuals remained meaningless without paradigm shift in
the established money lending institutions as a basis for lending 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate
and without an historical even that could provide Africans with the and the MDC refuses to concede defeat or to recognise the new
property base to use as collateral security. government and goes to court to challenge the election results
The land donor conference 1998 and alleges intimidation vote and rigging etc. 2003 the nation is in
Anticipating the end of the 20-year compulsory land acquisition a political stalemate with threatened invasion from Britain and
clause, government organised an international land donor America and court challenges to the presidency continuing and
conference with a view to raise funding for a massive land reform the opposition top leadership is arrested and taken to court for
programme. The UN, the IMF, the World Bank and all major trying to assassinate the President. 2004 The 2003 scenario

39
continues but inflation begins to fall and a general optimistic Culture in Zimbabwe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in
expectation pervades the nation as preparation and campaigning the society. The demographic statistic that the people of Shona
for the 2005 gubernatorial elections get underway. extraction constitute about 84% of the population with the Ndebele
at about 7% Tonga; Venda; Kalanga; Chewa; Namibia; Shangani
ZIMBABWE HERITAGE and other smaller groups constituting about another 7% of the
The heritage of any nation is based on that nation’s enduring population. The white population has dwindled to less than 0.1%
political tradition. In the USA the national heritage is a deep – of the population. In spite of their small number the Ndebele
rooted political legacy born out of the War and rebellion against influence on culture is fairly strong not only on the smaller groups
Great Britain and this is embodied in the term Republicanism. The but has rubbed on to the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The
French, who are fiercely proud of their heritage, have the French reverse is also quite true. Culture is dynamic. As a result it is a
Revolution, which climaxed in the storming of the Bastille Palace correct generalisation that there is such a thing as African culture
and the slaughter of the nobility as their national heritage. in Zimbabwe as opposed to European culture. There are at most
Similarly the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the only variations in customs among the various groups in
second Chimurenga as the national and enduring political Zimbabwean society but the customs are either the same or
tradition. The second Chimurenga ethos embodies political, closely resemble each other. Zimbabwean African culture has the
cultural as well as economic principles, which define and continue following major elements:
to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation all one has to do  Nuclear or extended family
is undermine the nation’s heritage, the continuing psychological  Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority
War by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort and demonise not the  Respect for hard and honest work
second Chimurenga War but those who participated in that War  Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex and
especially the heroic leaders of the struggle. A heritage can be marriage
defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event; achievement There has however been a strong negative influence due to the
tradition or theory to which the peoples of a specific nation rally mass media on the African culture in Zimbabwe. Television radio
around, and have emotional attachments and for which they are and the print media have done much harm in undermining the
prepared to defend and to go to War over if threatened or violated. superior African culture by encouraging foreign tastes and habits
in terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage, sex and the extended
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE family. The first culprit has been the African family with divorce

40
(unknown and unthinkable in pure African culture) wrecking many than condoms. Marriage and the family is the economic base of
families. Disease due to sex before marriage and prostitution has any society and nation. Premarital sex, divorce and sex for money
grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS related ailments. The and perversions such as lesbianism, homosexuality, drug taking
white man’s consumption or sending patterns have also spread including alcohol directly attack and undermine the family and as
among young Zimbabweans and there are finding the extended such society. A multiplicity of sexual partners before marriage will
family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of always lead one to either multiple sex partners in marriage or lack
the white man’s culture and this is spreading facts among of satisfaction with one partner in marriage. In religion opinions
urbanised Africans. Unlike the white person in Zimbabwe the vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals of
African does not have sufficient expendable cash and as a result Christianity are firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents and
debt and unfulfilled desire and wants are making the lives of many authority, good morals that is no fornication or adultery, no
Zimbabweans miserable. African culture remains the superior pervasion that is no homosexuality, taking care of the need etc
culture in that it keeps society and the nation cemented. Moreover are biblical positions that remain unchangeable. In short the white
such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime and man’s culture is not only incomplete with Christianity, it is in fact
political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed would the antithesis and a direct attack on everything Godly, which is
be non-existent. All these ills are as a result of lack of self-respect devilish. The problem between African religion and Christianity is
and lack of personal identity due to wanting to be a white persons not lack of morals in African religion but methods of accessing
e.g. Michael Jackson who straightens his noise an African woman God or worship. Indeed this writer is convinced that there is lots of
who wears false hair extensions to look like a Caucasian or superstition with respect to methods of worship in African religion
preferring to speak in a foreign language and not vernacular. The in as much as most main line emerging Christian churches are
legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also thoroughly paginated. It is only right and good therefore to
unchangeable in that traditional diet consisting of small grains promote and maintain our morally superior culture while adopting
legumes an African fruits, vegetables and nuts naturally prevent correct Christian methods of worship or religious inheritance will
such diseases as obesity / kusimba – a common feature of most therefore remain for all time our good cultural value or morals. The
urbanised woman on the major cause of high blood pressure, values of any society therefore serve to define that society’s
hypertension, osteoporosis and infertility. In medicine, traditional identity. History has much been distorted by painting the African
herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for a long culture as irreligious to the extent that it is almost the accepted
healthy life and the solution to such problems as AIDS more so value among most young Zimbabweans to be immoral because a

41
white Christian has an immoral value or practice for an example, Zimbabwe through much blood and joy and lost by settler
walking naked or partial naked in public despite the fact that this colonialists through by much blood and tears. It and lead to a
violates Christian principles. The Black person should therefore declaration of War. Through hard work and self – sustaining
not use the White man’s values, or morals or immoral as the case economic policies, Zimbabweans with land firmly in their hands,
may be as the reference point for good or bad values but should can engage other nations at the economic level and benefit from
use traditional practice as the point departure and compare that the comparative advantage we have in terms of skilled disciplined
with biblical principles which remain unchanging. Our values as labour, good climate, and abundance of minerals and varied flora
Africans clearly identify and portray us as people, who shun and fauna – domestic and wild. Economic Activity therefore
immorality, graft corruption and laziness. We respect family and should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost and this should
authority and hard work. We believe in God and we have no room happen through liberations simply relate to universal common
for atheism in our culture. The second Chimurenga also defines suffrage being available to all citizens’ subsequent elections
our political and economic values. At the economic level the whether Presidential or purgatorial. Such a gain is hollow and
legacy of the second Chimurenga and our heritage from that political emancipation therefore leads to and of necessity must
event is that the resources that are God given belong to lead to economic emancipation. Political emancipation therefore
Zimbabwe irrespective of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as leads to and of necessity must lead to economic emancipation.
a resource number one belongs to all Zimbabweans. White This has alluded not only to Africa but to most of the former
Zimbabweans with very negligible exceptions believe that land colonies through the practice of neo-colonisation by the former
and all ill-gotten gains from the international crime of colonialism colonizers and the USA and most of the difficult War in that it is
and accompanying ethnic cleansing and segregation are now being fought at the psychological level through Global media
legitimately and exclusively the property of those former criminals. House and the agency of corrupted local comprador / collaborator
Whites do not want to share our land with us. We have said we journalists who raise and imagine and publish false nations of the
will equitably share our land with whites and that remains and will freedom of expression assembly and association. This leads to
always remain the Zimbabwean African’s morally right and correct people as it were shooting themselves on the foot because they
position. Any so called Zimbabweans therefore of any race who through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters
departs from this position is not only a threat to the interests of the perceptions have been warped in favour of the colonisers – vote
Nation, but is in effect and in essence declaring that the second into power those who perpetrate their economic subjugation. The
Chimurenga wasn’t won and lost, that is won by Africans in battle of perceptions is an unfair War and it is most cruel and

42
criminal because of the open aggression through demand made The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the
on former colonies under the guise of human rights. At the political combined Kenyan and Tanzanian wildlife population of the
level the second Chimurenga heritage as that as a people we are Serengeti game park. The big five wild game elephant, buffalo,
sovereign and can determine our own destiny without the giraffe, lion and rhino are more abundant in our game parks than
interference and through democratic processes designed to in any other park in the world.
safeguard our hard won independence. (See governance under People
legal and parliamentary affairs.) With a population of about 14 000 000 people, Zimbabwe is still
National resources sparsely populated considering that our land mass can sustain
Zimbabwe is endowed with many natural resources, which in seventy million with optimal economic utilization. The plus about
certain instances places the nation on the strategic resources map this population is its literacy levels – about 97% and its varied
of the world. skills base from which even the most advanced nations are
Land tapping into. Through many tricks especially after the 2000
Zimbabwe’s land mass is about 310million square miles and has a parliamentary elections, the Western countries have not rested in
conducive climate being neither too hot nor too cold and has an trying to spark a civil War in Zimbabwe, which they will use as a
average rainfall of about 1500m pretext to directly interfere in the politics of this nation. Thatchell
the infamous homosexual has been quoted as saying that he is
Minerals not only organising but also sponsoring a group consisting of
Zimbabwe has the following minerals chrome; iron; coal; gold; personnel in Zimbabwe’s armed forces and in the Diaspora to
copper; tin; diamonds; platinum nickel and uranium. Our Chrome; military bring about an end to the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe.
platinum; nickel and coal reserves are of Global strategic The West Minister Foundation and even much earlier the Heritage
importance because they are ranked in the top five in terms of Foundation a USA right wing organisation are trying and had tried
quantity and quality. Unfortunately control of these minerals is still to use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the Zimbabwean
in foreign land and as a nation we are also not yet adding value to armed forces. On the whole the people of this nation have refused
them. to be used in this very destructive and dangerous way and have
democratically expressed their wishes at the polls. The people of
this nation save those who pipe and beat the Crum of this nation’s
Wild life

43
enemies remain resolutely united in the face of an unprecedented Christians think. Kneeling or bowing down in reverence is a
onslaught from Europe and the USA. religious Act reserved for God that is why Shadrech and his other
two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian writing
NATIONAL SYMBOLS is standing erect an Act of worship or homage. It would be only
The National Anthem right and fair to refuse to kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is
Born and inspired by the War of liberation, the national anthem is only right and fair for every Christian to stand erect in recognition
as it were the rallying point of the nation. Authored by Professor not homage of those who rule them.
Mutsvairo, it descries and narrates in a few words of origins,
history, beliefs and aspirations (each student to memorise the The Great Zimbabwe monument
song). Located near Masvingo town, it represents unparallel architectural
The national flag design and construction and stands as a direct insult to those who
The national flag represent the state wood and together with court have ridiculed Africans of possessing no scientific psychological
of arms they are the official and visible tokens of the state and its make up or achievements or capability. The King of the Great
authority and existence. The flag is also the product of the War of Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties used it as a palace and a
liberation. The red star represents our socialist ideals and the temple.
Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to our distant origins and The Victoria falls
prowess as people and nation in antiquity among the Great A natural geological formation formed years of erosion, the feature
civilisations of the world. The white background on which the has few rivals if any and has water plunging a hundred meters
above two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and forming thunder and mist from which its more appropriate Tonga
tranquillity within and without. The red stripes symbolises the names is derived from mosi-oya-tinya the smoke that thunders. It
blood of the heroes who died liberating the country, yellow our is the nation’s prime tourist resort attraction.
mineral resources, green our flora and fauna and black the Civic responsibilities
indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent upon Disasters- has technology has advanced so as disasters or
every Zimbabwean and any foreigner on our soil to acknowledge accidents have also increased. Management of these disasters
our state hood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered has become a major science and the role of each citizen in
where ever and whatever one is doing. Standing at attention is not disasters has become an imperative. Major disasters can be listed
a religious Act as some over zealous and misguided so called as: disease pandemic, such as Aids, Sars and Ebola, floods as a

44
result of usually very high rainfall due to industrialisation or broken Zimbabwe. This paradigm shift in our dietary habits will go a long
dam walls, drought due to changing whether patterns as a result way towards national food self-sufficiency because eventually
of industrialisation and accidents at work place, for example, sooner rather than latter even irrigated crops will fail if there is no
airplane crashes, gas leaks and nuclear contamination, flow in the dams. There is no other credible long lasting solution to
earthquakes, etc. drought at the family or national level than reverting to the small
Disease management- is first and foremost an individual grains. All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to
responsibility. Correct dietary and sexual habits are the most front each citizen’s ability to identify with his nation by being able to
lines. Each individual is national resource and eating junk food or distinguish between party political issues and national issues.
recklessly imbibing in drugs and alcohol destroys that line as Sovereignty, land and defending the nation are not party political
much as taking irresponsible and immoral sexual behaviour like issues but national issues, which every real Zimbabweans must
sex before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious stand up in defence.
diseases, each individual should take note of and report any
suspected infections and quarantine self or the affected victim. Patriotism means: defending the nation physically and in armed
Floods- earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation combat when called upon to do so by the authorities in power or
to rally behind those affected by donating food and clothes and individually when the situation so demands like in the case of
shelter. It is also necessary to avoid flood and quake prone areas unilateral superpower attack. Defending the nation through
and to take heed to quake or flood Warning. Industrial positive publicity. The nation’s Greatest and most potent enemy
accidents- is a man made problem, which requires social today is the one amongst us who agrees to spread falsehoods
responsibility to minimise the risks. There is no such thing as safe about the nation’s politics and economy. Other than the dissident
technology. The issue at stake is risk minimisation and menace Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation apart from
management. Droughts have always been there before the white countries like Botswana and Namibia. Supporting the nation
man’s agriculture and especially exotic crops such as maize. through tax payments, practice the environmentally friendly
Despite droughts in Africa was not found unpopulated as a result. countries, for example avoiding littering graft, crime, corruption,
A banana plant does not grow in Gokwe as naturally as it does in greed and harmful behaviour such as premarital sex, respect and
Risutu valley in as much as maize thrives in Peru but is prone to tolerate other races, tribes, religious opinions and beliefs and
drought in Zimbabwe. Maize is a stock feed in that grows well in cherish unity in diversity among the various stakeholders in spite
its homeland in South America but is prone to drought in of differences in approaches.

45
 and high rainfall. The Ministry of Employment Creation and
Economic and social problems faced by Zimbabwe since Indigenisation have gone some way in creating employment,
1980. externally originated and driven economic polices have been
Economic problems- need to develop rural areas to stop rural abandoned in favour of home grown solutions, the government
urban migrations and correct a hundred years of the colonial has abandoned ESAP and attention has been redirected to the
rule, redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population East Asian economies to encourage investment and cooperation,
rather a small white section of the population, bring health SADC and COMESA union trade arrangements have been
education and shelter to all Zimbabweans, recurring droughts adopted to encourage an increase in international trade, however,
1983, 992,1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems. Cost sharing in
economy and agricultural products, deal with unfavourable terms education and health has been instituted to alleviate spiralling
of trade, stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing cost. Indigenisation, Affirmative Action, creation of SEDCO, the
unemployment, receive inflation and the devaluation of the land bank, land redistribution, etc, have the long way towards
Zimbabwean dollar against major international, currencies, alleviating the unemployment problem. New monetary polices
gradual increases in prices of basic commodities due to together with anti corruption drive have seen inflation decreasing
speculation and profiteering, falling commodity prices in the slowly but gradually during the 2002 period. Reawakening of the
international market, disinvestments due to more vigorous peoples’ moral values and their culture as a solution to decreasing
indigenisation economic approach, political interference in the and ultimately wiping out STDs and AIDS infection and the
nation’s politics through the sponsoring and creation of opposition deliberate thrust towards self-employment through
parties with foreign agenda, the brain drain, corruption and decline entrepreneurship.
moral value leading to Aids.
How the government has solved these problems
Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain
from abroad and construction of dams and also creating grain
strategic reserves seeds packs given to packs given to peasants
to help them recover from droughts. Of major importance has
been the redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the
congested rural areas and settling people in areas with fertile soils

46
 5. The central issue in the History of Zimbabwe has been:
a. The issue of sanctions
QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS (history)
b. The issue of racism
1. The major causes of the [Matabele War of [dispossession]
c. The land issue
Anglo-Ndebele of 1893 was:
d. The issue of tribalism
a. The loss of power 6. The yellow colour on the Zimbabwe flag represents
a. The people of Zimbabwe
b. The land issue
b. The flora and fauna
c. The chieftainship issue
c. The mineral wealthy of the country
d. Rhode’s desire to spread the British influence north
d. Agriculture
of the limpopo
7. The Great Zimbabwe Kingdom had notable achievements such
2. The Act, which stipulated that there was no skilled black
as:
worker, was:
a. Architecture, legal and commercial system
a. The Industrial Conciliation Act
b. Numerically
b. The labour Relations Act
c. Calendar
c. The Black Native Workers Act
d. All of the above
d. The Mining Workers Act
8. The notable concession, which formed the dislodgement of
3. The Geneva Conference was held in:
Lobengula, was
a. 1975
a. Moffat Agreement
b. 1976
b. Thomas Banes Concession
c. 1979
c. The Rudd Concession
d. 1965
d. The David Livingston concession
4. The piece of legislation that restricted the size of acreage and
9. The Anglo-American TNC was developed from 1890
the number of cattle that an African Family could farm and own
onwards and funded by:
was:
a. Limpopo London Chamber
a. Land Apportionment Act 1934
b. British Government
b. Land Husbandry Act 1951
c. London-Rhodesia Company
c. Land Tenure 1951
d. British South African Company
d. Land Apportionment Act 1930

47
10. The patriotic front was an alliance between the 14. The following were the causes of the Third Chimurenga
a) ANC and ZANU except:
b) ZAPU and ZIPA a) The Lancaster House Conference of 1979
c) ZAPU and ZANU b) Britain’s failure to honour her pledge
d) ZANU NDONGA and ANC c) The Land Donor Conference of 1998
11. The land Apportionment Act of 1930 effectively d) The occupation of farms by ex-combatants
a) Led to the distribution of native political structure 15. The reconciliation policy adapted in 1980 was aimed at:
b) Led to the dispossession of natives to all their a) The unity between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF
fertile land b) Integration of all tribes in Zimbabwe
c) Led to the establishment of the settler colonialism c) Forgiving the settler colonialists of decades of
d) Harmonisation of the relations between whites and exploitation and integration of black natives
blacks d) Gaining approval of the new Government by the British
12. The reason why Smith negotiated for the internal settlement 16. The green colour, on our Zimbabwean flag represents:
was to a) The people of Zimbabwe
a) End the guerrilla War b) The flora and fauna
b) To assure Muzorewa the UNAC was in control c) The mineral wealth of the country
c) To put an end to confusion in the country d) Peace and tranquillity
d) To enable him to access the substance of agreement 17. The National flag together with the court of arms
represents:
a) Our Statehood
13. Which of the following contributed to the rise of the 1 st b) Selfishness
Chimurenga? c) The arms of War
a) The industrial conciliation Act d) None of the above
b) The Land Husbandry Act 18. The document, which is known as the political protection
c) The introduction of forced labour document is:
d) The Rudd Concession a) The Rudd Concession
b) The Moffat Treaty

48
 c) The Royal Charter 23. The Federation was created in:
d) The Gobbler Treaty a) 1951
b) 1952
19. The following were participants to the Berlin Conference c) 1953
except: d) 1954
a) Spain 24. The following countries were part of the Federation except:
b) German a) Southern Rhodesia
c) Belgium b) Northern Rhodesia
d) Portugal c) South Africa
20. Which country participated as an observer to the Berlin d) Nyasaland
Conference? 25. Which of the following party was formed in 1955?
a) Belgium a) The National Youth League
b) France b) The African Railway Workers Union
c) Britain c) A.N.C.
d) U.S.A. d) N.D.P.
21. One of the main reasons of the Berlin conference was to: 26. Who chaired the 1979 Lancaster House Conference on
Zimbabwe?
a) To lay down rules for the partition and exploitation
a) Lord Soames
of Africa b) Lord Carrington
b) To destroy Africa c) Lord Salisbury
c) To decide on the duties of the African Chiefs d) Lord Malvern
d) To channel the developments to Africa 27. Creation of Polytechnic Colleges by the Government is a
22. The strike that paralysed all industrial and commercial sign of:
Activity in all cities was called in: a) Reducing the spread of HIV/Aids
a) 1947 b) Encourage Youths to Socialise
b) 1948 c) Commitment to National Development
c) 1949 d) Occupying the youth
28. Which of the leaders listed below assisted the ZANLA
d) 1950
forces greatly during the armed struggle?

49
 a) Julius Nyerere d) The needs and challenges of the new Zimbabwe
b) Kenneth Kaunda 33. The unity accord between ZANU and ZAPU was signed in:
c) Samora Machel a) 1977
d) Jomo Kenyatta b) 1997
29. Which Statement is not true of the history of Zimbabwe and c) 1987
heritage? d) 1986
a) Patriotism and National pride, National Development, 34. The Responsible Government that then replaced the BSAC
Unity and National Heritage. rule in Southern Rhodesia came into existence in:
b) It provide insight into past independent development a) 1920
c) Enhance cultural awareness and a sense of national b) 1921
pride c) 1922
d) It provides a detailed analysis of party politics d) 1923
30. Which colour on the national flag symbolises the 35. The missionary who pretended to be Lobengula’s friend
abundance of mineral wealth:
when in fact was advancing the interest of the British was
a) Green
b) Yellow called:
c) Blue a) Charles Rudd
d) Red b) [Link]
31. The main reason for Europeans obtaining colonies in the c) Rochfort Maguire
late 19th century was to: d) Gonsalo da Silvera
a) Civilise Africa and Asia 36. Which of the following symbols is not a Zimbabwean
Heritage preservation item?
b) Spread Christianity
a) National Anthem
c) Prevent Communist Revolutions b) National Flag
d) Obtain raw materials c) Shrines and Monuments
32. The Zimbabwe bird on the Zimbabwean flag represents: d) Bible
a) The Country’s Aspirations 37. The law that was passed so as to restrict competition
b) The enormous bird population in the country between poor white farmers and the African and to protect
c) The political freedom of the country white farmers economically was the:

50
 a) Maize Control Act 1931 b) Constant interference in the political and economic
b) Land Husbandry Act 1951 policy making process of the weaker States
c) The Land Bank Act 1912 c) Promotion of cultural and economic dependence
d) The Land Apportionment Act 1930 d) All of the above
38. The Land Apportionment Act of 1969 resulted in the land 42. Leaders in developing countries who protect foreign
being divided along:
interests are known as:
a) Economic lines
b) Political lines a) Patriots
c) Racial lines b) Liberals
d) Cultural lines c) Puppets
39. In post independent Zimbabwe the integration of the Army d) Demagogues
was difficult mainly because: 43. Which political party among the following in Zimbabwe
a) During the War there had been three armies represent the Interests of the Bourgeoisie?
b) Of lack of financial resources a) MDC
c) Of the language differences b) NAGG
d) The country was focussing on its programme of c) NDU
“Growth with Equity” d) ANC
40. Which of the Statements is untrue of the Land Husbandry 44. Which one of the individuals listed bellow disappeared
Act? during the struggle for independence?
a) It was calculated to drive away the Africans into town or a) Michael Mawema
commercial b) Edson Sithole
b) It was an attack on the whole traditional way of life of c) Leopold Takawira
the Africans d) Morton Malianga
c) It forced the whole African people to ally with the Urban 45. Z.A.N.U. was formed in:
African against the settler regime
a) 1962
d) It caused shortages of land in the reserves,
congestion and erosion b) 1963
41. The major characteristics of neo-colonialism are:
c) 1964
a) Aid with strings attached
d) 1965

51
46. Classes in Society simply imply the existence of: e) None of the above
a) Democracy 51 The battle that marked the beginning of the second
Chimurenga in 1966:
b) Harmony in the Society
a) Shangani battle
c) Class contradiction in the Society b) Chinhoyi battle
d) Free Market economies c) Chinhoi
47. The emergency of pressure groups and increased e) Chinhoyi battle
sanctions on Zimbabwe was largely due to:
52. The keeps or protected villages were introduced in order to:
a) Land acquisition process
b) The level of Democracy a) To educate peasants on the reasons for liberation
c) Zimbabwe’s Human Rights record struggle
d) The fall of the bipolar system b) Strategise on how to stop the War
48. Which pair played a major role in deceiving Lobengula? c) Deny guerrillas food and a political base
a) John Moffat and Lord Salisbury d) Hold meeting with guerrillas
b) Lotshe and Mgandani 53. The ZANU Chairmen in 1964 who was assassinated in
Zambia on 18 March 1975 was:
c) Charles Helm and John Moffat
a) Nyagumbo
d) Starr Jameson and John Moffat b) [Link]
49. Early socialisation for the African child has been carried out c) Herbert Chitepo
for a long time through the: d) J.Z. Moyo
a) Family 54. In 1976 the Rhodesian forces killed refugees at Chimoio
b) Media and Nyadzonya in:
c) Church a) Zambia
e) School b) Tanzania
50. Patriotism can be best defined as a: c) Ghana
a) Strong sense of belonging, irresponsibility and d) Mozambique
accountability 55. The superior African culture has been Greatly undermined
b) A sense of belonging, value, accuracy and accountability by:
c) A strong sense of belonging, identify, responsibility a) Education
and accountability b) Mass Media

52
 c) Oral tradition d) 1650 in the Guruuswa
d) Opposition Politics 61. The major reason for the collapse of the Rozwi State was?
56. The Rudd Concession is also known as the: a) Ndebele arrival
a) Rhodes Concession b) Drought of 1835
b) Lippert Concession c) Poor Administration
c) Helm’s Concession d) European colonisation
e) Mineral Concession 62. Who planned and coordinated the colonisation of
57. One of the earliest Europeans to trade with the Shona
Zimbabwe?
people was:
a) British a) Reverend Charles Helm
b) Portuguese b) The Queen of England
c) Belgians c) Sir Charles Rudd
d) Arabs d) Cecil John Rhodes
58. One of the worst crimes of Humanity in the history of
63. What was the primary reason for the colonisation of
mankind was the:
a) Iraq –Kuwait War Zimbabwe?
b) Us-British Iraq War a) The search for the second Rand Belt.
c) DRC War b) The search for the fertile agricultural land
d) Atlantic Slave trade c) The search for the Cape to Cairo route
59. Which of the following is not an early Iron Age State of
d) The search for more colonies to rule
Zimbabwe?
a) Mutapa 1. Discuss the factors that led to the rise of nationalism in
b) Gaza southern Rhodesia among Africans from 1898-1965.
c) Rozwi  Land alienation / exploitation / creation of reserves – Land
d) Great Zimbabwe Apportionment Act (LAA).
60. Around which date and where was the Mutapa State  Loss of sovereignty / loss of traditional powers by chiefs.
founded?  Job colour – bar reservation, skilled, semi – skilled for
a) 1350 in the Danda area whites and unskilled labour and low salaries for Africans
b) 1450 in the Dande area according to the Industrial Conciliation Act (1934).
c) 1550 in the Guruuswa  Brutalities e.g. at work places.

53
  Pass Laws – restricting freedom of movement.  End of slave trade and slavery – indigenous people needed
 Lack of voting rights – inadequate parliamentary in Africa to work in the mines, farms and industries in Africa
representation. itself.
 Educational bottlenecks / racial imbalances in education / Negative Results
racists education e.g. group A and B schools.  Loss of independence and power by the local indigenous
 Forced labour e.g. in mines, public works. rulers.
 Taxation – hut tax, cattle tax, etc.  European exploitation and plundering of African resources.
 Poor working conditions – low salaries / wages, not allowed African natural resources taken to Europe to develop European
to form trade unions, poor housing, unhealthy working Industries and European wealth and Capitalism.
conditions.  Undermining of traditional society, culture and religion.
 Colonial Legislation – Masters and Servants Act (1901),  Wars and loss of life during the Partition and Colonisation as
Maize Control Act (1934), Land Husbandry Act (1951). Africans were resisting the partition.
 Africans were dispossessed of their land and freedom.
 Drastically change in Africa’s political structure.
2. Discuss the results of the partition and colonisation of  Africans were discriminated against and were politically
Africa by European powers. and socially oppressed.
Positive Results
 Spread of Christianity and Education. 3. Discuss the social and economic achievements of the
 Introduction of new methods of Farming. Zimbabwean government between 1980 and 1990.
 A wide variety of food for the people – increase in Social achievements:
population. Education:
 New medicines, hospitals and clinics – increase in  Reconstruction of schools.
population.  Building new schools.
 Construction of roads and railways.  Expansion of primary and secondary education.
 Growth of towns, industries and new forms of employment.  Expansion of technical education, teacher training and
 University education.
Health:

54
 Additional health facilities i.e. clinics and hospitals. Social:
 Training of more health personnel. Education:
 Employment of expatriate personnel.  Reconstruction of schools destroyed during the War.
 Free health services up to 1990.  Infrastructural Development such as primary, secondary,
Social Welfare facilities: tertiary and vocational institutions.
 School fees, hospital fees, catering for the blind and disabled,  ZINTEC programmes to alleviate teacher shortage.
drought relief.  Free Education (primary), compulsory education, and mass
Co-operatives: education.
 Social and economic, to encourage people to work together,  Expansion of enrolment at all educational institutions.
irrigation schemes, poultry projects, bread making, sewing and  Employment of expatriate teachers.
knitting cooperatives.  Free social services ceased with the introduction of IMF-
Legislation: induced ESAP (1990).
 Legal age of majority Act – 18 years. Voting and independent Health:
decisions, human rights, freedom of expression, Labour  Reconstruction of health facilities destroyed during the War.
Relations Act.  Additional health facilities built, that is, clinics & hospitals.
Economic Achievements:  Licensing of private players in the health sector.
 Subsidies on basic commodities.  Deliberate attempt to expand Health Human Resources that is
 Parastatals, expansion of economic Activities and employment. training more health personnel.
 Government shares in strategic industries e.g. NRZ, ZISCO,  Employment of expatriate health personnel.
ZESA, and Hwange Colliery.  Free medical service up to 1990.
 Resettlement of peasant farmers.  Provision of contraceptive/family planning.
 Price controls.  Free social services ceased with IMF-induced ESAP (1990).
 Minimum Wage Act 1980.  Social welfare facilities provided e.g. school fees, hospital fees
 Training of manpower – ZIMDEF. Catering for the blind and disabled.
 Agricultural expansion. Co-operatives:
4. Discuss the social; political and economic post  These were encouraged e.g. irrigation schemes & various
independence development in Zimbabwe from 1980-1990. projects such as poultry.

55
Economic:  South Africa de-stabilisation.
 Subsidies on basic commodities e.g. mealie-meal.  Adoption of socialism as the countries ideology.
 Infra-structural development e.g. roads, dams, bridges, etc. 5. Explain the meaning and purpose of:
 Oriented markets were taken to the people e.g. GMB, CMB (a). The National Flag
depots. (b). The National Anthem
 Government participation in major industries through The National Flag
acquisition of shares e.g. NRZ, ZISCO, and ZESA. Was worked out at independence and has the following Features:
 Resettlement of peasants e.g. 52 000 resettled by 1989 (Robin Colours
Palmer), though a far cry from initially intended target of 162  Green - representing the country’s Agriculture and Vegetation
000. [Flora & Fauna].
 Price controls put in place.  Red – representing the blood of Heroes shed during the War of
 Minimum wages promulgated – Minimum Wage Act (1980) liberation.
making random / wanton retrenchment difficult – needed  Black – representing the Black majority of Zimbabwe.
Ministerial approval.  Yellow –representing the country’s mineral wealth.
 Deliberate attempt by the Government to boost training of  White – Peace and Reconciliation, which came with the
manpower e.g. ZIMDEF. Independence of Zimbabwe.
 Donor funding to promote economic development e.g.  The Red Star – The country’s Socialist Ideals.
ZIMCORD.  The Zimbabwe Bird – Our distant Origins and powers in
Political: History and Civilisation.
 Blacks got into corridors of power. Purpose and Significance:
 Enfranchising the blacks.  Carries the important message of peace, freedom, equality, co-
 Integration of the Army. operation and independence.
 Political pluralism (ZUM, ZANU0000 NDONGA).  An achievement which marked the end of the War and
 Dissident problem - ethnic skirmishes (security). independence
 Unity Accord – 1987.  Represent Statehood and maturity.
 Creation of Executive Presidency.  Indicates the authority and the existence of the State of
 RENAMO menace. Zimbabwe

56
 Indicates / States the Sovereignty of Zimbabwe. land that had largely been in the hands of the white settlers for
 Promotes unity and nationalism. more than one hundred years. This struggle is a follow-up to the
 Reminds us of the country’s resources. First and Second Chimurenga especially of the latter, which
The National Anthem: brought about political independence.
Introduction Causes of the Third Chimurenga:
Was written by Professor Solomon Mutsvairo of the University of The Lancaster House Agreement
Zimbabwe and is in three languages, Shona, Ndebele and  Which legalised the maintenance and continued possession of
English. It is sang every morning on the ZTV, at National the land by the settlers.
gatherings, the opening of Sporting Festivals, at Schools  Controlled the legislative competency and sovereignty of the
Assemblies and at Football Tournaments involving Zimbabwe new State through the “willing seller, willing buyer” clause,
Soccer National team and teams from other countries. which was not meaningfully implemented.
Purpose of the National Anthem:  Britain’s failure to honour the Lancaster Agreement by not
 Reminds the nation that it was born out of War of Liberation. funding the Land Reform.
 That Zimbabwe was born out of the blood of our heroes.  Continued economic marginalisation of the indigenous people.
It calls on the citizens to be prepared to defend the nation against  The Land Donor Conference of 1998 and failure by the donors
all foes. to fund the land reform programme.
 It praises God to bless the land.  White settlers and the British support for the opposition party,
 It is the rallying point of the nation. which was against the land reform programme.
 It unites and inspires the people. Objectives of the Third Chimurenga:
 It cultivates and promotes nationalism.  To repossess and re-distribute land among the landless
 It cultivates patriotism. indigenous people of Zimbabwe.
 It encourages commitment to national development.  To emphasise the country’s sovereignty and independence.
6. Explain the causes and objectives of the third  To fight neo – colonialism and remove the vestiges of
Chimurenga? imperialism.
Introduction:  To gain possession of other means of production.
The Third Chimurenga is the struggle by the people of  To encourage the indigenous people to participate in all the
Zimbabwe to regain possession of the means of production, e.g. business and economic Activities of the country.

57
 To facilitate the possession of capital with which to start a Economic Responsibilities
business. Working hard and being productive, being creative, establishing
 To translate the victory in armed combat of the Second businesses, using resources economically, exposing corruption
Chimurenga into a social and economic victory. and theft.
7. “Every individual in a State is expected to carryout civic Political Civic Responsibilities
responsibilities” State any five civic responsibilities and The citizens must be constructive in political discussion,
explain their meaning and purpose? registering as a voter and voting in all elections, Cherishing and
Definition: respecting unity and national heritage and respecting and
Civic responsibilities are the social, economic and political and tolerating other races, tribes, religions, opinions and beliefs.
cultural obligations and responsibilities that every citizen is 8. Discuss the impact of NGOs in Zimbabwe
expected to carryout in the society for his/her benefit and for the Positive (Economic Impact)
common good of the country.  Employment creation for locals and externals.
Civic Responsibility  Project funding.
Diseases And Health Management  Improvement in the standard of living.
Personally avoiding drugs and excessive drinking in order to be  Providing assistance in times of disasters e.g. drought, floods,
productive and maintain good healthy relations with others. To earthquakes, cyclones, etc.
assist in preventing the spread of diseases such as AIDS, Social Impact:
EBOLA, SARS, etc. by avoiding irresponsible behaviour.  Donation medical equipment and drugs to fight chronic
Disaster Management diseases e.g. Aids, Ebola, Sars, etc.
Helping by donating food, clothes and shelter to victims of  Education on health and hygiene.
disasters.  Offering educational assistance to orphans and the
Preventing the occurrence of accidents at work so as to help in underprivileged.
controlling injury and destruction of property and equipment.  Child feeding in rural areas.
Defending The Nation Negative Impact:
Spreading the good name of the country, Paying tax to assist in  Sponsoring opposition parties.
building public revenue, preserving cultural value and being  Representing the interests of their mother countries.
patriotic.  Dumping products.

58
 Testing of drugs on people.  A society is identified by the ownership of resources
 Encouraging the dependency syndrome of locals. particularly land.
9. Discuss the role of the media in Zimbabwe and how it has  Need of re-distribution of land equitably.
shaped the perceptions and values of Zimbabwe Society?  Population pressure especially in communal areas.
The Role Of The Media  Create space for urban infrastructural development especially
 Entertain the masses/people. accommodation.
 Educate the masses. Political:
 Inform the public.  Land was the major grievance of the first and second
Extended Role of the Media Chimurenga.
 Shape perceptions.  Failure of the Lancaster House Agreement.
 Create opinions  Failure of Land Amendment Act (1992).
 Shape response patterns to issues.  1998 Land Donor Conference
 Peers the public positive and pragmatic thinking. Economics
 Influence thinking and decision-making.  Land is the major means of production for Zimbabwe and need
The media in the contemporary world: to transform political liberation to economic liberation by
 Propagate Cultural values from foreign countries. empowering the black majority.
 Propagate Global issues with elusive principles.  Land reform was necessary to gain control and access to
 Imposition of ideologies e.g. neo – liberalism, moral values e.g. strategic resources like minerals, flora and fauna which
homosexuality and military protest. were/still in the hands of a minority white population.
Politicising of socio- economic issues e.g. land issue of  Need to utilise idle land so as to achieve optimum economic
Zimbabwe. growth.
Impact on shaping perceptions in Zimbabwe 11. Anglo companies continue to dominate the economy of
 Media has cultivated negative opinions. Zimbabwe. Outline the BSAC economic Activities from
 Built self-denial in Zimbabweans. 1890 – 1923
 Lack of identity. There are about at least 450 Anglo- Companies operating and
10. Justify the 1998 Land acquisition process controlling strategic economic sectors in Zimbabwe.
Social Reasons Basic Economic Activities

59
Mining 12. Discuss The Steps, Which Were Taken In The
 Primary economic Activity from the company. Colonisation Of Zimbabwe From 1880-1889
 Precious minerals such as gold, iron and copper.  Scramble for territories by European powers to end imperial
 Gave settlers’ concessions, but BSAC retained exclusive rights and industrial ambitions. These powers included Britain,
to buy and sell minerals. Portugal, Belgium, German and France.
Agriculture  In Zimbabwe numerous explorers, hunters, adventurers,
 Gained priority after failure to secure minerals. missionaries and concession seekers appeared.
 Legislative support for settler Agriculture at the expense of Berlin Conference 1884
African Sector e.g. Land Bank Act, European Produce Act.  Delimitation of the Sphere of Influence.
 Dispossession of Africans of land and translocation them to  Doctrine of effective occupation.
reserves.  Resolutions fostered Active interests in areas occupied by
Trade Boers, Portuguese and British.
 Realigned local trade to South Africa, in place of the Grobler Treaty 1887
Portuguese along Zambezi River that had been in existence  Diplomatic Treaty by Transvaal Republic and Ndebele State.
before the Settler occupation.  Defensive pack.
 Traded in goods such as minerals, livestock, food  Create friendship between two States.
commodities, etc.  To protect all Boer citizens.
 Imposition of trade barriers to stop African involvement.  To get a way to the sea/coast.
Allocation Moffat Treaty 1888
 Imposition of a variety of taxes on Africans e.g. hut tax, poll  Diplomatic treat between British and Ndebele State.
tax, dog tax, cattle levy, dip tank tax, etc.  Led to the cancellation of the Grobler Treaty.
 Revenue would assist in the Administration and Development  Lobengula agreed not to enter into any diplomatic negotiations
of the Colony. with any other foreign power without British knowledge and
 Taxes meant to stop African Entrepreneurship and to force consent at the Cape.
them to labour in European farms and mines.  British would protect Ndebele from Foreign Aggression.
Responsible Government (1923) Rudd Concession 1888 (October)
 Ensured that British interest would remain dominant  Signed by Lobengula and Charles Rudd and his party.

60
 Terms: Lobengula and other Ndebele leaders were to receive  Resentment over unfair labour legalisation e.g. passes laws,
a monthly pension of £100. industrial Cancellation Act.
 1000 rifles/guns.  Rise of militant Trade Unions in 1940s as a reaction to settler
 100 000 rounds of ammunition. indifference to labour problems.
 A gunboat to patrol the Zambezi River in order to stop the  Violent / ruthless suppression of African strikes and repressive
Portuguese. laws.
To Rhodes  Discrimination at work places and repressive laws.
 Rights to metals and minerals in Lobengula’s Kingdom.  Rise to independence / loss of independence.
 Right to do anything they deemed necessary in the Ndebele  Political.
State. 14. Identify 5 Acts Of Parliament Used To Disadvantage
 To dig one hole. Indigenous People From 1898 – 1975
13. Justify the rise of mass nationalism from 1948 – 1978  (Native Reserves Order Council 1898.
Introduction: African resented their loss of independence.  Hut Tax 1903.
Grievances / Causes  Dog Tax and Land Bank Acts 1912.
 Long standing political and economic issues remained  European Produce Act 1917.
unresolved.  Morris Charter Commission 1925.
 Negative effects of successive settler legislation on land  Land Apportionment Act 1934.
distribution e.g. Land Apportionment Act; Land Husbandry Act,  Cattle Levy Act 1934.
Land Tenure Act.  Industrial Conciliation Act 1934.
 Dispossession of Traditional Territories and translocation to  Racial discrimination 1934.
overcrowded dry, tsetse fly infested reserves fuelled the  Maize Control Act.
resentment.  Land Husbandry Act 1951.
 Loss of major means of production. [Link] three major Legislative Provisions or Instruments
Issues that led to the marginalisation of the Native Africans in the
 Resentment of coercive labour resentment tactics like then Rhodesia from 1898-1965.
Chibharo. The Land Apportionment Act of 1930

61
This Act disadvantaged and marginalised Africans because of the harvests and lower productivity as the Africans had little land in
following: poor areas.
 It legalised the displacements of Africans from large, rich fertile  It limited the number of cattle per African to less than 12 in
& prime regions. some cases to less than 6.
 It led to unfair land distribution.  The limited number of cattle also impoverished the Africans.
 More land was given to few whites, e.g., 4,9million acres to  The poverty drove Africans into towns and farms to look for
100 000 whites. employment.
 Prime or virgin land to whites. 16. Discuss The Causes Of The Slave Trade And Its Effects
 Less land to the black majority in regions 4 and 5 that are hot, On The African Continent:
dry, tsetse fly infested, infertile and with very low rainfall Slavery is the highest level of degrading another human being.
(28.6million acres). Slavery is as ancient as human existence. Slave trade was the
 It impoverished the blacks as they produced little in the poor capture and sale of, especially of Africans by Arabs and
areas. Europeans to Asia, Europe, South and North America and the
 It led to overcrowding in African areas leading to pressure on Caribbean’s. Slavery and Slave Trade in Africa began about 700
the land, such as overgrazing. A.D. and lasted until 1805. Biblically slave trade existed, that is,
 Kept blacks politically inactive due to stringent requirements Pyramids in Egypt were built through slave labour.
according to property and income. Causes Of Slave Trade
Industrial Conciliation Act European labour was consolidated to be unsuitable because:
 It led to low salaries for blacks.  The European Population was sparse and it was felt that it
 Denied blacks the right to join trade Unions. should be allowed to grow bigger.
 Reserved higher paying jobs for the whites (skilled and semi-  The Industrialists needed the European labour to work in the
skilled). mines and industries, which were expanding fast.
 Restricted skilled training to whites.  Exporting labour from Europe at that time would have had a
The land Husbandry Act negative effect on the infant capitalist economy.
 It limited land ownership among Africans in reserves to
between 5-8 acres of land per person and this led to poor

62
The Indigenous Population Of The Las Americas Was  Established a system of International Trade where Africa
Deemed Unsuitable Because: exported human labour in exchange for whatever goods
 It had been reduced drastically as a result of its first contact Europeans were prepared to sell.
with Europeans because it was not immune to the new  Entrenched capitalism as a world economic system whose
diseases such as small pox brought by these strangers. terms of trade were controlled by Europeans.
 Much of the indigenous population, which was enslaved, failed  Sowed the roots of Africa’s underdevelopment and
to adapt to the rigorous life of slave trade. dependence of goods manufactured in Europe.
Africans Were Favoured Because They  Provided resources for Europe’s development.
 Were accustomed to settled farming and mining societies with  Gave birth to racism e.g. African’s inferiority and European
discipline labour demands. superiority.
 It was believed that they were strong and industrious.  Gave birth to Multi-National companies with branches and
 Africans had been in contact with Europeans for a long time subsidiaries all over the world, trading monopolies who
and had developed immunity to some diseases brought by the have a large inflorescence on polices of their governments.
whites. 17. ‘Peace And Unity’ Has Been In Existence Before
Effects Of Slave Trade On The African Continent Colonisation And Was More Consolidated In
Estimated total numbers of slaves translocated is about 15 000 Zimbabwe. Evaluate This Statement In The Context Of
000 lives. The Existence Of The Pre-Colonial States With Specific
 It promoted civil Wars amongst African Kingdoms to Reference To The Political, Economic And Social
unbelievable levels. Aspects Of The People.
 Great reduction of population in Africa. Political Peace And Unity Existed Due To
 Loss of African labour force (the young able-bodied men and  Chiefs under Mambo and Mzilikazi showed allegiance (loyalty)
women were the target). to the capital ruler.
 Brain drain from Africa-the captured were farmers, miners,  Allegiance (loyalty) was in several ways depending on
traders, artisans, entrepreneurs, etc. who were exported to specialisation. i.e. hunters paid using the animal skins, ivory.
Europe, Asia and the Las Americas. Agriculturalist paid using agricultural labour, crops or grains;
miners paid using minerals, e.t.c.

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 The use of the advisory Council by the Mambo and Mzilikazi Economically Peace & Unity Existed Due To
showed that peace and unity was consolidated since this was  Collective ownership of wealthy, e.g. land and even the King
a traditional democratic system of governance, which involved redistributed the tribute.
other people.  Payment of tribute, which the King redistributed during a
 Power was decentralised, that is, it involved kraal heads, drought or famine.
village chiefs, and e.t.c.  Domestic and international trade.
 The Dare concept consolidated peace in the sense that the  Subsistence farming/agriculture done when there was peace
Mambo /King would get advice from the People. and unity.
 The civilians supported the Army in maintaining Law & order. [Link] Any Five Effects Of Colonisation To Africa?
 The use of many advisors & Ministers by the Mambo. Negatives
 Mambos and Kings were believed to represent God.  Balance of trade disequilibria, that is, negative trade relations
Socially Peace and Unity Existed Due To between Africa and European countries during and after
 The non-existence of classes in the Shona society created colonisation through a new form of relationship called neo-
peace and unity. colonialism
 Advisory Council was made up of the elders noted for their  Dependence on European Economies
wisdom on traditional custom and History.  Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technological
 Intermarriages brought peace and unity and increased the size transfer to facilitate industrialisation
of the clan.  Cultural destruction
 Religious ceremonies, which recognised the existence of  Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and
Mwari the creator of all things whom all people worshipped. after colonisation.
The Ndebele even adopted the Shona way of worshipping.  Exploitation and depletion of Africa’s natural resources without
 Recognition of succession ceremonies. benefit to Africa or plundering of Africa’s natural Resources
 Zunde raMambo concept- it was the responsibility of the King  Super enrichment and development of Europe and their
to see to it that no one died of famine/drought. Again the extensions in Africa and Australia
concept encouraged collective work.  Loss of independence by Africans
 Family was nucleus & was the foundation of the nation. Positives
 Brought education through Mission Schools

64
 Infrastructural Development e.g. Communication lines ZAPU even if it was banned. However, ZAPU split when
 Introduction of Modern medicine Joshua Nkomo suspended some members, e.g. Malianga,
 Christianity Mugabe, Sithole and Takawira.
 Civilisation  1963-Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) was formed
19. Trace The Development Of Mass Political Parties In under the leadership of Ndabanengi Sithole and its first
Colonial Southern Rhodesia Between 1955 And 1963? Secretary was R.G. Mugabe.
1955 – there was the development or formation of the City Youth b) Why Did Africans In Southern Rhodesia Fail To Secure
League by impatient young politicians such as George Nyandoro, Independence By 1965?
James Chikerema, Edson Sithole, among others. It organised  Leaders put too much faith in Britain’s ability to solve their
protest marches problems.
 1957- New ANC (African National Congress) was a merger  Britain was unwilling to give up a developed country like
between old ANC and the City Youth League led by Joshua Rhodesia with a lot of white man’s investment to in
Nkomo. It demanded majority rule. It organised mass experienced black rulers
resistance against the Land Husbandry Act urging Peasants  Southern Rhodesia was being ruled by white who were
not to corporate with he settler government. In towns it determined to continue ruling
organised mass protests and demonstrations. 1960-January-  African political leaders were arrested and detained at a time
National Democratic Party (NDP) was formed with Michael others were being given independence
Mawema as President holding on for Joshua Nkomo. They  UDI blocked any hope for independence
demanded one-man one vote and majority rule, held mass The federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland also strengthened the
demonstrations. whites
 1961-Constituion allowed the Blacks into Parliament Questions for discussion
and this divided the NDP as some were happy with the  Is there any truth in the often-heard statement that “African
constitution and others were not/rejected it as inadequate. Kings of the 19th Century sold their Kingdoms to the Europeans
NDP was banned in 1961 for the love of goods from Europe?
 1961-Zimbabwe’s African peoples Union (ZAPU) was  Could the colonisation of Africa in 19th century have been
formed with the same leadership as NDP. They encouraged prevented?
Acts of arson and sabotage. Members agreed to remain as

65
  Why was the Berlin Conference of 1884 - 5 held, and which
Sources of law
countries participated, and what resolutions were made at this
conference? What were the effects of these resolutions?
 Study the map of the partitioned Africa and identify the colonial
powers of all the African states. Customs Roman Dutch/ Jurist Judiciary Precedent Legislature

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY STUDIES

Law
Generally law is defined as rules of behaviour enforced by the Social customs (ratio Decidendi) Legal customs (Obita Dicta)
society or board of established norms for the good governance of
the society, usually interpreted by the courts to enforce justice, Customs
consistence and uniform application. All law is premised on The earliest stage was so-called “natural law” behaviour patterns
maintaining the status quos (those in power) and the advantages of developed by man to accord his instincts and the procedures or
the political and economic of those in authority. rules of conduct he adopted for the tribal survival in the
Purpose of the law environment. These earliest customs were simply habits of life, but
Realistically the purpose of the law is to protect the interest of those with the passage of time and constant repetition, they reach a stage
making the law. Idealistically the purpose of the law is to bring where it becomes unthinkable that they should be broken, for
about law and order, predictability, stability and peace. example, the need to wear clothes in public places. Customs during
Nature of law these first stages of “natural law”, “ habitual obedience is commonly
A man is a social animal. The term society / community suggests referred to as “social customs” and is persuasive since it entails
behaviour patterns and norms in the society and become social practices that may be observed and almost certainly will be
customs with the passage of time and with constant reputation, they observed but do not have to be observed. Legal custom is binding
reach a stage where it becomes unthinkable that hey should be and authoritative in the sense that it entails duties, which must be
broken up, for example, the need to wear clothes in the public observed and enforced by the society or State through the
places. Parliament.
Judicial Precedent

66
It is where a previous judicial decision in a novel case serves as a retrospective or “ex-post –factor” legislation is almost universally
rule or guide for similar cases to be heard in the future. (In novel condemned though unavoidable. This certainty about the future is
cases where a legal rule exists, a case may be decided on set essential if people are to be free to decide their Actions with the full
precedents, that is, used judge’s principles, prudence and wise knowledge of the consequences. And is also necessary if the legal
counsel). Once a court has given a ruling concerning the legal rules are to apply which “ Ignoratia juris excusat”,” Ignorance of
position applicable in a particular set of circumstances, this ruling the law excuses no one”. The law making process through
becomes the law for the future. This principle is known as the Parliament, crafting of binding rules of law in a precise well-defined
doctrine of Stare Decisis, that is, to stay by the decisions and not form by a body legally constituted. (A person or body of persons
disturb settled points. However, this doctrine follows the hierarchy having power to pass laws that keeps pace with the changing
of authority- previous decisions only bind later decisions if the conditions in a community.) Creates laws known as Acts or Statutes
earlier courts are superior to the latter, for example: the supreme and it has the power to amend or repeal / cancel laws already in
courts binds all other courts but not itself, the high court binds all existence. It is the most important and modern sources of law. Also
inferior courts, but not itself unless operating as lower courts with has statutory instruments or subsidiary legislation, which are
one judge and magistrates courts bind not even themselves (inferior enactments that provide for detailed Administration of the Act and
of lower courts such as primary courts implementation of Principles, involved, e.g. Rules Proclamations,
Legislature /statute By-laws, Orders and Notices. Debate and passed by Parliament,
Statutes are laws made by the legislature or Parliament and are Acts, Statutory Instruments Proclamations, By–Laws, Delegated
governed by 5 basic princes of modern laws: Just application-for Authorities, Orders, Statutes etc.
example, legal rules, “must direct what is honourable and forbid Roman Dutch/ Jurists: Jurists are legal writers who on the basis of
what is base”. Equality –law must be blind to distinctions of class, widespread reference to their opinions by the courts and elsewhere
wealth, colour or creed, race, which means all citizens are equal are regarded as authorities on he law. Their importance should not
before the law. Uniformity-law must behave uniformly or be underestimated; for example, it is the jurists of principals that
consistently, that is, not only with regards to people but also to Roman law owes its fame and its influence on subsequent
areas. Authority –law must only drive from the proper and generations. The Roman Dutch law is a function of the ancient
authorised such as the Parliament or Municipalities. Certainty-legal Roman law and Dutch customary practices. Roman Law spread
rules must not only be clear and unambiguous, they must also be with the spread of the Roman Empire. Thus as the Romans
declared and mad known before they are applied. Hence occupied the Netherlands, they spread their law which got infused

67
with Dutch customs producing Roman Dutch Law. When the Dutch THE CONSTITUTION
colonised the Cape in 1652, they made the Roman and Dutch law The constitution is the supreme law in the country and most
the law of the land. Roman and Dutch law was spread to Zimbabwe countries have written constitutions, Zimbabwe included. The UK.
by the BSAC, which had been asked by the High Commissioner at Stands out as the odd case that has no clear document written
the Cape to make it law of the colony. Although we call it Roman- and termed a constitution. A constitution is the body or rules and
Dutch Law in Zimbabwe, it also has traits of the English law for regulations that set out the authorities of those in power. It also
example, Insurance law, Banking Law and Company Law, etc. sets out the rights and duties of citizens. It is important because it

Divisions or classification of the law establishes the institutions, which make up the State. These are
the Executive, the Judiciary and the Legislature.

The separation of power / the three arms of the state

National Law International law

Legislature Executive Judiciary

Criminal law Family law
Private international law

Administrative law Company law

Public international law House of Assembly (Lower House) Upper House (Senate)
Constitutional law Industrial law

Civil private law Commercial law Law of treaties The State consists of three organs or pillars which are separate
but have coordinated constitutional roles viz: - the legislature, or
the Parliament, which makes laws; the Executive, or Cabinet
National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the
(sometimes referred to as Government) which executes public
behaviour of citizens of or within a specific country. National law
policy (laws and programmes etc) and the Judiciary, or the courts
has law enforcing agencies while international law is that law
which interpret the law and decide on cases brought before them.
which regulates between States and is based on conventions,
treaties, however it has no law enforcing agents.
Composition of the Parliament (Lancaster House
Constitution)

68
Parliament is the law making body of the State institutions; it also The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Bill No.17 provides for
carries out some equally important functions. Parliament is the the constituting of Parliament as a Bicameral legislature
forum where the nation’s representatives debate national issues consisting of the House of Assembly of 150 members and Senate
including critical examinations of the Government’s execution of of 66 members.
public policy. This is how the legislature on behalf of the electorate Composition:
holds the executive accountable. The Parliament of Zimbabwe is  Of the 66 members, 5 are elected in each f the 10
now a Bi-cameral Parliament, which is divided into the Lower provinces [50].
House and the Upper House.  Plus the President and Deputy President of the Council of
The Lower House (House of Assembly) Chiefs.
There are 150 Members of Parliament, who can be divided as  8 Chiefs elected by the College of Chiefs Council to
follows: 120 Constituent Members who are elected by the people represent the 8 non-metropolitan provinces.
registered in the Common Voter’s Role, 10 Governors-Appointed  Remaining 6 are Appointed by the President and these
by the President, 8 chiefs –who are appointed by the Chief’s represent special interest groups.
Council, 12 Non-Constituent Members- who are Appointed by the Qualification to be elected as a senator
President. One shall be eligible for election as a senator if he / she is a
Functions registered voter, above the age of 40 years and must be or must
 To legislate / to make laws. have been a member of the Senate or the House of Assembly but
 To debate on matters of public interests, national and who must not be a member of the cabinet, deputy Minister or
international issues. provincial governor.
 To control Government finance. Functions and roles of the Senate
 To monitor administration of line ministries.  The Upper House (Senate) has a broader mandate to utilise
 To represent the electorate. the Senator’s experience to ensure that any laws that are
passed are in the ultimate national interest.
 The Senate is the custodian of certain national values and
principles that may have been overlooked, forgotten, or
THE SENATE unknown to the members of the lower House.
Introduction:

69
 The Senate is a safeguard for prudence and an assurance that
all interest, including those that are not fully represented in the
Bills
Lower House, are represented in the legislative process.
 The Senate provide checks and balances, which help prevent
the passage into law of ill-conceived legislation.
 It is a safeguard against hastily authored legislation that may
Private Bills Public Bills
not be in the national interest.

Government Bills Private members Bills

THE LAW MAKING PROCESS IN ZIMBABWE
There are basically two types of the Bills, namely the Private Bills
Ministers MPs
and Public Bills. Private Bills can be defined as those Bills that
have a particular interest or benefit to any person or group of Stage 1: The Preliminary stages
persons, public company, corporations or local authority. Such A Minister who intends to introduce a Bill into Parliament first put
Bills can only be introduced into the House of Parliament after a his proposals to the cabinet. The cabinet examines the proposals
petition and a copy of the proposed Bill has been presented and and decides on matters of policy. If the proposals are accepted,
adopted. On the other hand Public Bills relate to matters of the relevant Minister is directed to prepare a Bill on the broad
general interest, are introduced upon notice, by a member of lines. The Minister concerned then instructs the Ministry officials
Parliament/ Minister. Public Bills are further divided into to prepare the proposed Bill. The Ministry Officials in turn send a
Government Bills and Private Members’ Bills. Government memorandum to the Draftsman containing a general description of
Ministers pilot the former through Parliament while an individual the scope of the proposed Bill as well as its terms of reference.
Member of Parliament can introduce the latter. Acting upon the suggested guidelines, the draftsman, then draws
up a Bill. This draft Bill is printed and subsequently laid down
before the cabinet committee on legislation for consideration and
approval. The cabinet usually consists of five cabinet Ministers
assisted by professionals. The Minister of Justice, Legal and
Parliamentary affairs chair the committee. In its deliberations, the
committee usually seeks the advice of officials within the Ministry

70
of Justice; besides they also consult the central committee of the amendments may be proposed not to the Bill, but the motion,” that
ruling party to ensure that the legislation is consistent with the the Bill be read a second time” the usual amendment is “that the
Government policy. Bill be read a second time upon this day six months”, which is
regarded as the a courteous way of dismissing the Bills. If this
amendment is carried, the Bill is dead and buried and cannot be
revived until the next session. If there is much opposition to the
Stage 2: First Reading: Bill, the Minister in charge and the Government may consider it
Before a Bill is introduced into the Parliament, the Minister in wiser to withdraw the Bill than to force it through. Once the Bill
charge notifies the House of his intention to do so on a particular receives its second reading, it is ready for the Committee Stage.
day. The Bill is then placed on the order paper for the specific day. Stage 4: The Committee Stage
The l then calls upon the Minister on a specified day. On this day The purpose of the committee stage is to consider the Bill in
to present his Bill the secretary reads short title of the Bill. There is detail. The whole House goes into committee. Thus the function of
no debate during the first reading of the Bill. Normally time is the committee on a Bill is to go through the text clause by clause.
allowed for members and interested persons to read and digest The guiding principles during these detailed deliberations is that
the Bill; discuss it with their colleagues and constituencies and to the committee should make such amendments in the Bill as may
prepare for the second reading. In essence, therefore the purpose seem likely to render it more generally acceptable. The procedure
of the first reading of a Bill is to give members and interested involves putting every clause separately to the committee. The
persons an opportunity to study the Bill. clause may be accepted, amended, or rejected, with or without
Stage 3: Second Recording debate. Although the committee has fairly free a hand in dealing
On a specified day for the second reading, the Minister in charge with the Bill, it suffers certain limitations. Firstly, it is bound by the
explains the principle of the Bill. He also explains the key issues of decision taken by the House to accept the principles of the Bill.
policy involved and concludes by moving “that the Bill be read a This means that the committee should refrain from amending the
second time”. This motion is followed by a debate on the general Bill in a manner that is sharp conflict with that decision. However,
principles of the Bill. However, no discussion on matters of detail if it happens that the cumulative effect of amendments is such that
is permitted. The members restrict themselves to consideration of the nature and purpose of the Bill are wholly changed. In such
the general application and desirability of the Bill. It is out of order circumstances it is the general practice to withdraw the Bill after
to move amendments to the Bill itself at this stage. Nevertheless report of the committee. Although the committee has authority to

71
amend any clause of a Bill, it cannot reject or through out a Bill. carried, the Bill is deemed to have completed its stages and is
Only the House can reject the Bill. now ready for further scrutiny by the Senate.
Stage 5: Report Stage 7: The Senate [see above under the Senate]
If a Bill has been referred to a committee of the whole House and Stage 8: The Presidential Assent and Enrolment Of The Act:
no amendments have been made, the report stage is purely When an Act has been duly passed in terms of the provisions of
formal before the third reading is undertaken. If amended, the the constitution or standing orders, it is presented to the President
amendments are considered and adopted by the House before for the Assent. The President grants his Assent by a copy of the
the third reading takes place. At this stage the committees’ Act and the attachment of the Public Seal. The President in terms
recommendations are either accepted or rejected. Thus, the of the constitution must sign the Act within twenty-one days of its
report stage ensures that the Bill, in its final form, represents the presentation to her/him. Where the President withholds his/ her
opinion of the majority of the House, and not merely that of the Assent, to the Bill, the Bill shall be returned to Parliament and
committee. To archive this, the House may make further subject to the provision of the subsection 3 (b) the Bill shall not
amendments or even insert new clauses. The later is usually done again be presented for Assent (chapter 51 subsections 3(a). After
at the instance of the Minister in charge of the Bill to the Presidential Assent the clerk of Parliament shall cause a fair
accommodate criticisms made in committee with which he is copy of the Act, dully authenticated by the signature of the
sympathy. President and the Public seal to be enrolled on record in the office
Stage 6: Third Reading of the registrar of the high court and such copy shall be conclusive
The third reading of the Bill is taken, as a rule if the report stage evidence of the provision of such Act (chapter 53(1). The Act is
has been completed. Debate follows the motion by the Minister in then published in the Government Gazette. An Act of Parliament
charge “that the Bill is now read a third time.” the debate at this comes into operation on the day it is published in the gazette or
stage is usually very limited and normally reverts to discussions of on such other day as may be specified in or under that or some
principles. In addition, no amendments can be effected to the text other Act. A Bill can only be deemed to have been passed by
of the Bill, except for purely verbal and minor amendments Parliament once it has gone through all the stages referred to
relating to type and drafting errors. Opposition to the motion for above and been passed by both House.
the third reading is expressed by amendments similar to those Importance of Elections
moved on the second reading. If the motion for the third reading is  Provide a mechanism for peaceful and legitimate competition
for Political power and Authority.

72
 Give citizens the opportunity to participate in the Governance  Parliamentary privilege – Is a privilege granted to members
and Development of their community or country. of Parliament to protect them from legal course as long as their
 Make elected leaders and their representatives accountable to behaviour or Actions are in the interest or said during
the people. Parliamentary proceedings
 Give legitimacy to Governments.  Precedent –Is a ruling for future reference, where a situation
 Provide peace and stability necessary for the development of a occurs and there are no standing rules and orders governing or
community or country. stipulating otherwise on a certain case or process. The leader
Parliamentary terms: of the House often sets such precedents during votes and
 Motion – Is a proposed topic presented/moved for debate. A proceedings of the House.
notice is given before the motion is moved.  Election- can be defined as a contest in which individuals
 Bill –Is a proposed legislation for public or private interests. freely choose, by secrete ballot, the leaders and
There are public Bills and private Bills. representatives they want.
 Mace – This is the symbol of authority for the House of  Voters-these are individuals that are given the opportunity to
Assembly, the Speaker of Parliament uses it. choose from various candidates representing different political
 Act – Is a legal item or statute enacted through Parliament and parties-mulitipartism.
signed by his excellence. Chief Whip
 Caucus –Is a place where party business is discussed in the Is member of a party whose responsibility is to carry out the
House. The chief whip chairs caucus motions. functions of a whip on behalf of the party, responsible for the
 Hansard – is the official publication of Parliament, produced in organisation of the party in the House, ensuring the maximum
verbatim, all the discussion, motions and debates in the House practicable attendance of the members of the party and maintain
of Assembly party discipline, promoting support for the party business in the
 Order Paper – It is also referred to as the agenda for the House and determining how the party should vote to a particular
House of Assembly. It shows the votes and proceedings of the proposal, maintaining a quorum of supporters for the business the
House. party is interested in how to behave towards the business of
 Standing Order – An order/ rule procedure set to govern the Parliament, call for party caucus meetings on Parliamentary
proceedings of the House at large. Assembly and or business that require / needs party consultations and party
Parliament at large whipping of the members.

73
Speaker Leader of the House
The office of the Speaker is the highest and the most important to The leader of the House is a Government Minister appointed by
the House. The Speaker occupies the foremost place and the State President and is responsible for the arrangement and
commands respect internally from Parliamentarians and also management of Government business in either House of
externally from the general public. The election of the Speaker is Parliament. The leader of the House in consultation with the
provided for in the constitution of the country. Members of presiding officers, the chief whip and the Ministers determines the
Parliament, elect the Speaker at the first sitting of new Parliament. order in which Government business will be dealt with in the
The candidate for Speaker ship should be a person who would House, and ensure that as far as possible, the passage of
have once been or is a current Member of Parliament can qualify Government business is not unduly delayed or disrupted. The
for elections as Speaker. leader of the House is also responsible for moving procedural
Terms of office of the Speaker motions on behalf of the Government. In short the leader of the
The term of office of the Speaker is as long as life of the House attends to the following:
Parliament, which is five years. The Speaker can be re-elected at  Arranges the business of the House
the end of the 5 years term. The constitution does not limit the  Protects and to some extent defines the position of the
number of times the Speaker can be re-elected. Government in the House
Duties of the Speaker  Helps determine the scope and content of the legislative
He is the presiding officer of the Parliament and as such must Act programme for the session as well as the businesses of the
both with authority and impartiality, he is the one who runs week
Parliamentary proceedings, he maintains order, puts questions  Moving of the motion for the adjournment of the House
after debate and conducts divisions (voting in the House), he  Responsible for moving formal motions such as motions of
interprets and applies the standing orders and practices of the condolences, paying tribute.
House by making rulings and decisions, he is the mouth piece of Sergeant-At –Arms
the House, conveying messages and addresses from the House These are officers whose duties fall under the clerk; they carry
to the State President, he is also responsible for holding the rights special duties for the President of the Senate and the Speaker of
and privileges of the members and the House, he is responsible the House of assembly that warrant a special mention. Their
for the overall direction of Parliament and is advised by the clerk duties are associated mainly with the ceremony of Parliament and
of Parliament. preservation of order. Bearing the mace on their right shoulder,

74
one for each House, the sergeant –at-arms precedes the deprived of his life unlawfully under the following circumstances: -
presiding officers into the House of Parliament and announces the he / she is killed by the law enforcement agents whilst they are
President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of defending another person or protecting property, or if he /she is
assembly respectively to the members. The sergeant –at- arms killed as a result of force used in order to carry a lawful arrest or to
duties include: - stop a person who is lawfully detained from escaping, or if he /she
 Records attendances of members is killed during an attempt to suppress a riot or disperse an
 Responsibility for security unlawful gathering, or if he/she is killed whilst is being prevented
 Escort suspended members from committing a criminal offence , or if he is killed during a War.
 House keeping duties Protection of right to personal liberty
 Carries the mace No person can be arrested, imprisoned, detained, expelled from
 Leads the Speakers processions the country without lawful reason. The law permits deprivation of
The Declaration Of Rights personal liberty where, for, example: -there is an order of the
This is provided for in chapter three of the constitution. The court, or the person deprived of his liberty has committed or is
declaration of rights is inspired by the universal declaration of about to commit a criminal offence; or the person is in sane and of
rights as proclaimed by the United Nations in 1948. The no fixed abode and needs treatment or rehabilitation; or the
declaration of rights sets out the fundamental rights and freedoms person has entered into Zimbabwe unlawfully or is being deported
of the individual. However, these rights and freedoms are not from Zimbabwe or it is necessary to prevent the spread of an
absolute, but are subject to certain limitations. Everyone in infectious or contagious disease.
Zimbabwe can enjoy the fundamental rights and freedoms, which Protection from slavery and forced labour
are provided in the constitution. In exercising these rights and Slavery and slave trade is prohibited in Zimbabwe. No body has
freedoms, individuals should respect the rights and freedoms of the right to treat another person as a slave and no body must be
others and take into account public interests. treated as a slave. This protection does not prevent labour as part
Protection of right to life of a sentence imposed by a court, labour for members of
Everyone one has the right to life. A person may be deprived of disciplined forces and labour during times of public emergency.
his life only if he has been convicted of a criminal offence and is Protection from inhuman treatment
subsequently sentenced to death or lawfully in the circumstances No body has the right to torture or treat another person in a
permitted by the law. A person is not considered to have been manner that is inhuman or degrading. Under the constitution

75
however, certain situations or Acts are not considered as being the holding of property for the purposes of administration of
inhuman or degrading under the following circumstances:- deceased estates.
moderate corporal punishment inflicted on person under the age Protection from arbitrary search
of 18 years by a parent or guardian of headmaster of a school; or No person may be searched or have his/ her premises searched
moderate corporal punishment of a male person under the age of or entered into unless the search is in the interest of defence,
18 years in the execution of a judgement or court order; or public safety, public order, public morality, public health or town
hanging as a method of execution and delays in carryout the and country planning. The circumstances under which a person
death sentence. may be searched and under which someone may lawfully enter
Protection from deprivation of property another’s property without their consent. These include: - the
Property includes possessions, land, houses, money and every searching of children by their parents; investigation of crimes; the
item that is capable of commercial change. No person may be acquisition of property in terms of the law; the entering premises
deprived of his/ her property and no property may be compulsorily for purposes of rates and taxes by a local authority.
acquired unless: - the acquisition is in terms of the law made by Protection of the law
Parliament; and the law require that the person from whom it is Under the constitution every person has the right to;- a fair
acquired gets fair compensation in reasonable time; and the hearing within reasonable time by an independent or an impartial
person can go to court for decision on the amount of the court; be presumed innocent until proved guilty or upon his own
compensation. Property may be compulsorily acquired fro the plea of guilty; defend oneself in court, and at his expense by a
following reasons, among others; - land and other property may legal practitioner of his choice; to b informed in a large he
be acquired by the State for resettlement or for other public understands and in detail of the nature of the offence or charge; to
purposes; property may be appropriated in time of the public be given adequate time and facilities for preparation of his
emergency; acquisition of property is allowed, subject t limitations, defence; be tried only once for the same offence; and get the
for such things as: - payments of rates and taxes; forfeiture of services of an interpreter free of charge during court proceedings.
property for breach of a law; forfeiture of property under a Protection of freedom of conscience
contract, for example, for not paying mortgage; the attachment of This provision enshrines: - freedom of thought; freedom of
property in execution of a civil judgement; the acquisition of books religion; the right not to be forced too take an oath in conflict with
from the national archives; the impounding of stray animals and his beliefs; and the right of a religious community to give religious
instructions at a school run by that community.

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Protection of freedom of expression Every Zimbabwean has the right to enter and leave Zimbabwe,
The right entitles one to hold opinions and to express these and to move freely within Zimbabwe. A Zimbabwean may not be
opinions to others and no one should forbid anyone from expelled from Zimbabwe. The right is exercised subject to the
exercising this right. This also includes freedom from interference following limitations; -the lawful detention of a person; restrictions
with one’s correspondence. Parliament may make laws limiting imposed in the interests of defence, public health, public morality;
these rights for the purposes of;-protecting the interest of defence, restrictions imposed on convicted persons or on persons awaiting
public safety, public health, public order, public morality and the trial or extradition; restrictions imposed on non-citizens or on
economic interest of the State; the protection of reputations, rights people who are not permanent residents; and restrictions on the
and freedoms of other people; preventing the disclosure of right of residence in communal land of people who do not belong
information received in confidence; and regulating telephones or to the local tribe.
broadcasting.
Protection of freedom of assembly Protection from discrimination
Every person has the right to organise peaceful meetings and to This section provides that no person shall be treated in a
take part in meetings in a peaceful way. It is also every person’s discriminatory manner by any person acting by virtue of any
right to associate with others who share his interests and to form, written law or in performance of the functions of any public office
or belong to a political party, trade union, burial society or or any public authority. No law may discriminate on the ground of
professional organisation. It is wrong to force some one to belong gender, race, tribe, place of origin, political opinions, colour or
to a society or group. However, there are limitations to the creed. The constitution allows some form of discrimination as
enjoyment of the freedom of assembly and association. Situations follows: - laws relating to adoption, marriage, divorce and other
where the freedom may be limited include the following: - where family and personal matters; the application of the customary law
the parents control the right of association of their children; where in cases between Africans only; non-citizens and persons who are
laws passed in the interest of defence, public safety, public health, not permanent residents in Zimbabwe may be required to have
public order, public morality and the economic interest of the work permits.
State; and where laws passed require the registration of Enforcement of protective provisions
companies or partnerships, political parties or trade unions, are If any person has reason to believe that his rights under the
not required to register. declaration of rights are being or are likely to be contravened, he
Protection of freedom of movement or she may apply to the supreme court on his / her behalf. A

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person may also ask a judge of the high court or magistrate or Executive
other presiding officers at any other court to refer to the supreme The President who shall be head of State and head of
court any question about a positive violation of the declaration of Government and Commander in Chief of the defence forces
rights. heads the executive. The President shall take precedent overall
Public order other persons in Zimbabwe.
Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every
Composition of the Executive
individual is able to exercise his /her constitutional rights without
infringing or interfering with the rights of others or enduring State
Security and National Sovereignty by championing blatantly clear President

foreign interest that seek to reverse the gains of independence

and self rule and by so doing compromising State National
Sovereignty. Democracy is therefore a qualified and subjective
D/Ministers Security Provincial
term that does not give licence to any individual or group or Vice President(s) Ministers Governors
political party the right to exploit situational hurdles in the history
of Zimbabwe to compromise national sovereignty and the ethos of
the preservation of freedom. If and when that happens, the
custodian of the nation, the Army and every patriotic Zimbabwean, Defence forces Prison Police CIO CID Air force
service
should by all, means available, defend the nation and democratic
rights can and should be suspended until such a time as these are Qualification and election of the President
compatible with our historical aspirations. Public order therefore A person shall be qualified for elections as President if he /she is
entails the capability of self-censorship with the respect to the a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth or by decent and he/she has
exercise of individual constitutional rights especially the rights of attained the age of 40 years and she/ he is ordinarily resident in
expression, speech, assembly and association. In the later case, Zimbabwe. He /she must be elected by voters registered on the
the constitution cannot be read to mean that belonging or common voters roll.
associating with a subversive organisation or unpatriotic party or ill
association whose interests are to destabilise peace, order and Tenure of office (Lancaster House Constitution)
security is a right guaranteed by the constitution.

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The term of office of the President shall be a period of 6 years appointment or removal of a Vice-President or any Minister or
provided that; the President shall continue in office until the deputy Minister, the assignment or reassignment of functions to
person elected as President at the next election of President the vice –President or Minister or deputy Minister, the
assumes office. The President may resign his/ her office by appointment of members of Parliament or any other person.
logging his/her resignation in writing with the Speaker. The
President shall cease to hold office if a report prepared by a Presidential immunity
committee of Parliament, appointed by the Speaker upon the The President shall not while in office be personally reliable to any
request of not less than a third of the members of Parliament has civil or criminal proceedings whatsoever.
recommended the removal of the President on the following
grounds; that he has acted in wilful violation of this constitution JUDICIARY
(impeachment of the President) or that he is incapable of
performing the functions of his office by reason of physical or Judiciary System
mental incapacity.
The Executive functions
Chief Justice
It shall be the duty of the President to uphold this constitution and
ensure that the provisions of the constitution and of all other laws
in force in Zimbabwe are faithfully executed. The President shall
have powers as are conferred upon him by the constitution.
Supreme High Court Magistrate Community Courts
Without prejudice the President shall have the power to appoint,
accredit, receive and recognise diplomatic agents and consular
officers and to enter into international conventions, treaties and
Chief Justice Judge President
agreements and to proclaim and to terminate martial law and
declare War and to make peace and confer honours and
precedence. The President shall act on the advice of the cabinet, Supreme court judges High court judges
except in cases where he is required to by this constitution. The
President shall not be obliged to Act on the advice of the cabinet The judiciary is one of the three pillars of Government and is
with respect to the dissolution of the Parliament or the concerned with the administration of justice and ensuring that

79
constitutional rights are protected. It exercises its functions seven years imprisonment. However, a statute may confer special
independently of the other two pillars of Government, which is, the jurisdiction, which is higher than this.
Executive and the Legislature. The role of the judiciary
Supreme court The main function of the judiciary is to hear cases and determine
This is the highest court in the country. It hears appeals from the dispute brought before the courts. In the exercises of this function,
high court and all lower courts. It only sits as a court of first it interprets the law that is enacted or passed by Parliament. Once
instance when it hears arguments on whether or not there has the judiciary has interpreted the law, the interpretation becomes
been a violation of the declaration of rights. It consists of the Chief binding. The judiciary upholds the constitution. People who allege
Justice who is also the head of the judiciary system and judges of that their rights under the declaration of rights have been
the Supreme Court breached or violated can approach the Supreme Court for
High Court redress. The cases determined by the judiciary are in two broad
It hears serious cases (such as murder, treason, armed robbery) category, that is the civil and criminal. In criminal cases the
as a court of first instance and appeals to the Supreme Court. dispute is between the State and the individual. The individual is
Both civil and criminal cases can be heard in the high court. The prosecuted before the magistrates’ courts or high court depending
High Court can also hear appeals from magistrates’ court in on the seriousness of the case. If convicted he or she is
criminal cases where the appeal is against conviction or sentence. imprisoned or ordered to pay a fine or both. One may also go
In civil cases, it can hear appeals and also review decisions of under community service or if one is a juvenile can receive
inferior courts and administrative tribunals where it is alleged there corporal punishment. Examples of criminal offences are theft,
were some irregularities in the conduct of the proceedings. fraud, robbery, rape, murder, and e.t.c. In civil cases the dispute is
Magistrates’ court between individuals or an individual and the State. The party
Magistrates’ courts hear both civil and criminal cases. The ranks found liable may be asked or ordered to pay compensation in the
of magistrates are; Ordinary magistrates simply referred to as form of what is legally known as “ damages’. Examples of civil
magistrates, senior magistrates, provincial magistrates and cases are seduction, maintenance, and claim for payment or debt.
regional magistrates. The rank of the magistrates determines the
criminal jurisdiction he or she can exercise. The maximum Qualification of judges
jurisdiction in the magistrates’ courts ordinarily is $12 000.00 or A person shall not be qualified as a judge of the supreme court or
high court unless; he is / has been a judge of a court having

80
unlimited jurisdiction in civil or criminal matters in a country in the matter. If in the case of a judge of the high court or the
which the common law is Roman –Dutch or English and English is supreme court other than the chief justice, the chief justice
an official language or if he/she has been for not less than seven advises the President that the question of the removal from office
whether continuously or not qualified to practice as a legal of the judge concerned ought to be investigated, for example,
practitioner in Zimbabwe or in a country in which the common law Justice George Paradza’s case
is Roman -Dutch and English s an official language. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (LEGAL & PARLIAMENTARY)
Appointment of judges 1. The highest legislative authority in the land is:
The President shall appoint the Chief Justice and other judges of a. Parliament
the Supreme Court and the high court after consultation with the b. Judiciary
judicial service commission. If the chief justice or a judge of the c. Constitution
Supreme Court or high court is not consistent with any d. Executive
recommendation made by the judicial service commission the 2. The legislative arm of government has the responsibility of:
President shall cause Parliament to be informed as soon as it is a. Implementing the law
practicable. b. Interpreting the law
Tenure of office of judges c. Formulating the law
A judge of the Supreme Court or high court shall retire when d. Enforcing the law
he/she attains the age of 54years unless, before he /she attains 3. A Constitutional Bill must go through………times before
that age he /she has elected to retire on attaining the age of passing the Parliament:
70years. a. 5
Removal of judges from office b. 1
A judge of the Supreme Court or the high court may be removed c. 2
from office only for inability to discharge the functions or duties of d. 3
his office. Whether arising from the physical damage of body or 4. The Chief Ambassador of the House of Assembly is:
mind or misbehaviour and shall not be so removed except with the a. Leader of the House
previsions of this constitution. If the President considers that the b. Chief whip
question of removal from office of the chief justice ought to be c. Speaker
investigated, the President shall appoint a tribunal to enquire in d. Clerk

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5. The presiding Officer in the Parliament is: d) To approve government’s expenditure
a) The Administrative clerk 10. The golden mace place dons the table of the House
b) The Chief Whip a) Symbolises the authority of the speaker
c) The Speaker b) Symbolises the August House
d) The Attorney general c) Symbolises the importance of the members of the
6. The Legislative arm of the Government has the House
responsibility of: d) Symbolises many issues, which are to be debated
a) Implementing the law 11. The term Whip, in Parliamentary Language applies to:
b) Interpreting the law a) A member of a particular party whose duty is to
c) Formulating the law secure the attendance of the Party for the purpose
d) Enforcing the law of voting and all necessary occasions where
attendance of members is most important
7. Parliamentary proceedings are published in the: b) To lead debates in Parliament
a) The Hansard c) When a Member of Parliament cries in the Parliament
b) Press d) Ensures that both Private and Public Bills goes through
Parliament
c) Journal
12. The Chief Whip is elected:
d) Text book a) By the general public
8. The “first – past - the – post” electoral system means: b) By the Party Caucus
a) The winner takes all and is duly elected c) By the Speaker of Parliament
b) One man one vote d) Legal Parliamentary committee
c) The ballot is the best way declared true 13. One of the functions of the Chief Whip is to:
d) The majority’s interests are declared true a) Supervise and organise the sitting arrangement of all
9. One of the functions of the Chief Whip is: members in Parliament.
a) To secure the attendance of the member of the b) Taking minutes for all the activities taking place in
party Parliament
b) To prepare the proposals in parliament c) The organisation of the Party in the House,
c) To sign the Bill presented to him ensuring the maximum practicable attendance of

82
 the members of the Party and maintain Party b) Investigate any Action taken by the officer
discipline in the House c) Supervise Parliament business
d) He sometimes Act as the Deputy Speaker d) Assist in Auditing Private Company’s financial
14. Parliament is Presided over by the: Statements
a) The Chief Whip 19. The Public debt shall be:
b) The President a) Charged upon the Consolidated Revenue Fund
c) The Speaker b) Public Bills
d) The Senator c) Treasury Bills
15. The House of Assembly refers: d) International Monetary Fund
a) The Parliament Chamber where debates take place 20. Attorney General shall:
b) Government Printers a) Shall be the advisor to the Supreme Court
c) Presidential House b) Shall be the Principal Legal advisor to the
d) God’s place Government
16. Sergeant-At-Arms: c) He is part of the High court judges
a) He commands the Army
d) Be elected into the office by the general public
b) He is in charge of the police force
21. The main function of the Executive is to:
c) He is in charge of the security in the House
a) Make laws in Parliament
d) He Heads the department of security arms in the
b) To make laws operational
country
c) To interpret laws of the country
17. The Speaker of Parliament is elected by the:
d) None of the above
a) Members of the public
22. The main function of the Parliament is to:
b) The Executive
a) Govern the Country
c) Members of the Parliament at the 1 st sitting of a new
b) Shout at opposition members of Parliament
Parliament
c) Make laws in the country
d) The Chief Whip
d) Make laws operational
18. Comptroller and Auditor General’s main duty is to:--
23. The main function of the Judiciary is to:
a) Examine, audit and report on behalf of the
a) Make laws in the country
Parliament all the public accounts

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 b) Make laws Operational 28. The Tenure of a constitutionally elected President is:
c) Interpret the Laws of the country a) 7years
d) None of the above b) 4years
24. A wilful intention to injure one’s persona is treated as: c) 6years
a) Deformation d) 5years
b) Blasphemy 29. The Tribal Law and Custom of Africans is enshrined in:
c) Affray a) Public African Law
d) Defamation b) Customary Law
25. The right to compensation of employees in Zimbabwe is c) African Customary Law
enshrined in: d) Tribal African Law
a) Factories and Work Places Act 30. A document published by the Authority of Government of
b) Labour Relations Act Zimbabwe is called:
c) National social Security Authority Act a) The Act
d) Compensation Act b) The Bill
26. An Act that States that all Companies should be registered c) The Government Gazette
through the registrar of companies is: d) Hansard
a) The companies Act 28.03 31. The Legislature is:
b) The Companies Act 24.03 a) House of Assembly
c) Registrar and Dees Act 11.03 b) The Executive
d) Enterprises Act 22.09 c) The Judiciary
27. Public gatherings and functions should be held and bound d) The Court
as per provisions in: 32. Any proclamation, rule, regulation, by- law, order or notice
a) Public Order and Security Act is called:
b) Public Gatherings Act a) A Legal Item
c) Public Functions and Gathering Act b) An Act of Parliament
d) The Official Gathering Act c) A Statutory Instrument
e) Rule of Law

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33. A vote of no confidence in the Government must be 37. The President shall not while in office, be personally liable
supported by a resolution and by votes of: to any civil or criminal proceedings whatsoever in any
a) All members court. This is termed:
b) Not less than 2/3 of all members of a) Presidential In criminality
Parliament b) Presidential In liability
c) Half the members of parliament c) Presidential Privilege
d) The Cabinet d) Presidential immunity
34. A committee that monitors the use of monies from the 38. Of the following, who is not elected by the people
Consolidated Revenue funds [CRF] sanctioned by the registered in the common voter’s role?
Parliament is: a) The Executive
a) Budget Committee b) The Legislature
b) Committee of taxes c) The Senators
c) Committee of public accounts e) The Judiciary
d) Inter-Ministerial Committee 39. The age limit for any one being eligible to be voted as a
35. A…………………….is held when a member dies, retires or constituent Member of Parliament is:
resigns: a) 40 years
a) Retirement election b) 18 years
b) By-election c) 21 years
c) Parliamentary election d) 36 years
d) General election 40. The age limit for any one being eligible to be voted as a
6. The judicial arm of the United Nations is the: Senator is:
a) ICJ a) 60 years
b) Security Council b) 40 years and above
c) Justice Bench c) 21 years
d) Labour Court d) 18 and above
41. The symbol of Authority of the House is:
a) The Oath Box

85
 b) The Mace 46. When were the first shots leading to the second
c) The Sword Chimurenga fired?
d) The Public Seal a) April 1969
42. The word parliament came from the Greek term “Paler”
b) April 1968
which means:
a) To legislate c) April 1967
b) To discuss d) April 1966
c) To make laws 47. The scenario in world politics existing today where the USA
d) To talk. is dominating the whole world is
43. The legal officer whose task is to prepare a case before called………………………….
trial and speak at all levels of court proceedings is: a) Bipolarism
a) Witness b) Unipolarism
b) Solicitor c) Multipolarism
c) Barrister d) Singularise
e) Attorney 48. In which year was Iraqi invaded under George W. Bush?
a) 2001
44. The racial discrimination in Southern Africa was based on
b) 2002
all of the following except?
c) 2003
a) Double Pyramid Policy
d) 2004
b) Equality of Races
1. Most developing countries are said to be lawless
c) Separation of Races
countries by the developed States especially United States
d) Horse and rider Policy
and United Kingdom. “The Rule of Law is a subjective
45. The following pieces of legislation were central in
Statement” Discuss
expropriation of land from the locals except?
The rule of law is a subjective Statement because it depends on
a) The Land Apportionment Act
whose interest/taste/side/opinion you are, etc.
b) The land Husbandry Act
 Law is not universally acceptable.
c) The land Ownership Act
 Rule of law refers to the Adherence to:
d) The land Tenure Act
 Governance Principles.
 Democratic principles.

86
 Human rights recognition. 2. Describe the main functions of the Executive
 Consistent application of legal instruments within a Sovereign  Executive Authority is vested in the President.
State.  He upholds the constitution.
 The term rule of law becomes controversial.  Appoints cabinet Ministers
N.B. Students to take note of the fact that developed countries  Has prerogative of mercy.
have certain interests in the developing countries. Therefore  Has the power to proclaim public emergencies.
students should identify those interests and then apply them in an  Appoints the judiciary.
attempt to answer the question. For example, third world leaders  Represents the nation.
who do not adhere to the interests of the super powers are  Make laws through decrees
perceived lawless. Such leaders are then demonised by the west,  He ascends to all legislation.
could be removed from power, and in their place puppets leaders 3. Describe the main sources of law:
are installed. All this is done to further their interests. Customs law / Natural law
 The following raw materials are in Great demand by the  These are behaviour patterns man developed according to his
Developed world: instincts and the rules of conduct he adopts to meet
 Oil/petroleum in such countries like Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia environmental challenges (social customs and legal customs
(The Middle East). that include African /Traditional Customs, Societal values,
 Uranium in Zimbabwe. Norms, Beliefs, etc.)
 Platinum in Zimbabwe.  It is the constant application and repetition of habits that leads
 Diamonds in DRC. to the development of firm customs, which all members of the
 Rubber DRC. community are obliged to comply.
 Gold.  Social customs show duties that may be obeyed
 Land in Zimbabwe, etc.  Legal customs show duties that must be obeyed
Again consider the characteristics/principles that comprise or Judicial precedent
govern the rule of law, in such countries like Zimbabwe.  It is where a previous judicial decision in a novel case serves
as a rule or guide for similar cases to heard in the future. ( In
novel cases where a legal rule exists, a case may be decided

87
 on set precedents, that is, used judge’s principles, prudence law which got infused with Dutch customs producing Roman
and wise counsel.). Dutch Law.
 Once court has given a ruling concerning the legal position  When the Duct colonised the Cape in 1652, they made the
applicable in a particular set of circumstances, this ruling Roman and Dutch law the law of the land.
becomes the law for the future.  Roman and Dutch law was spread to Zimbabwe by the BSAC,
Legislation /statute which had been asked by the high Commissioner at the Cape
 The law making process through parliament, crafting of binding to make it law of the colony
rules of law in a precise well-defined form by a body legally  Although we call it Roman- Law in Zimbabwe, it also has traits
constituted. (A person or body of persons having power to of the English law for example, Insurance law, banking law and
pass laws that keep pace with the changing conditions in a Company Law, etc.
community.) 3. Discuss briefly the following parliamentary terms
 Creates laws known as Acts or statutes and it has the power to  Motion – Is a proposed topic presented/moved for debate. A
amend or repeal / cancel laws already in existence. notice is given before the motion is moved.
 It is the most important and modern sources of law  Bill –Is a proposed legislation for public or private interests.
 Also has statutory instruments or subsidiary legislation, which There are public Bills and private Bills.
are enactments that provide for detailed Administration of the Act  Mace – This is the symbol of authority for the House of
and implementation of Principles, involved, e.g. Rules Assembly, the Speaker of Parliament uses it.
Proclamations, By-laws, Orders and Notices.  Act – Is a legal item or statute enacted through Parliament and
 Debate and passed by Parliament, Acts, Statutory Instruments signed by his excellence.
Proclamations, By–Laws, Delegated Authorities, Orders,  Caucus –Is a place where party business is discussed in the
Statutes etc. House. The chief whip chairs caucus motions.
Roman Dutch  Hansard – is the official publication of parliament, produced in
 It is function of the ancient Roman law and Dutch customary verbatim, all the discussion, motions and debates in the House
practices. of Assembly
 Roman Law spread with e spread of the Roman Empire. Thus  Order Paper – It is also referred to as the agenda for the
as the Romans occupied the Netherlands, they spread their House of Assembly. It shows the votes and proceedings of the
House.

88
 Standing Order – An order/ rule procedure set to govern the Executive
proceedings of the House at large. Assembly and or  Maintain law and order.
Parliament at large  Government and administration.
 Parliamentary privilege – Is a privilege granted to members  Protect sovereignty of the State.
of Parliament to protect them from legal course as long as their  Decide on national issues in pursuance with public interest.
behaviour or Actions are in the interest or said during  Uphold democratic values and leadership.
parliamentary proceedings Judiciary
 Precedent –Is a ruling for future reference, where a situation  Put law into practice.
occurs and there are no standing rules and orders governing or  Upholds justice.
stipulating otherwise on a certain case or process. The leader  Ensures that enacted laws are constitutional.
of the House often sets such precedents during votes and  Guards the fundamental rights and liberties of the people of
proceedings of the House. Zimbabwe.
 Election- can be defined as a contest in which individuals  Ensures peace and social justice in the nation.
freely choose, by secrete ballot, the leaders and 6. State And Explain Any Four Fundamental Rights And
representatives they want. Freedoms Enshrined In The Constitution Of Zimbabwe:
 Voters-these are individuals that are given the opportunity to Right To Freedom Of Expression
choose from various candidates representing different political  Freedom of speech, of opinion, free to express themselves to
parties-mulitipartism. others; freedom from interference with one’s correspondence.
5. Identify the three Arms of the State in Zimbabwe and May be limited.
discuss their functions:  To protect the interests of defence, public order and safety,
Legislature morality and economic interests of the State.
 To legislate / to make laws.  To protect reputation, rights and freedom of others.
 To debate on matters of public interests, national and
international issues. Freedom Of Movement
 To control government finance.  To move freely within Zimbabwe, not to be expelled from
 To monitor administration of line ministries. Zimbabwe, the right to enter and leave the country. May be
 To represent the electorate. limited when:

89
 A person is lawfully detained. The declaration of Human Rights
 Restrictions are in the interests of defence, public health and Right to Freedom of Expression, Right to Freedom of Association,
public morality. Right to Freedom of Conscience, Right to Life.
 Restrictions are imposed on convicted persons. The Executive
 Restrictions are on non-citizens. Composition
Freedom of Assembly  Headed by the President.
 Freedom to associate with any person of your choice, to  Include the Vice-Presidents.
associate with any political party, trade union or organisation of  Ministers.
one’s choice, the right to organise and to attend peaceful  Cabinet.
meetings. This freedom may be limited:  Security Agencies such as: The Police, the Army, CIO,
 Where parents control the right of association of their children. CID, Prison Service, etc.
 To protect the interests of public order, defence, public safety, Functions
and public morality – refer to POSA.  Executive Authority is vested in the President.
Freedom of Conscience  He upholds the constitution.
 Freedom of religion, freedom of thought, the right not to be  Appoints cabinet Ministers.
forced at school to attend religious ceremonies other than his  Has prerogative of mercy.
own, not to be forced to take an oath in conflict with his beliefs.  Has the power to proclaim public emergencies.
N.B. Students could explain any of the following freedoms  Appoints the judiciary.
 Freedom from inhuman treatment.  Represents the nation.
 Freedom from slavery.  Make laws through decrees.
 Right to freedom from deprivation of property.  He ascends to all Legislation.
 Right to freedom from arbitrary search or entry. The Legislation: Composition:
 Protection of right to life etc.  There are 152 Members of Parliament, who can be divided as
7. Outline and explain the Provisions of the Constitution follows:
of Zimbabwe  120 Constituent Members who are elected by the people
The following are the major provisions of the constitution of registered in the Common Voter’s Role.
Zimbabwe:  10 Governors-Appointed by the President.

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 10 chiefs –who are appointed by the chief’s Council.  Public Office of Attorney General and Comptroller and Audit –
 12 None Constituent Members- who are Appointed by the General. 8. Discuss the various Freedoms as outlined in the
President. Constitution of Zimbabwe:
Functions Freedom Of Speech / Expression
 To make law.  Everyone to be allowed to express his/her own opinion freely.
 To approve / disapprove of national budget. Freedom Of Movement
 To monitor line ministries’ expenditure.  Free to move in and around Zimbabwe-not expelled from
 To review / amend laws. Zimbabwe.
 To debate the Presidential address / Speech. Freedom Of Conscience
 Sending adhoc committees to investigate problem areas e.g.  Should enjoy Freedom of Conscience – Freedom of Religion,
committee on education. Freedom to think, to worship, believe or not to believe.
The Judiciary: Composition: Freedom Of Assembly
 Community Courts.  Freedom to meet / gather with people of your choice.
 Magistrate Courts. Freedom Of Assembly
 High Court.  Freedom to associate with any people / political / trade union /
 Supreme Court. origins of one’s choice.
Functions 9. List Five Functions Of Parliament
 To interpret the law, apply and enforce the law  To make law.
 Citizenship.  To approve / disapprove of national budget.
 The functions of the Police Force, Defence Forces, Prison  To monitor line ministries’ expenditure.
Service and the Public Service.  To review / amend laws.
 The Ombudsman, his Appointment, duties and powers.  To debate the Presidential address / speech.
 The Electoral Supervisory Commission and the Delimitation  Sending adhoc committees to investigate problem areas e.g.
Commission. committee on education.
 Chiefs and the Chiefs Council. 10. Discuss the Law Making Process in Zimbabwe
Presentation of Proposal to Cabinet

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 This is the time when proposed law is presented to the cabinet.  At this Stage, the Bill is considered by various Committees of
They will consider its constitutionality to the nation and present Parliament to verify any sections that have an impact on
it to the legal advisor of government who is the Attorney committees put in place such as Public Construction and
General. National Housing Committee, Public Accounts, Education
 Legal drafting of the Bill by the Attorney General. This is the Committee, etc.
Stage when the proposal is drafted in legal terms to a Bill and Report
put in the provision to be addressed.  At this Stage, the Bill is reported back in the House for
 Consideration by Cabinet Committee chaired by the Minister of continuous assessment and subsequent endorsement for it
Justice Legal and Parliamentary Affairs. At this Stage, the being Constitutional and serving the needs of society.
Draft Bill is considered by the Cabinet to make sure that it does Third Reading
not violate, adversely affect the Executive Functions and  At this Stage, the Bill is read with questions and agreements
indirectly amend the Constitution. being put. It is the last reading and all members of the House
 Gazetting in the Government Gazette and references to the and movers propose its adoption.
Parliament Legal Committees. At this Stage, the Bill is The Senate
presented for printing and Gazetting for Public Information. It The Presidential Assent and Enrolment of the Act
is then referred to the Parliament Legal Committees, which  At this Stage, the Bill, upon and agreed to, are adopted and
then thoroughly scrutinise it to ensure that it is not adverse to sent to the office of the President for his signature and upon its
Constitutional Provisions. Publication in the Government Gazette, it becomes Law.
First Reading 11. Explain why elections are important?
 At this Stage the Bill is read in the House with no question  Provide a mechanism for peaceful and legitimate competition
being put. It is read for member’s information so that they can for Political power and Authority.
prepare it in the House of Parliament.  Give citizens the opportunity to participate in the Governance
Second Recording and Development of their community or country.
 At this Stage the Bill is read and any-adverse reports or  Make elected leaders and their representatives accountable to
questions raised to be considered and amendments are done the people.
forthwith.  Give legitimacy to governments.
Committee Stage

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 Provide peace and stability necessary for the development of a  The Senate is a safeguard for prudence and an assurance that
community or country. all interest, including those that are not fully represented in the
12. Discuss The Composition And Functions Of The Lower House, are represented in the legislative process.
Senators?  The Senate provide checks and balances, which help prevent
Introduction the passage of into law of ill-conceived legislation.
 The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Bill No.17 provides  It is a safeguard against hastily authored legislation that may
for the constituting of Parliament as a Bicameral legislature not be in the national interest.
consisting of the House of Assembly of 150 members and 13. Describe The Functions Of The Following In
Senate of 66 members. Parliament
Composition Chief Whip
 Of the 66 members, 5 are elected in each f the 10 provinces  Is member of a Party whose responsibility is to carry out the
[50]. functions of a whip on behalf of the party
 Plus the President and Deputy President of the Council f  Responsible for the organisation of the party in the House,
Chiefs. ensuring the maximum practicable attendance of the members
 8 Chiefs elected by the College f Chiefs Council to represent of the arty and maintain party discipline
the 8 non-metropolitan provinces.  Promoting support for the party business in the House and
 Remaining 6 are Appointed by the President and these determining how the party should vote to particular proposal.
represent special interest groups.  Maintaining a quorum of supporters for the business the party
Functions And Roles Of The Senate is interested in how to behave towards the business of
 The Upper House (Senate) has a broader mandate to utilize Parliament
the Senator’s experience to ensure that any laws that are  Call for party caucus meetings on Parliamentary business that
passed are in the ultimate national interest. require / needs party consultations and party whipping of the
 The Senate is the custodian of certain national, values and members
principles that may have been overlooked, forgotten, or Speaker
unknown to the members of the lower House.  Presiding officer of parliament
 Runs all parliamentary proceedings
 Maintains order

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 Interprets and applies the Standing Orders Global scale and the interplay between and among power
 Upholds the rights and privileges of members and the House centres”
Leader of the House The essence of IR
 Arranges the business of the House The core and essence of IR is the interaction of nation States.
 Protects and to some extent defines the position of the Although the primary focus of IR is the actions. Although the
government in the House primary focus of IR is the actions and interactions of government,
 Helps determine the scope and content of the legislative the study of IR also encompasses the multiplicity of factors
programme for the session as well as the businesses of the influencing intergovernmental interaction. Such factors are
week generally of two kinds:
 Moving of the motion for the adjournment of the House  Those related to the characteristics of the governments,
 Responsible for moving formal motions such as motions of including their relationships with people they govern and
condolences, paying tribute.  Those related to the context or international environment within
Sergeant-At -Arms which interaction among national government occurs. To the
 Records attendances of members extent that they affect interaction among governments,
 Responsibility for security technological, economic, legal, social and cultural relations are
 Escort suspended members part of the study of the IR. Broadly conceived IR includes all types
 House keeping duties of transactions between governments and between peoples, from
 Carries the mace the sending of letters to a recipient in another country to the
Leads the speakers processions exchange of gunfire between the military forces of two countries.
Nation: - the people living within a country with the same political
interests, for example in Zimbabwe, the land issue since it can be
INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL RELATIONS traced back from the first Chimurenga in 1896 up to the present
Quincy rights defined IR as“ relations between groups of major day events.
importance in the like of the world at any period of history, in Country: - the physical geographical territory in which a specific
particular those of territorially organised nation States.” Raymond people live in.
Plating “ defines IR as the studies of the distribution of power on

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State: - the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and International society
which is represented by the arms of the State such as the Is a recent development in the world’s history, which comes into
executive, the parliament and the judiciary. existence in the 16th century to resolve conflicts. It came up with
Government: - the arm of the State, which is tasked with the principles to govern different nations, which was done thorough
ruling or exercising the executive powers of the State that is conventions or international agreements.
representing the nation at the international forum, defending and
keeping law and order in the nation; implementing political, Approaches to international relations

economic and social policy of the ruling party. The government is

formed by the winner at general elections and therefore comes
and goes.
Traditional approach Modern approach Behavioural approach

The practice of international relations

Society-people within a nation are a society or societies of people. Classical approach Strategic approach The regional approach

To become a nation therefore the people should have similar

Idealist approach Billiard ball approach
political interests, however, the norms and behavioural patterns
within that society will determine the distribution of resources and Rational approach Cobweb approach The global approach
hence the development of classes. Classes in turn bring
inequalities, however in international relations, instead of people The classical approach
forming the society or community we have nations being members The proponents of this approach are to large extent social
of the international society. Again within this international society contract theorists. Thomas Hobbes sees a State as arising out of
there is also an unequal distribution of resources. the need to escape from a State of nature, where there is anarchy
and life is insecure, short, nasty and brutal. A State of nature
presupposes the non-existence of society and therefore the non-
existence of the law. In such a lawless States everyone does as
he pleases and those with more clout (more power) survive. In
others words the law of the jungle” might is right” and survival of

95
the fittest rules supreme. In another sense, this approach is also Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a
Evolutionists or Darwinian. centralised one-world government, with nation States
Idealist approach disappearing.
These ideas are centred on the existence of the law. This Regional approach
approach involves nations becoming members of specific treaties Involves regional politics, for example, SADC. Zimbabwe went to
such as the League of Nations, which was established in 1918, DRC guided by the SADC banner.
was meant to stop further wars. Woodrow Wilson of USA Billiard ball approach: -Recognises States as individual entities
proposed this. This meant that nation members to the league Cobweb model
were going to be bound together by laws, however, USA refused John Burton sees international relations as existing within a
to join the league in spite of championing it. The League of complex matrix web or matrix in which each State is linked to the
Nations failed to bring peace as evidenced by the war fought in other directly or indirectly.
1927 between German and Italy and the Second World War in The strategic model: - This believes in power politics
1945. Idealism therefore sought to affect the thinking of Global
society. This idea is part of idealism. THE THREE Cs TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Rational approach (realist approach) The three Cs of International Relations are Conflict, Competition
Between the Second World War and First World War the thinking and Co-operation.
on international relations shifted from idealism to rational Conflicts
approach. This simply means that people started to look at the These are disagreements sparkling diplomatic wrangles between
practicability of international relations. Explaining the behaviour of nations. A conflict is also synonymous with War. It is a result of
various States did this. The behaviouralist approach incorporates serious differences associated with hostilities that may lead to an
all social sciences techniques and concludes that there is danger outbreak of War. Conflict can be caused by competition and by a
to peaceful co-existence. Co-existence may result in unilateral law scramble for scarce resources. It may be a result of differences in
due to misinformation. The classical example is the recent Iraq trade and political relations. If not resolved, conflict can lead to
War, which was fuelled by USA and Great Britain by misinforming hostility and Wars, gaps on co-operation, poor relations and may
the whole world that Iraq had weapons of Mass destruction. hinder internal, regional and international development. Conflict
The Global approach can be resolved through negotiations, compromising, and external

96
intervention. It can also be resolved through the International former USSR collapsed following the introduction of the Glasnost
Court of Justice through the United Nations intervention (ICJ). Policy by Mikhail Gorbachev. Also the collapse was a result of the
Competition Involves rivalry, struggling and competing for un sustainability of the arms race by former USSR. After the
supremacy and resources. Nation States could compete in trade collapse the world became a Uni-polar
and international sports, in technological development, in space Diplomacy
exploration and in agriculture, etc. Has led to allegiances, regional Can be defined as the application of intelligence and tact to the
blocs and the development of trade routes. Can lead to conduct of official relations between governments of independent
development and attainment of targets if managed well. Can also States. Formal contact between Nations in the Global Community
develop into conflict and cause poor relations if not managed takes place through the medium of diplomacy and the interaction
properly of diplomats. Diplomats are emissaries or representatives of their
Co-operation Involves collective efforts nations put to the governments in other countries and are the direct contact between
development of States. A concept of practice used by the principle different governments. The Ministers of foreign affairs in all States
of interdependence of nations. Working together to ensure have the responsibility for the development of diplomats and
development and to promote peace and security. Co-operation carrying out of the foreign policy of each respective country.
can also be used to solve problems that know no boundaries e.g. The Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy
AIDS, Ebola, Sars and Malaria. The need to co-operate to resolve Zimbabwean’s original foreign policy has been that of non-aligned
problems have led to the formation of regional and international that is of not taking sides between the competing superpowers of
organisations such as UN, AU, SADC, and NATO etc. Nations the Warsaw Pact under the leadership or guidance of the former
come together to deal with various challenges and problems that USSR and the West (NATO) under the guidance of USA. Of late
mankind face. Positive effects of co-operation include bringing the Zimbabwean Government has adopted a look East Policy as a
development to the participants. Can promote peace and stability. result of illegal sanctions put in place by the West and its North
The Global Power Balance American allies who are opposed to Zimbabwean Government
Is an issue that emanated from the military supremacy attained by Policy of empowering its people.
countries, however, after the first and second Wars, the world was Objectives
split into two blocks with the former USSR leading the War Saw  To formulate policies that promote the preservation of natural
Pact group (the communists as referred to by the West) and USA sovereignty
leading NATO or the Western Block. However, in the late 80s the

97
 To be an equal partner in the regional / international affairs and economic issues. For military cases specialised diplomats
especially in the maintenance of peace and stability called “attaches” may be appointed.
 To purse and promote Pan-Africanism The IMF and World Bank (Breton wood’s Institutions): - these
 To protect the Zimbabwean national and self-interest and are the institutions that lend money to developing countries at very
promote its prestige and reputation high interests rates. The major contributors are the USA and UK.
 To determine the most suitable regional and international Therefore, most of their policies favour those of the major
economic relations financiers. They usually set conditions for any one country
 To promote friendly relations with other countries. interested in receiving money from the higher lending institutions.
Some of the conditions include: the devaluation of the local
currency, trade liberalisation / removal of tariffs, privatisation of
Functions of diplomatic missions
government owned enterprises e.g. NRZ, CSC, ZISCO, etc.,
reduce expenditure on social services e.g. education, health,
reduce budget deficit, etc, raise interest rates to their natural
(market) level, remove government subsidies on goods and
Substantive Non-substantive
services, remove minimum wages and allow market forces to
determine wages.
Non-substantive duties
These include attending to ceremonial functions of the host Zimbabwe’s Intervention In Mozambique
country, cocktail parties, luncheons, parades, honour giving Soon after attaining independence in Zimbabwe, Mozambique
ceremonies, registration of births, deaths and marriages of was facing a barrage of attack from Mozambique National
citizens from their country residing in the host State and validating Resistance Army (MNR) under Alfonso Dlakhama. This was a
and replacing passports. rebel group that was formed by the Ian Smith regime in
Substantive routine duties conjunction with the Boers in the Republic of South Africa to
The work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering destabilise both Zimbabwe and Mozambique. This rebel group
although this is not an official or a declared function of diplomats, was trained and armed at a Military base near Marymount
however, the other functions include reporting on political, social Teachers’ college in Zimbabwe. Young as she was in terms of
being independent, Zimbabwe found herself in Mozambique

98
fighting along side the Samora Machel Government against the to show and express solidarity with the DRC in line with SADC
MNR) due the following reasons: this was in response to the principles and objectives.
request by the Government of Mozambique, which was in a State
of a Civil War, long-standing friendship between ZANU (PF) and International Capital and Imperialism
the Frelimo Government, to help Mozambique maintain its Hunter-gatherer / Communal stage
integrity and sovereignty, restore peace in Mozambique and the Between 400BC up to 1500BC, this was the mode of production,
region, protect Mozambique from the destructive and destabilising however, during this mode of production, it was dominated by the
Activities of the RENAMO or the MNR, Protect railway lines, non-existence of classes (lawless society). Therefore, the class
which Zimbabwe used to export her products through Port of contradictions and antagonisms were non-existent as this period
Biera and Maputo., to prevent RENAMO Activities spilling into the was dominated by the survival of the fittest. Their political
Eastern Zimbabwe. economy was dominated by free for all economic activities as
Zimbabwe’s Intervention in DRC people specialised in hunting and gathering (no ownership).
This was a complex War in the Great Lakes region as it involved Feudalism/ Slave Society
various nations, such as Uganda, Rwanda, Angola, Namibia and This mode of production existed between 500A.D and 700A.D.
Zimbabwe. DRC was under siege from the Rwandan and Aristocracy/ rulers, soldiers, slaves; serfs (half slaves and half
Ugandan armies who were fighting the Government under Laurent worker) dominated the class structure. The presence of these
Kabila who had succeeded in overthrowing the government of classes meant the existence of class contradictions. For example
Mobuthu Seseseko. DRC is a SADC member and by the time the contradictions emanating from slave labour leading to rebellion
War broke out R. G. Mugabe was the leader of the security organ against the elite, slaves rebelling against the their leaders. The
in SADC. Therefore the following reasons led Zimbabwe and the political economy that existed at this time was the elite or
allied forces to intervene in the DRC: it was in response to an aristocracy owned the means of production, for example, there
appeal by the DRC government led by Laurent Kabila, together was the extraction of the surplus through the exploitation of free
with Angola and Namibia to drive off Rwandan and Ugandan labour.
forces which were attacking the D. R. Congo, to protect the Mercantile capital (1700 to 1800)
integrity and sovereignty of the D. R. Congo, to prevent the The following classes existed during this mode of production;
division of the DRC into three or more States, to help restore aristocracy (elite), merchants, craftsman / industrialists,
peace in the DRC – since she had not known peace for decades, labourers/workers. The antagonism or the contractions existed

99
between merchants and landlords or it emanated from the by developing countries) .The political economy that exists
formation of joint stock companies, which led to Globalisation of involves selling of money (export of money), for IMF sending us
trade, slaves and colonisation for example, the BSAC under money at a higher international rate, money monopoly and
Rhodes. ownership of capital by banks.
Competitive Capital 1800-1900 International Economic Relations
The following classes existed in this mode of production, The Second World War marks the beginning point of the present
industrialists, and workers and peasants (communal farmers). The Global economic arrangement. The idealism of the immediate
contractions existed between industrialists, bankers, exploiting post world War two periods led to massive government led
workers and merchants’ exploitation industrialist. The political initiatives to bring the shattered economy of the world back to its
economy was free trade based on international division of labour, feet. By 1979 however this role of government in economic activity
which involved exploitation of workers, by the industry, monopoly was under attack and has to a large extent been abandoned
of machines, money and land. altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing of the
past and a new ideology, emphasising the role of the market in
Monopoly Capital 1900-1945. determining all-economic activity as well as social and political
In this mode of production, the following classes existed e.g., decisions has been adopted. In current economic thinking
bankers, industrialist, workers and peasants. Contradictions cooperation or business have total freedom and collective
existed between workers’ labour that was under valued leading to bargaining and trade unionism and the consumer and citizen in
acute concentration of capital. Political Economy was the general have found themselves at the receiving end of the new
extraction of surplus value through repay for workers needs not international economic order. This new international economic
for value for labour. (There was monopoly ownership of capital order had by the middle of the 1990s assumed a new form and
land, money and machines). characteristic namely Globalisation. The IMF, World Bank and
Multilateral / Finance Capital from 1945 to the present Breton Woods Financial institutions were formed for the specific
The classes that existed in this mode of production were finance purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing
institution, for example, WB (World Bank) IMF- (International those economic and social issues that led and that might lead to a
Monetary Fund) and borrowers (developing countries). The new War. The mandate of this financial institution was to provide
contradictions emanated from the fact that buyers determined lending for reconstruction and for short-term balance of payment
prices (developing nations determining prices for goods produced support. These institutions after 1979 have increasingly taken

100
over individual government, economic policies and intervene in loans obtained from the north compounds or increases the flow of
national policy welkll beyond the scope of their mandate .The resources to the south .
post 1945 period saw a massive realignment of Global Economic The flow of wealth from the south to the north through debt
relations with Europe being mortgaged to the U.S.A under the servicing and unequal exchange is further increased with the
Marshall Plan which saw infusion of capital into Europe from the insistence on structural adjustments programmes in the south by
U.S.A and newly cr01gheated Breton Woods financial the so called donor community that is western government and
institutions .The U.S.A insisted on decolonisation as a condition the Breton Woods financial institutions or the north. The catch
of giving financial support to Europe and declared the end to word on economic structures adjustments programmes forced on
empire .Thus the USA gained the empires that Europe lost the south are similar to the free market economic policies
through decolonisation as it gained unprecedented control of instituted on the domestic economics of the north which result in
former colonies through new economic relations specifically the net gains for the super rich and net loss for the average worker.
supply of manufactured goods and the provision of finance capital Average income in the 1980s of the top 10% of American families
debt becomes primary form of survival technique for all former increased by 16%, the top 5% increased by 23%, the top 1% got
colonies and the supply of new materials from former colonies 50% the bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the same
was accelerated in order to raise money to payoff the debt .By period The same policies during the same period of time applied
the end of the 1970s the so called debt crisis had developed with to Global policies saw an increase in net flows of income to the
a new economic Global structure which split the world into north and decrease in income to the south with the result that IMF
producers of raw materials and importers of finance capital and policies have led to increased poverty in the south. These policies
finished goods and producers of finished goods and exporters of are what can be termed Globalisation and are hinged upon, free
finance capital .This relationship was marked or characterised by trade in goods and services between countries through the
a high level injustice in the form of unequal exchange .The former removal of trade barriers, free circulation of capital, freedom and
colonies from America , Africa and Asia were selling raw protection of investments, reduction of governmental expenditure
materials with little value added to them at prices set by the buyer and government interference in the economy, Privatisation of
that is the developed countries .The latter sell manufactured Parastatals, these points have become the conditionalties for
goods to the developing countries at high profit margins and over receiving or disbursement of aid by north.
and above this drain of resources from the south servicing the
Features of Globalisation

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Globalisation is a process of linking all parts of the globe to each member States and not to interfere in domestic affairs of fellow
other through the opening up of borders to allow free movement of citizens.
goods and resources, in short trade liberalisation accompanied Structure
by closer political ties through the mechanism of the UN. This The structure of the African Union remains that of the OAU, which
process is facilitated by modern methods of communications in disbanded in 2001. Its policy-making body is the annual assembly
transport and through cyberspace or the Internet. These features of Heads of State and Government. The assembly coordinates
include the following, new forms of transport and information policy and approves decisions made at the periodic meetings of
technology are faster and economic, investors can trade stocks on the Council of Ministers, which consists of the foreign Ministers of
internet, standardisation of products – services and member countries. Efforts to resolve disputes are handled by the
communication / civilisation, competition to produce products that commission of Mediation, Conciliation, and Arbitration. In 1991 the
measure up to international standards, imperialism or Global OAU decided to set up a conflict management division to monitor
Capital is the major beneficiary of Globalisation in that the potential disputes and to try and prevent them erupting into
exportation of capital supersedes all other forms interaction and violence; a peace fund was created to finance the division’s
this leads to the de-industrialisation of or in the smaller States or operations. The OAU had a number of specialised commissions
those that import capital, cultural domination / disintegration of dealing with areas such as Economics, Transport and
smaller States by dominant players e.g. the USA, schisms and Communications, and Education as well as a few specialised
conflict as in the middle east ,super power unilateralism. agencies-including the Pan African News Agency, the Pan
African- Postal Union, and the Scientific, Technical, and Research
[AFRICAN UNION] AU Commission. The organisation while maintaining its political
Purpose nature became increasingly involved with promoting economic
The main purpose of the AU is to promote unity and solidarity integration and cooperation. These efforts led to the decisions to
among African States, to co-ordinate and intensify their co- establish an African Economic Community whose Treaty was
operation, to achieve better life for the people of Africa, to defend signed by African leaders in 1991. After receiving the two-thirds
the African State’s Sovereignty, Territorial integrity and ratification, the Treaty entered into force in April 1994, and in early
Independence, to eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa, to 2001 African leaders agreed in principle to proposals to set up an
respect the principles of sovereign equality of all member African Union similar to that of the European Union. The
countries, to encourage peaceful settlements of dispute between permanent administrative body of the organisation is the general

102
secretariat. It is headed by the Secretary General, elected for a SADC was established in August 1992 and is the successor to the
four-year term and aided by five assistant secretaries in charge of Southern African Development Coordinating Conference
the various departments. The secretariat carries out the (SADCC), which was initially set up in 1980. The former Front line
resolutions and decisions of the assembly, keeps archives, and States in Southern Africa and nine members formed this and were
conducts the organisation’s public relations. as follows: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique,
Composition: - All independent African Countries belong to the Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
AU. Structure
Positive Impact The headquarters of SADC will remain in Gaborone. It is
It established an African Development Bank in 1964, has acted governed by a Summit comprising the Head of State and
and mediated in several disputes between African States, it has Government of all member States and the Council comprising the
provided forum for debate and meeting place for the continent’s Minister from each Member to advise the Summit on matters of
heads where they debate issues of mutual concern. Policy and efficient and harmonious functioning and development
of SADC.
Negative Impact of AU Purpose
National interests at times appear to be more important to To promote collective self-reliance, the whole region to be able to
individual countries than common interests of AU, its non- support itself, in food, fuel, energy goods and services, to promote
intervention policy is a hand cap as it can watch helplessly when and defend peace and security, to protect the people and
member countries are ravaged by Civil War, it has failed to take a safeguard the development of the region against internal
serious stance against human rights, it has failed to stop conflicts, instability, inter-State conflict and external aggression, to promote
Africa is poverty stricken, no funds to support or promote policies, political co-operation, to promote and defend peace and security,
problems of economic integration, uneven development among promote and maximise productive employment and utilisation of
member States which have their roots in colonial period, those resources of the region.
with resources and technology dominate the grouping, e.g.
Nigeria and SA. Composition
SADC now consists of the following members: Angola, Botswana,
SADC DRC, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
Seychelles, SA, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

103
Positive Impact Of SADC
Implementing projects covering the duties assigned to each
member, rehabilitation of transport systems to Mozambique, that
is, part of Beira through active participation of SADC
Governments and International Foreign Donors. DONOR COUNTRIES/ FOREIGN AID
The Three Major Characteristics Of Finance Capital. Foreign Aid is the transfer of concessional resources from one
Domination of weaker States by stronger States or domination of government to another or from a government to aid international
developing countries by the developed countries: aid agency or any NGO, which then transfers those resources to
 Developing countries being indebted to the developing poor nations.
countries. Objectives
 Exportation of capital.  Goal of promoting development in less developed countries
 Monopolisation of capital.  Reflecting on the humanitarian values
 Creation of external markets.  Gaining diplomatic recognition
 International Division of Labour.  Establishing military bases
 Determination of prices by developed countries characterised  Obtaining a supportive vote e.g. in the Un
by borrowers who are in most cases developing nations.  Maintaining a cordial relationship with a recipient government
 Dumping of access goods in the developing nations. where other foreign Governments are also providing Aid
 Globalisation. Merits
 Control of International Finance Capital of developed countries, Assist in the development of the recipient country, help establish
e.g. IMF and the World Bank. cordials relationships, the donor countries obtain supportive vote,
 Money class owners, e.g. America and Britain. helps in the balance of payments, creates employment through
 Demise of trade and use f Tariffs and brutal force to extract relief, advocacy and developmental, brings in new technology and
surplus. brings relief in times of natural disasters such as drought,
earthquakes, diseases, etc.
Demerits
The donor country may interfere in the political systems of the
recipient country, that is, by helping puppets to power for example

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in Zimbabwe, the Case Of the MDC. It can be aid with strings c) The probability of positive outcome determines the
attached, can lead to further exploitation of the recipient country’s decision of State
resources, the recipient country can develop a dependency d) The fact that the “just War” determines whether
syndrome, the recipient country can become a dumping ground conflict exists or does not exist among States
for irrelevant and out dated technology, donors may gain political 4. Zimbabwe’s Sectoral Responsibility In SADC Is:
mileage through their donations at the expense of the third world a) Inland Fisheries and Agricultural research
governments and may determine national Sovereignty of recipient b) Energy and Transport
countries c) Food, Security and Agricultural Research
d) Transport and Communication
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (IR) 5. International Relations are associated with:
Classes in society imply the existence of: a. Co-operation, Conflict and Competition
a) Free market commodities b. Evaluation, Conflict, and Reading
b) Democracy c. Explaining and Analysis
c) Class Contradictions in the Society d. Foreign Aid and Globalisation
d) The study of national science 6. The United Nations was founded in:
2. Global power politics dominated by two powers is: a. 1975
a) Bi – polar b. 1943
b) Multi-polar c. 1945
c) Bilateral d. 1920
d) None of the above 7. The Balance of Power theory in International Relations
3. The rational approach to international relations relate to:
emphasises: a. Maintaining the power balance amongst States
a) The fact that peace and security can be engineered b. Global distribution of power
through intergovernmental organisations like the UN c. Ensuring shared anatomy
b) The relations among States are determined by d. Neutralisation of power Nations
national self-interest and greed 8. The Breton Wood Institutions facilitate:
a. International Capital

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 b. Imperialist capital c) Encourage Tourism between two countries
c. Mercantile capital d) Promote Technological exchange
d. Capitalism 13. The collapse of the Soviet –Union as a World Supper
9. Zimbabwe has intervened militarily in: Power resulted in:
a) The DRC and Somalia a) Multilateral power balance
b) Mozambique, Kosovo and Botswana b) Bi-polar power balance
c) Zambia and Angola c) Uni-polar balance
d) The DRC and Mozambique d) None of the above
10. The IMF and the World Bank Structural Adjacent Polices 14. The “Cold War” was a military stand off between:
have: a) Africa and Europe
a) Contributed to the industrialisation of Third World b) China and Japan
Countries c) Warsaw Pact countries and Nato countries
b) Contributed to increased poverty and suffering d) America and Cuba
in Third World Countries 15. Which among the following is not a characteristic of
imperialism in its current phase?
c) More Aid flowing to 3rd World Countries
a) Export of Finance Capital
d) None of the Above b) Existence of dominance relationship between
11. Which among the following is not a Modern Approach to importers and exporters of capital
the study of International relation? c) Fair trading practices
a) Classical Approach d) Unfavourable terms of trade
b) Cob-web Approach 16. Which among the following is not a stage in the
c) Billiard ball Approach development of imperialism/finance capital?
d) System/Strategic Approach a) Feudalism
b) Mercantile Capital
12. Which of the following is not a legitimate role of a c) Monopoly Capital
diplomatic mission? d) Communism
17. Idealism as an explanation of international relations was:
a) Promote trade between two countries
a) A historical analysis of events as they took place
b) Support opposition parties in the host country

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 b) A Utopian prescription of how nations ought to c) The Regional Approach
behave d) The Rational Approach
c) A legal remedy to endemic insecurity 22. Which Approach to International Relations pre-supposes
d) A Neo-Marxist theory the non-existence of society, hence non-existence of law?
18. Which of the following is not an African Regional a) The Rational Approach
Organisation? b) The Classical Approach
a) ECOWAS c) The Regional Approach
b) COMESA d) Idealist Approach
c) East African Community 23. The Approach that became normative, prescriptive is the:
d) North Atlantic Free Trade Area a) The Classical Approach
19. The last and latest phase in the development of imperialism b) The Idealist Approach
is: c) The Realist Approach
a) Monopoly Capital d) The Billiard Ball Approach
b) Feudal Capital 24 The Approach that led to the formation of the League of
c) Competitive Capital Nations in 1918 is the:
d) Multi-Lateral Capital or finance Capital a) The Idealist Approach
20. Which of the following is not a Modern Approach to b) The Classical Approach
International Relations? c) The Regional Approach
a) The Strategic Approach d) The Strategic Approach
b) The Billiard Ball Approach 25. The Approach that led to the recognition of States as
c) The Global Approach Individual Entities was the:
d) The Cobweb Approach a) The Billiard Ball Approach
21. Which Approach to International Relations has the b) The Cob-web Model Approach
following Statement; “might is right and survival of the c) The Strategic Approach
fittest”? d) The Behavioural Approach
a) Classical Approach 26. Which International Relations Approaches sees
b) The Strategic Approach International Relations as existing within a

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 complex matrix in which each State is linked to d) International Approach
the other directly or indirectly and motion in or 30. After the Second World War the World became:
between components impact each other: a) Uni-polar
27. b) Bi-polar
a) Cob-web Model c) Centri-polar
b) Billiard Ball Model d) None of the above
c) Rational Model 31. The War Saw Pact Block countries was led by the:
d) Strategic Model a) Former Soviet Union
27. The Approach that believed and believes in power politics: b) USA
a) The Strategic Approach c) German
b) The Cob-web Approach d) Romania
c) The Classical Model Approach 32. The Western Block countries were led by the:
d) The Behavioural Model Approach a) German
28. The Approach that makes the methodical departure from b) Britain
previous approaches and denounces the strategic c) USA
approach as Warmongers, immoral and a threat to world d) France
peace and security is: 33. The countries that either belonged to the Western Block or
a) The Realistic Approach. Eastern Block countries are called:
b) The Behavioural Approach a) The Global Union
c) The Idealistic Approach b) The AU
d) The Cobweb Approach c) Non- Aligned Movement
29. Which of the following approaches suggests that the world d) Comesa
should be centralised with one-world government and 34. The Cold War era saw bloody Wars in the following
combination of African countries:
result in nation States disappearing?
a) Somalia, Vietnam and Nicaragua
a) The Global Approach b) Mozambique, Angola and Zimbabwe
b) Non-Global Approach c) Mozambique, Angola and Somalia
c) The Regional Approach d) Angola, Lesotho and Ghana

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 35. Which of the Policy introduced by Michael Gobachev led c) Enjoys supporting opposition parties in the host
to the collapse of the then whole War Saw Pact Military nations
and Economic Systems? d) Enjoys staying in foreign lands and benefits
a) Glasnost Policy associated with them.
b) Red Army Policy
c) Nato policy Act
d) None of the above
36. Diplomacy can be defined as:
a) The application of intelligence and tact to the 39. Imperialism can be defined as:
conduct of official relations between the a) The occupation and control of other States by
Governments of independent States foreigners
b) It involves acquiring diplomas over seas b) The exploitation of resources in territories
c) Refers to privileges and immunities of Diplomats occupied by force and other subtle means
d) None of the above c) Equitable distribution of resources
37. The Zimbabwean Foreign Policy Core interests are: d) None of the above
a) That the Zimbabweans have inalienable right 40. Which of the following mode of production had free for all
to land, that is, to own it and to share it economy?
equally with other Zimbabweans of all races a) Feudalism
without discrimination b) Mercantile Capital
b) To Promote Pan Africanism c) Hunter Gatherer
c) To Participate in Peace Keeping Missions d) Competitive Capital
d) To find or to determine the most suitable 41. Monopolisation of markets by merchants was the main
economic relations with the developed world. political economy of:
38. Diplomats in the Host Nation enjoys: a) Mercantile Capital
a) Diplomatic privileges and immunities b) Feudalism
b) Attending to political missions c) Competitive Capital
d) Hunter Gatherer

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 42. Which of the following are the main polices of  Reduce expenditure on social services e.g. education, health,
Globalisation: reduce budget deficit, etc.
a) Free Circulation of Capital  Raise Interest Rates to their natural (market) level.
b) Free Trade in Goods and Services between  Remove Government Subsidies on goods and services.
countries through the removal of Trade Barriers  Remove Minimum Wages and allow market forces to
c) Privatisation of Parastatals determine wages.
d) All of the above 2. Discuss the meaning and importance of the three C’s
43. International law is sourced from the following except: of International Relations
a) Treaties and Conventions Introduction
e) The customs of State relations with each other The three Cs of International Relations are Conflict, Competition
c) Jurists and other writers and Co-operation.
(d) Act of parliament Conflict
44. The latest phase in International Relations where third  Disagreement sparking diplomatic wrangles between nations.
world countries are expected by developed countries is  Serious differences associated with hostilities that may lead to
called………….. an outbreak of War.
a) Neo –capitalism  Conflict can be caused by competition and by a scramble for
b) Neo- colonialism scarce resources.
c) Colonisation  It may be a result of differences in trade and political relations.
d) Capitalism  If not resolved, conflict can lead to hostility and Wars, gaps on
1. Discuss The IMF And World Bank (Breton Wood’s co-operation, poor relations and may hinder internal, regional
Institutions) That Advocate For The Uninterrupted Operation and international development.
Of Market Forces.  Conflict can be resolved through negotiations, compromising,
Conditions and external intervention.
 Devalue currency.  It can also be resolved through the International Court of
 Trade Liberalisation / Remove Tariffs. Justice through the United Nations intervention (ICJ).
 Privatise Government owned Enterprises e.g. NRZ, CSC, Competition
ZISCO, etc.

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 Involves rivalry, struggling and competing for supremacy and  Long-standing friendship between ZANU (PF) and the Frelimo
resources. Government.
 Competition in trade and international sports, in technological  To help Mozambique maintain its integrity and sovereignty.
development, in space exploration and in agriculture, etc.  Restore peace in Mozambique and the region.
 Has led to allegiances, regional blocs and the development of  Protect Mozambique from the destructive and destabilising
trade routes. Activities of the RENAMO or the MNR.
 Can lead to development and attainment of targets if managed  Protect railway lines, which Zimbabwe used to export her
well products through Port of Biera and Maputo.
 Can also develop into conflict and cause poor relations if not  To prevent RENAMO Activities spilling into the Eastern
managed properly Zimbabwe.
Co-operation Zimbabwe Intervention in DRC
 Involves collective efforts nations put to the development of  In response to an appeal by the DRC government led by
States. Laurent Kabila.
 A concept of practice used by the principle of interdependence  Together with Angola and Namibia to drive off Rwandan and
of nations. Ugandan forces which were attacking the D. R. Congo.
 Working together to ensure development and to promote  To protect the integrity and sovereignty of the D. R. Congo.
peace and security.  To prevent the division of the DRC into three or more States.
 Co-operation can also be used to solve problems that know no  To help restore peace in the DRC – since she had not known
boundaries e.g. AIDS, Ebola, Sars and Malaria. peace for decades.
 The need to co-operate to resolve problems have led to the  To show and express solidarity with the DRC in line with
formation of regional and international organisations such as SADC principles and objectives.
UN, AU, SADC, and NATO etc.
3. Justify Zimbabwe’s Intervention In Mozambique And In 4. Discuss The Major Features Of Globalisation
The Democratic Republic Of Congo. Globalisation is a process of linking all parts of the globe to each
In Mozambique other through the opening up of borders to allow free movement of
 Was in response to the request of the Government of goods and resources, in short trade liberalisation accompanied
Mozambique, which was in a State of a Civil War. by closer political ties through the mechanism of the UN. This

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process is facilitated by modern methods of communications in  To co-ordinate and intensify their co-operation.
transport and through cyberspace or the Internet.  To achieve better life for the people of Africa.
Internet Is Quiet Central In Facilitating Globalisation.  To defend the African State’s Sovereignty, Territorial integrity
 New forms of transport and information technology are faster and Independence.
and economic.  To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa.
 Investors can trade stocks on Internet.  To respect the principles of sovereign equality of all
 Standardisation of products – services and communication / member countries.
civilisation.  To encourage peaceful settlements of dispute between
 Competition to produce products that measure up to member States.
international standards.  Not to interfere in domestic affairs of fellow citizens.
 Imperialism or Global capital is the major beneficiary of Structure
Globalisation in that the exportation of capital supersedes all The structure of the African Union remains that of the OAU, which
other forms interaction and this leads to the de-industrialisation disbanded in [Link] policy-making body, is the annual assembly
of or in the smaller States or those that import capital. of Heads of State and Government. The assembly coordinates
 Cultural domination / disintegration of smaller States by policy and approves decisions made at the periodic meetings of
dominant players e.g. the USA. the Council of Ministers, which consists of the foreign Ministers of
 Schisms and conflict as in the Middle East. member countries. Efforts to resolve disputes are handled by the
 Super power unilateralism. commission of Mediation, Conciliation, and Arbitration. In 19991
5. Explain the Doctrine of Interdependence the OAU decided to set up a conflict management division to
No one country is endowed with all resources. Consequently all monitor potential disputes and to try and prevent them erupting
countries rely on each other through international trade. into violence; a peace fund was created to finance the division’s
6. Discuss the purpose, structure and composition of the AU operations. The OAU had a number of specialised commissions
and SADC Organisation dealing with areas such as Economics, Transport and
Communications, and Education as well as a few specialised
[African Union] AU agencies-including the Pan African News Agency, the pan
Purpose African- Postal Union, and the Scientific, Technical, and Research
 To Promote unity and solidarity among African States. Commission. The organisation while maintaining its political

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nature became increasingly involved with promoting economic Purpose
integration and cooperation. These efforts led to the decisions to  To promote collective self-reliance, the whole region to be able
establish an African Economic Community whose Treaty was to support itself, in food, fuel, energy goods and services.
signed by African leaders in 1991. After receiving the two-thirds  To promote and defend peace and security.
ratification, the Treaty entered into force in April 1994, and in early  To protect the people and safeguard the development of the
2001 African leaders agreed in principle to proposals to set up an region against internal instability, inter-State conflict and
African Union similar to that of the European Union. external aggression.
The permanent administrative body of the organisation is the  To promote political co-operation.
general secretariat. It is headed by the Secretary General, elected  Promote and defend peace and security.
for a four-year term and aided by five assistant secretaries in  Promote and maximise productive employment and utilisation
charge of the various departments. The secretariat carries out the of resources of the region.
resolutions and decisions of the assembly, keeps archives, and Composition
conducts the organisation’s public relations.  SADC now consists of the following members: Angola,
Composition Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique,
 All independent African Countries belong to the AU. Namibia, Seychelles, SA, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and
SADC was established in August 1992 and is the successor to the Zimbabwe.
Southern African Development Coordinating Conference 7. Critically Assess Their Activities As Well As Their
(SADCC), which was initially set p in 1980. The former Front line Impact In The Region
States in Southern Africa and nine members formed this and were Positive Impact
as follows: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique,  It established an African Development Bank in 1964.
Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  Has Acted and mediated in several disputes between African
Structure The headquarters of SADC will remain in Gaborone. It States.
is governed by a Summit comprising the Head of State and  It has provided forum for debate and meeting place for the
Government of all member States and the Council comprising the continent’s Heads where they debate issues of mutual
Minister from each Member to advise the Summit on matters of concern.
Policy and efficient and harmonious functioning and development
of SADC.

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Negative Impact Of AU 8. Identify The Various Stages Through Which International
 National Interests at times appear to be more important to Capital Has Developed?
individual countries than common interests of AU.  Hunter-gatherer State of Nature Mode of Production.
 Its non- intervention policy is a hand cap as it can watch  Feudal Mode of production.
helplessly when member countries are ravaged by civil War.  Mercantile.
 It has failed to take a serious stance against human rights.  Competitive.
 It has failed to stop conflicts.  Monopoly.
 Africa is poverty stricken, no funds to support or promote  Multilateral/Finance Capital Mode of Production.
policies. 9. “The Highest Stage Of Imperialism Is Finance Capital”
 Problems of economic integration. Comment On The Three Major Characteristics Of Finance
 Uneven development among member States, which have their Capital?
roots in colonial period. Domination of weaker States by stronger States or domination of
 Those with resources and technology dominate the grouping, developing countries by the developed countries:
e.g. Nigeria and SA.  Developing countries being indebted o the developing
 SADC members do not yet have Free Trade among countries.
themselves so tariffs are still charged on goods moving  Exportation of capital.
between countries in the region.  Monopolisation of capital.
 Creation of external markets.
Positive Impact Of SADC  International Division of Labour.
 Implementing projects covering the duties assigned to each  Determination of prices by developed countries characterised
member. by borrowers who are in most cases developing nations.
 Rehabilitation of transport systems to Mozambique, that is, part  Dumping of access goods in the developing nations.
of Beira through Active participation of SADC Governments.  Globalisation.
And International Foreign Donors.  Control of International Finance Capital of developed countries,
e.g. IMF and the World Bank.
 Money class owners, e.g. America and Britain.

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 Demise of trade and use f Tariffs and brutal force to extract  Foreign Aid is the transfer of concessional resources from one
surplus. government to another or from a government to aid
10. Fully Explain The Objectives Of The Zimbabwe’s international aid agency or any NGO, which then transfers
Foreign Policy? those resources to poor nations.
 Zimbabweans original foreign policy has been that of non- Objectives
aligned that is of not taking sides between the competing  Goal of promoting development in less developed countries
superpowers of the Warsaw Pact under the leadership or  Reflecting on the humanitarian values
guidance of the former USSR and the West (NATO) under the  Gaining diplomatic recognition
guidance of USA. Of late the Zimbabwean Government has  Establishing military bases
adopted a look East Policy as a result of illegal sanctions put in  Obtaining a supportive vote e.g. in the Un
place by the West and its North American allies who are  Maintaining a cordial relationship with a recipient government
opposed to Zimbabwean government policy of empowering its where other foreign Governments are also providing Aid
people. Merits
Objectives  Assist in the development of the recipient country
 To formulate policies that promote the preservation of natural  Help establish cordials relationships
sovereignty  The donor countries obtain s supportive vote
 To be an equal partner in the regional / international affairs  Helps in the balance of payments
especially in the maintenance of piece and stability  Creates employment through relief, advocacy and
 To purse and promote Pan-Africanism developmental
 To protect the Zimbabwean national and self-interest and  Brings in new technology
promote its prestige and reputation  Brings relief in times of natural disasters such as drought,
 To determine the most suitable regional and international earthquakes, diseases, etc.
economic relations Demerits
 To promote friendly relations with other countries  The donor country may interfere in the political systems of the
11. Discuss The Objectives Of Donor Countries In Giving recipient country, that is, by helping puppets to power for
Aid To Developing Countries And The Merits And Demerits Of example in Zimbabwe, the Case Of the MDC.
Foreign Aid To Developing Countries.  It can be aid with strings attached

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 Can lead to further exploitation of the recipient country’s
resources.
 The recipient country can develop a dependency syndrome
 The recipient country can become a dumping ground for
irrelevant and out dated technology
 Donors may gain political mileage through their donations at
the expense of the third world governments
 May determine national Sovereignty of recipient countries

 ment.

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