Chapter two

Hormone

Introduction:
Hormones are chemical substances synthesized and produced by the
specialized glands to control and regulate the activity of certain cells and
organs. These specialized glands are known as endocrine glands.
Hormones are chemical substances that essentially function as messengers
of the body. These substances are secreted by special glands known as the
endocrine glands. These endocrine glands are distributed throughout the
body. These messengers control many physiological functions as well as
psychological health. They are also quite important in maintaining
homeostasis in the body.
Glands
Glands are important organs located throughout the body. They produce
and release substances that perform certain functions. The body has many
glands throughout it, they fall into two types: endocrine and exocrine.
Types of glands
Endocrine and exocrine glands serve very different purposes in the body.
Endocrine glands
Endocrine glands are part of endocrine system. They make hormones and
release them into bloodstream such as (adrenal glands, pituitary gland,
hypothalamus, thyroid, pineal gland). These hormones control a number of
important functions in the body, such as (growth and development,
metabolism, mood, reproduction)

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Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands produce other substances — not hormones — that are
released through ducts to the exterior of the body, such as sweat, saliva, and
tears.

Two systems act individually and together in regulating an animal’s physiology

1- Endocrine system
The endocrine system consists of several endocrine glands plus many hormone-
secreting cells in organs that have functions besides secreting hormones. It acts
through chemical messengers- hormones–carried in the circulation

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Nervous system
The nervous system, which controls body activities through the release of
neurotransmitters at synapses, The nervous system transmits electrochemical signals
between the brain and peripheral tissues for coordinating the diverse body functions.
The nervous system and endocrine system often work together. For example, certain
parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones by the

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endocrine system. Typically, the endocrine system acts more slowly than the nervous
system.

Cell Signaling
The effects of hormones depend on how they are released. Hence, signalling effects
can be classified into the following:
1-Autocrine: The hormone act on the cell that secreted it.
2-Paracrine: The hormone act on a nearby cell without having to enter the blood
circulation.
3-Intracrine: The hormone is produced in the cell and acts intracellularly means
inside the cell.
4-Endocrine: The hormone act on the target cells once it is released from the
respective glands into the bloodstream.
5-Neurocrine: involving secretions of peptides into the blood from specialized
neurons

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Hormone receptors
Cell-associated recognition molecules which are protein in nature Functional sites:
Two functional sites
•Recognition site: It binds the hormone specifically.
•Signaling site: It couples hormone binding to intracellular effect
Hormone receptors
•Location: •Receptors may be:
1. Internal receptors, also known as intracellular or cytoplasmic receptors, are found
in the cytoplasm of the cell and respond to hydrophobic ligand molecules that are able
to travel across the plasma membrane. Once inside the cell, many of these molecules
bind to proteins that act as regulators of mRNA synthesis. Recall that mRNA carries
genetic information from the DNA in a cell‘s nucleus out to the ribosome, where the
protein is assembled.

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[Link]-surface receptors, also known as transmembrane receptors, are proteins that
are found attached to the cell membrane. These receptors bind to external ligand
molecules (ligands that do not travel across the cell membrane). This type of receptor
spans the plasma membrane and performs signal transduction, in which an
extracellular signal is converted into an intercellular signal. Ligands that interact with
cell-surface receptors do not have to enter the cell that they affect.

Classification of Hormone
Hormone ca be classified according to
A. chemical nature
B. Mechanism of action

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A. Classification of Hormones according to chemical nature:
1-Amino Acid-Derived Hormones
These are derived from amino acid tyrosine, e.g. epinephrine, norepinephrine and
thyroid hormones.

2. Peptide/Protein hormones: These are either large proteins or small or medium size
peptides, e.g. Insulin, glucagon, parathormone, calcitonin, pituitary hormones, etc.
3. Steroid hormones: These are steroid in nature derived from cholesterol such as
adrenocorticosteroid hormones, androgens, estrogens and progesterone.
4. Fatty acid derivatives – Eicosanoids

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B. Mechanism of action
1. Hormone which bind to intra cellular receptor
2. Hormone which bind to membrane receptor

functions of hormones
Following are some important functions of hormones:
Food metabolism.
Growth and development.
Controlling thirst and hunger.
Maintaining body temperature.
Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction.

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Mechanism of Hormone Action Hormones
The function of different hormones is to control the activity of levels of targe tissues.
To achieve this, the hormones may alter either the permeability of the cell or they may
activate some other specific cellular mechanism.
Mechanism of Hormone Action Hormones are divided in terms of their effect on the
cell into two main types:
1-Activation of enzymes
hormones that perform their work through metaphases on the cell's dinner (surface
receptors) without entering the cytoplasm of the cell such as peptide hormones as well
as the hormone epinephrine and prostaglandins, perform their function by directly
affecting surface receptors through the second messenger system theory.

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2-Modulation of gene expression
Hormones that can cross the membrane (e.g. steroid hormones) bind to the receptor
inside the cell, at the cytoplasm, or they will enter the nucleus and bind to the receptor
at the nucleus and initiate transcription).

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Transport of hormones
Polypeptides and catechol hormones are characterized by their solubility in blood
serum, where they are transported in the blood in their free unbound form, while
steroid hormones and thyroid hormones have less solubility in the blood, and therefore
they are associated with certain transport proteins(sex hormone binding globulin
(SHBG), which carries estradiol and testosterone and corticosteroid binding globulin
(CBG), which carries glucocorticoids) , in addition to the presence of a very low
percentage of free. in a form
changing the pattern of hormone secretion
Hormone secretions vary and are not regular or equal during the hours of one day, so
hormone secretion is related to the need for it, as well as the degree of its disposal. The
secretion of the cortisol hormone follows a special pattern during the hours of the day
and night, with its highest concentration in the blood in the morning (8-10 am), as well
as the ACTH hormone in it While the highest concentration of growth hormone in
hours of sleep.
Regulation hormones secretion
A-Feedback mechanism
Hormones control many cell activities, so they are very important for homeostasis. But
what controls the hormones themselves? Most hormones are regulated by feedback
mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is a loop in which a product feeds back to control
its own production. Most hormone feedback mechanisms involve negative feedback
loops. Negative feedback keeps the concentration of a hormone within a narrow range.
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to decrease its own production.
This type of feedback brings things back to normal whenever they start to become too
extreme. The thyroid gland is a good example of this type of regulation. It is
controlled by the negative feedback loop
Here‘s how thyroid regulation works. The hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing
hormone, or TRH. TRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating

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hormone, or TSH. TSH, in turn, stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete its hormones.
When the level of thyroid hormones is high enough, the hormones feedback to stop the
hypothalamus from secreting TRH and the pituitary from secreting TSH. Without the
stimulation of TSH, the thyroid gland stops secreting its hormones. Soon, the level of
thyroid hormone starts to fall too low.

B-metabolism regulation
There are many hormones that are not subject to the body's pivotal relationship to
the hypothalamus and pituitary, and are not related to them. It is directly affected by

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the concentration of the metabolic component that the hormone regulates its
concentration inside the body. For example, in normal conditions, the concentration of
glucose in the body is regulated by two hormones: insulin, which is secreted when the
level of glucose in the blood rises from the normal level, and reduces this level, and
glucagon is secreted when the level of glucose decreases. And it increases it as well
when the concentration of calcium in the body decreases, the PTH hormone is secreted
to increase its concentration in the bloo

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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

• Hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland‘s secretions.

• Pituitary gland is responsible for secreting nine hormones.
• Divided into a posterior and anterior portion.
• Posterior pituitary is also known as the neurohypophysis, because it is
continuous with the brain.
• Anterior pituitary is also known as the adenohypophysis, because it acts more as
a gland.

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1-Thyroid Stimulate Hormone (TSH)

It is secreted from the basal pituitary cells called (thyrotropha) and is considered one
of the glycoprotein hormones, where carbohydrates make up about 7-8% of its
chemical composition

Function of hormone
This hormone performs a major and important function in stimulating the growth of
the thyroid gland, activating its secretion of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3),
and ensuring blood supply to the thyroid gland.

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2-Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)
It is secreted from the basal pituitary cells called Corticotrophs. This hormone contains
a long chain consisting of 39 amino acids. The half- life of the hormone (t1/2) is about
20 minutes.
ACTH function
ACTH secretion is subject to direct regulation of the hypothalamic releasing hormone
(CRH), which directly affects the cortical part of the adrenal glands to secrete
glucocorticoids, especially cortisol, and thus regulates the metabolism of glucose,
protein, and fat. Also, it helps to increase the entry of glucose into the cell in addition
to stimulating the process of glycogenolysis in order to provide the energy needed to
manufacture Hormones and also helps in the formation of glucose from carbohydrate
and protein sources.
3-Follicular Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Although the naming of this hormone indicates its role in stimulating the growth of
ovarian follicles, its role is essential and important in both males and females.
Function
Hormone FSH performs important functions in both the female and the male, which
can be summarized as follows:
(a) In the female
1-The female needs this hormone for ovarian growth during the premenstrual period
banishment maturation as well as growth and development of ovarian follicles
2- It plays an essential role in maintaining the secretion of estrogen hormone The
corpus luteum of the number of animals from.
3- It regulates the growth of ovarian follicles during the reproductive cycle
(b) In the male:
1-The male needs this hormone to growth and develop into the seminiferous tubules
2- The testicles in preparation for the formation of sperm.
3-it is regulating the mechanism of manufacturing and formation of sperm cells in
sexually mature animals.

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4 - Luteinizing Homone (LH)
It is called the ovulation hormone because of its importance to carry out this function
alone, but through the name that is called it

hormone function
LH plays an important role in female and male reproductive activity It is summarized
in the following:
(1) In the female It supports (Synergize) the FSH hormone in accelerating the FSH
The process of maturation and development of the ovarian follicles and the oocyte.
It plays an essential role in the secretion of estrogen by theca interna cells, as well as
Granulosa cells
5-Growth hormone (GH)
Growth hormone (GH), peptide hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland. It stimulates the growth of essentially all tissues of the body, including bone.
GH is synthesized and secreted by anterior pituitary cells called somatotrophs, which
release between one and two milligrams of the hormone each day. GH is vital for
normal physical growth in children; its levels rise progressively during childhood and
peak during the growth spurt that occurs in puberty.
Growth hormone deficiency
GH deficiency is one of the many causes of short stature and dwarfism. It results
primarily from damage to the hypothalamus or to the pituitary gland during fetal
development (congenital GH deficiency) or following birth (acquired GH deficiency).
GH deficiency may also be caused by mutations in genes that regulate its synthesis
and secretion. Affected genes include PIT-1 (pituitary-specific transcription factor-1)
and POUF-1 (prophet of PIT-1). Mutations in these genes may also cause decreased
synthesis and secretion of other pituitary hormones.
6 - prolactin hormone

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chemical composition
The hormone that stimulates milk production, is a protein of 198 amino acids
that is produced in the acidophilic cells of the anterior pituitary. Its molecular weight
is (22550) Daltons, and it contains sulfide bonds, two of which are in the same
positions as those in both growth hormone GH and human chorionic gonadotrophin .
Function of hormone
The main function of the prolactin hormone is to stimulate the mammary gland
to secrete milk and continue to produce milk. Its secretion is the development and
growth of the breast tissue before pregnancy under the control of the three hormones,
estrogen, progesterone and protection, .
The absence of the prolactin hormone leads to, the hormones estrogen and
progesterone are ineffective in growth of the breast tissue.
Posterior pituitary hormones
Neurohypophysis hormones (posterior pituitary hormones)
Gland under the hypothalamus in humans. There are two protein hormones:
Vasopressin and oxytocin. These multi-hormones are formed in hypothalamic neurons
in the paraventricular and supraoptic in the form of large molecules hormone
generators(pro-hormone). As a result of the action of a proteolytic enzyme(protease),
oxytocin and Vasopressin are separated and the remaining parts of their hormonal
generators are called neurophysins, which act as protein carriers for both hormones .
They communicate with oxytocin and vasopressin noncovalently.
Vasopressin-neurophysin I
These complexes (hormone-neurophysin) are transmitted in membranous
vesicles through the fibrous axons of hypothalamic neurons to the posterior pituitary
gland, neurohypophysis, where the nerve endings are stored in storage granules.
The half- life of the hormones Vasopressin and Oxytocin is about five minutes, and
the kidney acts as a main side for the excretion of the two hormones.

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 The hormones Vasopressin and Oxytocin are peptide with 9 amino acids which
differ in type of amino acids in locations 3 and 8. their molecular weight is about
1000.
7-Vasopressin (VP)
Vasopressin hormone also is called Antidiuretic hormone(ADH)

The secretion of the vasopressin

The secretion of the vasopressin hormone is influenced by many stimuli:
1-the lack of pressure Osmotic pressure
2- The volume of blood circulating in the veins (the decrease in blood volume
is more than 8%), as the bleeding stimulates the secretion of vasopressin, as the
increase in the hormone has the effect on Vasoconstrictor.
3- Hypotension (low blood pressure).
4-Emotional stress and nausea.
5- Narcotic drugs such as nicotine and morphine.
6- Effort, pain, sleep and sports.
Function of hormone

1-The main work of the VP hormone is to maintain water in the living body, as
it increases the process of water absorption in the urinary tubes, and thus restores this
water to the blood, and thus works to balance water in the body and control its loss.
2-also works to contract the smooth muscles . Smooth muscle contraction.
8-Oxytocin
Oxytocin secretes from the posteror of pituitary in response to the stimulation
arising from the process of breast sucking and the hormone causes contraction of the
uterus as well as the tissues surrounding the milky tubes in the breast. These cells
increase for the hormone during pregnancy and during childbirth.

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 One of the activities of the hormone increases the uterine sensitivity of this
movement during it sexual intercourse. The stress inhibits the secretion of the
hormone oxytocin and thus reduces the flow of milk.

Thyroid gland:

Thyroid gland is an endocrine gland, found in the neck are one of the most important
glands. This gland uses iodine, a trace element which is not produced in the body and
must be ingested, and tyrosine to manufacture T3 and T4. The majority of production is
T4 which is converted in target tissues to the active form T3.

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Thyroid gland functions
The thyroid gland functions is to produce, storage and secretion of the two
related thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), (both iodinated
derivatives of tyrosine, and calcitonin, a hormone of uncertain function), which
responsible to stimulate macromolecule metabolism of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates, and in the development and maintenance of both mental and physical
function in most tissues
Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion
The components of the hypothalamic– pituitary–thyroid axis are Thyroid hormones
(TH), Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH). Thyroid stimulating hormone stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the
triiodothyronine and thyroxine by the thyroid gland. The TRH, a tripeptide, is secreted
by the hypothalamus and in turn causes the synthesis of a large glycoprotein hormone,
TSH, from the anterior pituitary. Release of TRH in turn depends on blood levels of
thyroid hormones; which inhibit secretion of TRH via negative feedback. There is no
thyrotropin-inhibiting hormone.

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Regulation of secretion and actions of thyroid hormones

Degradation
Only free T3 and free T4 can enter cells to exert their actions. T4 is deiodinated to T3
in many cells of the body, particularly the liver and [Link] thyroid secretes 90%
T4, with 50% of this being deiodinated to T3. The remainder is converted to reverse
T3 (rT3). This is an inactive form of T3, and so creation of it is a regulatory
mechanism. More rT3 is created when the body needs to reduce the action of T3 and
T4. The hormones are further deiodinated to diiodothyronine and monoiodothyronine
in the liver and kidneys. Iodine is recycled or excreted in the urine

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Diagnosis of thyroid function
Biochemical measurement in the diagnosis of thyroid disease have traditionally been
known as ‗thyroid function tests‘. Measurement levels of TSH, T4 and T3 in blood by
ELISA or by RIA (radio immuno assay) form the basis of laboratory diagnosis of
thyroid diseases.

i. In hypothyroidism, both thyroid hormone T3 and T4 are reduced; but TSH levels are
increased due to lack of feedback effect.

ii. In hyperthyroidism, T3 and T4 levels are increased, while TSH is reduced due to
feedback inhibition.
iii. But when hypothyroidism is due to hypothalamic or pituitary defect, then TSH, T 3
and T4, all are decreased. The concentration of free T3 and T4, and TSH are measured
and their serum normal concentrations are

Free triiodothyronine (T3) ---------------- 60 -120 nmol / L (80 -220 ng/dl)

Free thyroxine (T4) ---------------------- 0.92- 2.33 nmol /L (0.8-2.4 ng/dl)
Total thyroxine (T4) ---------------------- 5-12 µg/dl
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)----- 0.25 -5.0 nmol / L (<10 pU/ml)

Radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) and scanning of thyroid gland are also used for
diagnosis

Thyroid dysfunction
Thyroid gland dysfunction can be divided into clinical and subclinical thyroid
disorders

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Hypothyroidism
1-Hypothyroidism is defined as a condition resulting from insufficient production or
diminished action of either T4 and/or T3 thyroid hormones with increase in serum TSH
concentration. Hypothyroidism is one of the most common disorders of the thyroid
gland,
The symptoms of hypothyroidism They can include:
1-Feeling tired (fatigue)
2-Having constipation.
3-Gaining weight.
4-Having higher than normal blood cholesterol levels.
5-Feeling depressed.
6-Being unable to tolerate cold temperatures.
7-Having dry, coarse skin and hair.

Goitre
means enlarged thyroid gland. Insufficient I2 intake in animals and man leads to
goitre known as endemic goitre. Lack of I2 reduces thyroid hormone synthesis and the
reduced blood TH enhances TSH from adenohypophysis. The TSH stimulates the
thyroid gland to secrete excess thyroglobulins into the follicles and the gland grows
very large. But the thyroid hormone secretion cannot be increased due to lack of I2
leading to further increase in TSH secretion. Hence this condition is called as endemic
colloid goitre.

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Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism, or thyrotoxicosis, is a clinical state that characterized by an
excessive amount of circulating thyroid hormone or hyper secretion of thyroid
hormones , principally T4 and T3 which causes a hypermetabolic state.

causes hyperthyroidism
Medical conditions and situations that can cause hyperthyroidism include:
1-Graves‘ disease: In this disorder, the immune system attacks the thyroid. This makes
the thyroid create too much thyroid hormone. Graves‘ disease is a hereditary condition
(passed down through a family).
2- Thyroid nodules: A thyroid nodule is a lump or growth of cells in the thyroid
gland. They can produce more hormones than ther body needs. Thyroid nodules are
rarely cancerous.
3-Thyroiditis: Thyroiditis is inflammation of the thyroid gland, which may be painful
or painless (silent). It may happen within a year of delivering a baby (postpartum
thyroiditis).
4-consume too much iodine (through the diet or medications), it can cause the thyroid
to produce more thyroid hormone. Iodine is a mineral that ther thyroid uses to create
thyroid hormone. Receiving intravenous iodinated contrast (iodine ―dye‖) may also
cause hyperthyroidism. Amiodarone, a medication that contains a high amount of
iodine, may also cause hyperthyroidism.
Calcitonin
Calcitonin is a 32 amino acid peptide hormone secreted by parafollicular cells (also
known as C cells) of the thyroid. It acts to reduce blood calcium (Ca2+), opposing the
effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Calcitonin has also been called thyrocalcitonin.
Secretion of calcitonin is stimulated by:an increase in serum Calcium [Ca2+] and
gastrin.

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Adrenal Gland Hormones
A- Adrenal cortex hormones
1- Glucocorticoid hormone (Such as Cortisol)
2- Mineralocorticoid hormone (such as Aldosterone)
3- DHEA and Androgenic Steroids
B-Adrenal Medulla Hormones
1- Dopamine
2- Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
3- Epinephrine (adrenaline)

Hormones of the Adrenal Glands

The role of the adrenal glands in the body is to release certain hormones directly into
the bloodstream. Many of these hormones have to do with how the body responds to
stress, and some are vital to existence. Both parts of the adrenal glands — the adrenal
cortex and the adrenal medulla — perform distinct and separate functions.
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Adrenal cortex hormones
Each zone of the adrenal cortex secretes a specific hormone. The key hormones
produced by the adrenal cortex include:
1-Glucocorticoid hormone
Cortisol
The most glucocorticoid hormone is Cortisol .that plays several important roles in
the body. It helps control the body‘s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates;
suppresses inflammation; regulates blood pressure; increases blood sugar; and can also
decrease bone formation.
This hormone also controls the sleep/wake cycle. It is released during times of stress
to help the body get an energy boost and better handle an emergency situation.
Functions of Cortisol Hormone
1-It helps in the release of milk for breastfeeding
1-It helps control blood pressure and blood sugar levels
2-It helps in maintaining fluid balance and blood pressure
3-It increases blood sugar and boosts energy to handle stressful conditions
4-It produces anti-inflammatory reactions to keep inflammation down
5-It plays a very important role in helping the body to respond to stress
6-It regulates a wide range of processes, including metabolism and the immune
response
Hormonal Levels
High Hormonal Level
In long-term stress situations, the continued increased level of cortisol may lead to
various health problems like diabetes, anxiety, suppressed immunity, lack of sex drive
and irregular menstrual cycle, etc.
Low Hormonal Level
A low level of cortisol production for a prolonged period of time can lead to other
hormonal imbalances, autoimmune diseases

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2- Mineralocorticoid hormone
Aldosterone
This mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa plays a central
role in regulating blood pressure and certain electrolytes (sodium and potassium).
Aldosterone sends signals to the kidneys, resulting in the kidneys absorbing more
sodium into the bloodstream and releasing potassium into the urine. This means that
aldosterone also helps regulate the blood pH by controlling the levels of electrolytes in
the blood.
The adrenal medulla hormones
Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
The adrenal medulla, the inner part of an adrenal gland, controls hormones that
initiate the flight or fight response. The main hormones secreted by the adrenal
medulla include epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which
have similar functions.
Among other things, these hormones are capable of increasing the heart rate and force
of heart contractions, increasing blood flow to the muscles and brain, relaxing airway
smooth muscles, and assisting in glucose (sugar) metabolism. They also control the
squeezing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction), helping maintain blood pressure and
increasing it in response to stress.
The Adrenal Medulla
Catecholamines
Catecholamines are a group of hormones the adrenal glands release in response to
physical or emotional stress. They include epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine
and dopamine.
Norepinephrine, epinephrine, and small amounts of dopamine are synthesized by the
adrenal medulla. most of the catecholamine output in the adrenal vein is epinephrine.
Norepinephrine also enters the circulation from noradrenergic nerve endings.

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1-Dopamine
Dopamine is mainly synthesized in areas of the central and peripheral nervous
systems. It is synthesized in the hypothalamus, in the brain. It is mainly the nervous
tissue and the medulla of the adrenal glands that synthesize Dopamine.
dopamine has a role in the following
Movement and motor control
Learning with pleasurable reinforcement
Attention and cognition
Mood
Impulse control
Sleep and arousal
Nausea
2-Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine, substance that is released predominantly from the ends of
sympathetic nerve fibres and that acts to increase the force of skeletal muscle
contraction and the rate and force of contraction of the heart
Epinephrine
Epinephrine(Adrenaline), hormone that is secreted mainly by the medulla of the
adrenal glands and that functions primarily to increase cardiac output and to raise
glucose levels in the blood. Epinephrine typically is released during acute stress, and
its stimulatory effects fortify and prepare an individual for either ―fight or flight‖ .
Pancreas Hormones
1-Insulin
2-Glucagon
3-somatostatin
4- Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

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Pancreatic hormones
Many groups of cells produce hormones inside your pancreas. hormones are released
into your blood and carry messages to other parts of your digestive system. Pancreatic
hormones include:

Insulin. This hormone is made in cells of the pancreas known as beta cells. Beta cells
make up about 75% of pancreatic hormone cells. Insulin is a protein composed of two
chains, an A chain (with 21 amino acids) and a B chain (with 30 amino acids), which
are linked together by sulfur atoms. Insulin is the hormone that helps your body use
sugar for energy. Without enough insulin, your sugar levels rise in your blood and you
develop diabetes.

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Mechanism of Insulin
Like other protein hormones, insulin binds to specific receptors on the outer
membrane of its target cells, thereby activating metabolic processes within the cells. A
key action of insulin in these cells is to stimulate the translocation of glucose
transporters (molecules that mediate cell uptake of glucose) from within the cell to the
cell membrane. insulin acts as a ―key‖ to open up the cells in the body to allow for
glucose to be used as an energy source and by the control of blood glucose levels and
preventing hyperglycemia.

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Diabetes mellitus (DM)
Diabetes mellitus – general term referring to all states characterized by hyperglycemia.
It can be of the following types:
Type 1 – autoimmune-mediated destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the
pancreas, resulting in absolute insulin deficiency
Type 2 – either inadequate insulin production by the β-cells or insulin resistance or
both because of reasons not completely understood.
there is correlation with diet, with sedentary lifestyle, with obesity, with age and with
metabolic syndrome. Causality has been demonstrated in multiple model organisms
including mice and monkeys; importantly, non-obese people do get Type 2 diabetes
due to diet, sedentary lifestyle and unknown risk factors, though it is important to note
that this may not be a causal relationship.
it is likely that there is genetic susceptibility to develop Type 2 diabetes under certain
environmental conditions
Glucagon. Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It
raises concentration of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream, and is considered to
be the main catabolic hormone of the body. Its effect is opposite to that of insulin.
Alpha cells make up about 20% of the cells in your pancreas that produce hormones.
They produce glucagon. If your blood sugar gets too low, glucagon helps raise it by
sending a message to your liver to release stored sugar.
Gastrin and amylin. Gastrin is primarily made in the G cells in your stomach, but some
is made in the pancrease, too. It stimulates your stomach to make gastric acid. Amylin
is made in beta cells and helps control appetite and stomach emptying.

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3-somatostatin
somatostatin, polypeptide that inhibits the activity of certain pancreatic and
gastrointestinal hormones. Somatostatin exists in two forms: one composed of 14
amino acids and a second composed of 28 amino acids. In the pancreas, somatostatin
is produced by the delta cells of the islets of Langerhans, , glucagon, and somatostatin
act in concert to control the flow of nutrients into and out of the circulation. The
relative concentrations of these hormones regulate the rates of absorption, utilization,
and storage of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.
4-Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by pp(also known as gamma
cells or F cells) cells in the endocrine pancreas. It regulates pancreatic secretion
activities, and also impacts liver glycogen storage and gastrointestinal secretion. Its
secretion may be impacted by certain endocrine tumours.

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Hormones involved in the regulation of calcium

1-Parathyroid Hormone
2-Calcitonin Hormone
3-Calcitriol Hormone

Parathyroid gland hormone

Parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other
tetrapods. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the
thyroid gland in variable locations

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Function of the parathyroid glands
Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone, which plays a key role in the
regulation of calcium levels in the blood. Precise calcium levels are important in the
human body, since small changes can cause muscle and nerve problems.

The parathyroid hormone stimulates the following functions:

1-Release of calcium by bones into the bloodstream
2-Absorption of calcium from food by the intestines
3-Conservation of calcium by the kidneys
4-Stimulates cells in the kidney to transforms weaker forms of vitamin D into the form
that is strongest at absorbing calcium from the intestines
1-Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a single chain polypeptide containing 84
amino acids. PTH is secreted primarily by the chief cells of the parathyroid glands.
Disorders that yield too little or too much PTH, such as hypoparathyroidism,
hyperparathyroidism, and paraneoplastic syndromes can cause bone disease,
hypocalcemia, and hypercalcemia.
Calcium is important for
1- Muscle contraction
2- Nerve cell activity
3- Release of hormones by exocytosis
4- Activation of number of enzymes
5- Coagulation of blood
6- Maintaining stability of cell membrane
7- Maintaining structural integrity of bone and teeth
Phosphate is important for

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1-Structure of bone and teeth
2- As part of cell membrane organic PO4
3- As part of number of intracellular components

About 99% of the body‘s Ca+2 is in the bone and a very small amount is in the
plasma (1%.)In bones there are two types of cells –osteoblasts and osteoclasts that are
responsible for bone formation and bone reabsorption respectively.. Osteoblasts are
bone forming cells. The osteoblasts after the formation of organic matrix are fixed into
the matrix and termed as osteocytes.
Biological effects
- Parathyroid hormone is the principal hormone involved in the regulation of blood
calcium level in mammals.
2- It exerts its biological action by directly influencing the function the bone and
kidney and indirectly in the intestine to maintain plasma Ca+2 level
2- Calcitonin Hormon
Calcitonin (CT) is a hormone that the thyroid gland makes and releases to help
regulate calcium levels in the blood by decreasing it.
Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin) is secreted in the mammalian thyroid gland by
parafollicular or ‗C‘ cells of thyroid gland which are found in the interstitial tissue
between the follicles.
Regulation of Calcitonin Secretion
Hypercalcemia and to a lesser extent increased levels of blood magnesium will
stimulate CT secretion.
Physiological significance of calcitonin and PTH
Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone provide a reciprocal inhibitory control
mechanism to maintain the concentration of calcium in extracellular fluids within
narrow limits.

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3-Calcitriol Hormone
1- The third major hormone involved in the regulation of calcium metabolism is
calcitriol or cholecalciferol (vitamin -D3)
Disorders of Parathyroid gland
1-Hypoparathyroidism happens when 1 or more of the parathyroid glands are not
active enough. They don't make enough parathyroid hormone. This lowers the level of
calcium in the blood. The most common cause is injury to or removal of all 4
parathyroid glands.
2- Hyperparathyroidism happens when one or more of the parathyroid glands release
too much parathyroid hormone, causing calcium levels in the blood to rise.

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