Chapter 3

Limits and Continuity

3.1 Introduction
Calculus was created to describe how quantities change. It has two basic procedures that
are opposites of one another, namely:

• differentiation, for finding the rate of change of a given function, and

• integration, for finding a function having a given rate of change.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Both of these procedures are based on the fundamental concept of the limit of a
function. It is this idea of limit that distinguishes calculus from algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry, which are useful for describing static situations.
In this chapter we will introduce the limit concept and develop some of its properties.
We begin by considering how limits arise in some basic problems.

3.1.1 Examples of Velocity, Growth Rate, and Area

In this section we consider some examples of phenomena where limits arise in a natural
way.

[Link] The average velocity of a falling rock

Example 3.1.1. Physical experiments show that if a rock is dropped from rest near the
surface of the earth, in the first t s it will fall a distance

y = 4.9t2 m.

(a) What is the average velocity of the falling rock during the first 2 s ?

(b) What is its average velocity from t = 1 to t = 2 ?

Solution. The average velocity of the falling rock over any time interval [t1 , t2 ] is the
change ∆y in the distance fallen divided by the length ∆t of the time interval: average
∆y 4.9t22 − 4.9t21
velocity over [t1 , t2 ] = = .
∆t t2 − t1
(a) In the first 2 s (time interval [0, 2] ), the average velocity is
∆y 4.9 (22 ) − 4.9 (02 )
= = 9.8 m/s.
∆t 2−0

(b) In the time interval [1, 2], the average velocity is

∆y 4.9 (22 ) − 4.9 (12 )
= = 14.7 m/s.
∆t 2−1

Example 3.1.2. How fast is the rock in Example 3.1.1 falling

(a) at time t = 1 ?

(b) at time t = 2 ?

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution. We can calculate the average velocity over any time interval, but this question
asks for the instantaneous velocity at a given time. If the falling rock had a speedometer,
what would it show at time t = 1 ? To answer this, we first write the average velocity
over the time interval [1, 1 + h] starting at t = 1 and having length h :
∆y 4.9(1 + h)2 − 4.9 (12 )
Average velocity over [1, 1 + h] = = .
∆t h
We can’t calculate the instantaneous velocity at t = 1 by substituting h = 0 in this
expression, because we can’t divide by zero. But we can calculate the average velocities
over shorter and shorter time intervals and see whether they seem to get close to a
particular number. Table 1 shows the values of ∆y/∆t for some values of h approaching
zero. Indeed, it appears that these average velocities get closer and closer to 9.8 m/s as
the length of the time interval gets closer and closer to zero. This suggests that the rock
is falling at a rate of 9.8 m/s one second after it is dropped.

Similarly, Table 2 shows values of the average velocities over shorter and shorter
time intervals [2, 2 + h] starting at t = 2. The values suggest that the rock is falling at
19.6 m/s two seconds after it is dropped.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

In Example 3.1.2 the average velocity of the falling rock over the time interval [t, t + h]
is
∆y 4.9(t + h)2 − 4.9t2
= .
∆t h
To find the instantaneous velocity (usually just called the velocity) at the instants
t = 1 and t = 2, we examined the values of this average velocity for time intervals whose
lengths h became smaller and smaller. We were, in fact, finding the limit of the average
velocity as h approaches zero. This is expressed symbolically in the form

∆y 4.9(t + h)2 − 4.9t2

velocity at time t = lim = lim .
h→0 ∆t h→0 h
Read “lim . . . ” as “the limit as h approaches zero of ...” We can’t find the limit
h→0
of the fraction by just substituting h = 0 because that would involve dividing by zero.
However, we can calculate the limit by first performing some algebraic simplifications on
the expression for the average velocity.

Example 3.1.3. Simplify the expression for the average velocity of the rock over [t, t + h]
by first expanding (t + h)2 . Hence, find the velocity v(t) of the falling rock at time t
directly, without making a table of values.

Solution. The average velocity of the rock over time interval [t, t + h] is

4.9(t + h)2 − 4.9t2 4.9 (t2 + 2th + h2 − t2 )

=
h h
4.9 (2th + h2 )
=
h
= 9.8t + 4.9h.

The final form of the expression no longer involves division by h. It approaches 9.8t+
4.9(0) = 9.8t as h approaches 0 . Thus, t s after the rock is dropped, its velocity is
v(t) = 9.8t m/s. In particular, at t = 1 and t = 2 the velocities are v(1) = 9.8 m/s and
v(2) = 19.6 m/s, respectively.

[Link] The Growth of an Algal Culture

In a laboratory experiment, the biomass of an algal culture was measured over a 74-
day period by measuring the area in square millimetres occupied by the culture on a
microscope slide. These measurements m were plotted against the time t in days and the
points joined by a smooth curve m = f (t), as shown in red in the figure below.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Observe that the biomass was about 0.1 mm2 on day 10 and had grown to about 1.7 mm2
on day 40 , an increase of 1.7 − 0.1 = 1.6 mm2 in a time interval of 40 − 10 = 30 days.
The average rate of growth over the time interval from day 10 to day 40 was therefore
1.7 − 0.1 1.6
= ≈ 0.053 mm2 /d.
40 − 10 30
This average rate is just the slope of the green line joining the points on the graph of
m = f (t) corresponding to t = 10 and t = 40. Similarly, the average rate of growth of
the algal biomass over any time interval can be determined by measuring the slope of
the line joining the points on the curve corresponding to that time interval. Such lines
are called secant lines to the curve.

Example 3.1.4. How fast is the biomass growing on day 60 ?

Solution. To answer this question, we could measure the average rates of change over
shorter and shorter times around day 60. The corresponding secant lines become shorter
and shorter, but their slopes approach a limit, namely, the slope of the tangent line to
the graph of m = f (t) at the point where t = 60. This tangent line is sketched in blue in
Figure 1.1; it seems to go through the points (2, 0) and (69, 5), so that its slope is
5−0
≈ 0.0746 mm2 /d.
69 − 2
This is the rate at which the biomass was growing on day 60 .

[Link] The Area of a Circle

All circles are similar geometric figures; they all have the same shape and differ only in
size. The ratio of the circumference C to the diameter 2r (twice the radius) has the same

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

value for all circles. The number π is defined to be this common ratio:
C
=π or C = 2πr.
2r
In school we are taught that the area A of a circle is this same number π times the square
of the radius:
A = πr2 .
How can we deduce this area formula from the formula for the circumference that is
the definition of π ?
The answer to this question lies in regarding the circle as a “limit” of regular polygons,
which are in turn made up of triangles, figures about whose geometry we know a great
deal.
Suppose a regular polygon having n sides is inscribed in a circle of radius r. The
perimeter Pn and the area An of the polygon are, respectively, less than the circumference
C and the area A of the circle, but if n is large, Pn is close to C and An is close to A.
(In fact, the “circle” in Figure 1.2 was drawn by a computer as a regular polygon having
180 sides, each subtending a 2◦ angle at the centre of the circle. It is very difficult to
distinguish this 180 -sided polygon from a real circle.) We would expect Pn to approach
the limit C and An to approach the limit A as n grows larger and larger and approaches
infinity.

A regular polygon of n sides is the union of n nonoverlapping, congruent, isosceles

triangles having a common vertex at O, the centre of the polygon. One of these triangles,

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4OAB, is shown in Figure 1.2. Since the total angle around the point O is 2π radians
(we are assuming that a circle of radius 1 has circumference 2π ), the angle AOB is 2π/n
radians. If M is the midpoint of AB, then OM bisects angle AOB. Using elementary
trigonometry, we can write the length of AB and the area of triangle OAB in terms of
the radius r of the circle:
π
|AB| = 2|AM | = 2r sin
n
1 1 π π
area OAB = |AB||OM | = 2r sin r cos
2 2 n n
2 π π
= r sin cos .
n n
The perimeter Pn and area An of the polygon are n times these expressions:
π
Pn = 2rn sin
n
2 π π
An = r n sin cos .
n n
Solving the first equation for rn sin(π/n) = Pn /2 and substituting into the second
equation, we get  
Pn π
An = r cos .
2 n
Now the angle AOM = π/n approaches 0 as n grows large, so its cosine, cos(π/n) =
|OM |/|OA|, approaches 1 . Since Pn approaches C = 2πr as n grows large, the expression
for An approaches (2πr/2)r(1) = πr2 , which must therefore be the area of the circle.

3.2 Limit of functions

In order to speak meaningfully about rates of change, tangent lines, and areas bounded
by curves, we have to investigate the process of finding limits. Indeed, the concept of
limit is the cornerstone on which the development of calculus rests. Before we try to give
a definition of a limit, let us look at more examples.
x2 − 1
Example 3.2.1. Describe the behaviour of the function f (x) = near x = 1.
x−1
Solution. Note that f (x) is defined for all real numbers x except x = 1. (We can’t
divide by zero.) For any x 6= 1 we can simplify the expression for f (x) by factoring the
numerator and cancelling common factors:
(x − 1)(x + 1)
f (x) = =x+1 for x 6= 1.
x−1
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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The graph of f is the line y = x + 1 with one point removed, namely, the point (1, 2).
This removed point is shown as a “hole” in the graph in the figure below. Even though
f (1) is not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of f (x) as close as we want to 2
by choosing x close enough to 1 . Therefore, we say that f (x) approaches arbitrarily close
to 2 as x approaches 1 , or, more simply, f (x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1.
We write this as
x2 − 1
lim f (x) = 2 or lim = 2.
x→1 x→1 x − 1

1/x2
Example 3.2.2. What happens to the function g(x) = (1 + x2 ) as x approaches zero?

Solution. Note that g(x) is not defined at x = 0. In fact, for the moment it does not
appear to be defined for any x whose square x2 is not a rational number. (Recall that if
r = m/n, where m and n are integers and n > 0, then xr means the nth root of xm .)
Let us ignore for now the problem of deciding what g(x) means if x2 is irrational and
consider only rational values of x. There is no obvious way to simplify the expression for
g(x) as we did in Example 1.2.1. However, we can use a scientific calculator to obtain
approximate values of g(x) for some rational values of x approaching 0 . (The values in
table below were obtained with such a calculator.)
Except for the last value in the table, the values of g(x) seem to be approaching
a certain number, 2.71828 . . ., as x gets closer and closer to 0 . We will show in next
sections that

1/x2
lim g(x) = lim 1 + x2 = e = 2.718281828459045 . . . .
x→0 x→0

The number e turns out to be very important in mathematics.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Observe that the last entry in the table appears to be wrong. This is important. It is
because the calculator can only represent a finite number of numbers. The calculator was
unable to distinguish 1 + (0.00001)2 = 1.0000000001 from 1 , and it therefore calculated
110,000,000,000 = 1. While for many calculations on computers this reality can be minimized,
it cannot be eliminated. The wrong value warns us of something called round-off error.

Definition 3.1 (An informal definition of limit ). If f (x) is defined for all x near a,
except possibly at a itself, and if we can ensure that f (x) is as close as we want to L by
taking x close enough to a, but not equal to a, we say that the function f approaches
the limit L as x approaches a, and we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

• An alternative notation for

lim f (x) = L
x→a

is
f (x) → L as x→a
which is usually read “f (x) approaches L as x approaches a.”
This definition is informal because phrases such as close as we want and close
enough are imprecise; their meaning depends on the context. To a machinist
manufacturing a piston, close enough may mean within a few thousandths of an
inch. To an astronomer studying distant galaxies, close enough may mean within a
few thousand light-years. The definition should be clear enough, however, to enable
us to recognize and evaluate limits of specific functions. A more precise “formal”
definition, given in the next section, is needed if we want to prove theorems about
limits.

Example 3.2.3. Let’s consider a few trivial examples.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

a) lim x = a. x2 + 1
x→a c) lim = 1.
x→1 x + 1

b) lim (2x + 4) = 8. d) lim c = c, (where c is a constant).

x→2 x→a

Example 1.2.3 shows that lim f (x) can sometimes be evaluated by just calculating
x→a
f (a). This will be the case if f (x) is defined in an open interval containing x = a
and the graph of f passes unbroken through the point ( a, f (a) ). The next example
shows various ways algebraic manipulations can be used to evaluate lim f (x) in
x→a
situations where f (a) is undefined. This usually happens when f (x) is a fraction
with denominator equal to 0 at x = a.

• Always be aware that the existence of lim f (x) does not require that f (a) exist
x→a
and does not depend on f (a) even if f (a) does exist. It depends only on the values
of f (x) for x near but not equal to a.

x−1
Example 3.2.4. Guess the value of lim .
x→1 x2 − 1

(x − 1)
Solution. Notice that the function f (x) = is not defined when x = 1, but that
x2 − 1
doesn’t matter because the definition of lim f (x) says that we consider values of x that
x→a
are close to a but not equal to a.
The tables at the left give values of f (x) (correct to six decimal places) for values of
x that approach 1 (but are not equal to 1 ). On the basis of the values in the tables, we
make the guess that
x−1
lim = 0.5
x→1 x2 − 1

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.2.4 is illustrated by the graph of f in Figure 3. Now let’s change f slightly
by giving it the value 2 when x = 1 and calling the resulting function g :
 x−1
 if x 6= 1
g(x) = x2 − 1
2 if x = 1


This new function g still has the same limit as x approaches 1. (See Figure 4.)

3.3 One-Sided Limits

Example 3.3.1. The Heaviside function H is defined by

0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t > 0

[This function is named after the electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) and
can be used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time t = 0.] Its graph is
shown in the figure below.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

As t approaches 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0 . As t approaches 0 from the right,
H(t) approaches 1 . There is no single number that H(t) approaches as t approaches 0 .
Therefore lim H(t) does not exist.
t→0

We noticed in Example 1.3.1 that H(t) approaches 0 as t approaches 0 from the

left and H(t) approaches 1 as t approaches 0 from the right. We indicate this situation
symbolically by writing

lim H(t) = 0 and lim H(t) = 1.

t→0− t→0+

The symbol “t → 0−” indicates that we consider only values of t that are less than 0 .
Likewise, “t → 0+ ” indicates that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0 .

Definition 3.2 ( (Informal definition of left and right limits)). We write

lim f (x) = L
x→a−

and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from the left) is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily
close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than a.

Notice that Definition 1.2 differs from Definition 1.1 only in that we require x to be
less than a. Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get “the right-hand
limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L” and we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a+

trated in the figure below.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 3.1.

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→a x→a− x→a+

Example 3.3.2. The graph of a function g is shown in the figure 10. Use it to state the
values (if they exist) of the following:

(a) lim− g(x) (c) lim g(x) (e) lim+ g(x)

x→2 x→2 x→5

(b) lim+ g(x) (d) lim− g(x) (f ) lim g(x)

x→2 x→5 x→5

Example 3.3.3. Suppose the function y = f (x), graphed in the figure below, is defined
as follows: 

 x + 1 (−2 < x < 0)

2 (x = 0)




f (x) = −x (0 < x < 2)

0 (x = 2)





x − 4 (2 < x 6 4)


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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Determine whether limits of f , if any, exist at

(a) x = −2 (c) x = 2

(b) x = 0 (d) x = 4

Example 3.3.4. If √
 x−4 if x > 4
f (x) =
8 − 2x if x < 4
determine whether lim f (x) exists.
x→4

|x|
Example 3.3.5. Prove that lim does not exist.
x→0 x
|x − 2|
Example 3.3.6. If f (x) = , find: lim f (x), lim f (x), and lim f (x).
x2 +x−6 x→2+ x→2− x→2

3.3.1 Rules for Calculating Limits

The following theorems make it easy to calculate limits and one-sided limits of many
kinds of functions when we know some elementary limits. We will not prove the theorems
here.

Theorem 3.2. If lim f (x) = L, lim g(x) = M , and k is a constant, then

x→a x→a

a) Limit of a sum:
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M
x→a

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

b) Limit of a difference:
lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L − M
x→a

c) Limit of a product:
lim f (x)g(x) = LM
x→a

d) Limit of a multiple:
lim kf (x) = kL
x→a

f (x) L
e) Limit of a quotient: lim = , if M 6= 0.
x→a g(x) M
If m is an integer and n is a positive integer, then

f ) Limit of a power: lim [f (x)]m/n = Lm/n , provided L > 0 if n is even, and L 6= 0 if

x→a
m < 0.
If f (x) ≤ g(x) on an interval containing a in its interior, then

g) Order is preserved: L ≤ M

Rules 1-6 are also valid for right limits and left limits. So is Rule 7, under the assumption
that f (x) ≤ g(x) on an open interval extending from a in the appropriate direction.

Example 3.3.7. Evaluate the following limits:

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 |x − 1|
(a) lim (c) lim
x→0 1+x x→1 x4+x−3
√
2x2 + 1 − 1
(b) lim
x→−1 x−1

Example 3.3.8. Evalatue the following limits:

x3 − x 2 − x + 1 x − 5x5 + 4x6
(a) lim (e) lim
x→1 x2 − 4x + 3 x→1 (1 − x)2
x6 − 1 x4 − 16
(b) lim (f ) lim
x→1 x3 − 2x2 + 1 x→−2 x3 + 2x2

x5 + 1 x100 − 2x + 1
(c) lim (g) lim 50
x→−1 x3 + 1 x→1 x − 2x + 1

x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9 (1 + x)(1 + 2x)(1 + 3x)...(1 + 100x) − 1

(d) lim (h) lim
x→3 x4 − 8x2 − 9 x→0 x

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 3.3.9. Evalatue the following limits:

√ √
4x + 1 − 3 x+2−2
(a) lim 2
(c) lim √
x→2 x −4 x→2 x+7−3
√ √ √ √
2x + 2 − 3x + 1 x + 9 + x + 16 − 7
(b) lim (d) lim
x→1 x−1 x→0 x

3.3.2 The Squeeze Theorem

The following theorem will enable us to calculate some very important limits in subsequent
chapters. It is called the Squeeze Theorem because it refers to a function g whose values
are squeezed between the values of two other functions f and h that have the same limit
L at a point a. Being trapped between the values of two functions that approach L, the
values of g must also approach L.

Theorem 3.3. Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) holds for all x in some open interval
containing a, except possibly at x = a itself. Suppose also that

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L.

x→a x→a

Then lim g(x) = L also. Similar statements hold for left and right limits.
x→a

Example 3.3.10. If 2x 6 g(x) 6 x4 − x2 + 2 for all x, evaluate lim g(x).

x→1

1
Example 3.3.11. Show that lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x
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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 3.3.12. Show that if lim |f (x)| = 0, then lim f (x) = 0.

x→a x→a

3.3.3 Infinite Limits

1
Example 3.3.13. Find lim if it exists.
x→0 x2

Solution. As x becomes close to 0, x2 also becomes close to 0 , and 1/x2 becomes very
large.

In fact, it appears from the graph of the function f (x) = 1/x2 shown in Figure 11 that
the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x close enough to 0. Thus the
values of f (x) do not approach a number, so lim (1/x2 ) does not exist.
x→0

To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited in Example 1.3.8, we use the notation
1
lim =∞
x→0 x2

This does not mean that we are regarding ∞ as a number. Nor does it mean that the
limit exists. It simply expresses the particular way in which the limit does not exist:

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1/x2 can be made as large as we like by taking x close enough to 0. In general, we write
symbolically
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

to indicate that the values of f (x) tend to become larger and larger (or “increase without
bound”) as x becomes closer and closer to a.

Theorem 3.4. Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself.
Then
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by
taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.

Another notation for lim f (x) = ∞ is

x→a

f (x) → ∞ as x→a

Again, the symbol ∞ is not a number, but the expression lim f (x) = ∞ is often read
x→a
as “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is infinity” or

“f (x) becomes infinite as x approaches a”

or

“f (x) increases without bound as x approaches a.”

Definition 3.3. Let f be defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then

lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large negative by taking x
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The symbol lim f (x) = −∞ can be read as “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is
x→a
negative infinity” or “f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches a.” As an example
we have  
1
lim − 2 = −∞
x→0 x
Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided infinite limits

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a− x→a+

remembering that “x → a− ” means that we consider only values of x that are less than
a, and similarly “x → a+ ” means that we consider only x > a.

Definition 3.4. The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if
at least one of the following statements is true:

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

x→a x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a x→a− x→a+

2x 2x
Example 3.3.14. Find lim+ and lim− .
x→3 x−3 x→3 x − 3

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution. If x is close to 3 but larger than 3 , then the denominator x − 3 is a small

positive number and 2x is close to 6 . So the quotient 2x/(x − 3) is a large positive
number. Thus, intuitively, we see that
2x
lim+ =∞
x→3 x−3
Likewise, if x is close to 3 but smaller than 3, then x − 3 is a small negative number
but 2x is still a positive number (close to 6 ). So 2x/(x − 3) is a numerically large negative
number. Thus
2x
lim− = −∞
x→3 x − 3

Example 3.3.15. Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = tan x.

Solution. Because
sin x
tan x =
cos x
there are potential vertical asymptotes where cos x = 0. In fact, since cos x → 0+ as
x → (π/2)− and cos x → 0− as x → (π/2)+ , whereas sin x is positive when x is near π/2,
we have
lim − tan x = ∞ and lim + tan x = −∞
x→(π/2) x→(π/2)

This shows that the line x = π/2 is a vertical asymptote. Similar reasoning shows
that the lines x = (2n + 1)π/2, where n is an integer, are all vertical asymptotes of
f (x) = tan x.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Another example of a function whose graph has a vertical asymptote is the natural
logarithmic function y = ln x. From Figure 17 we see that

lim ln x = −∞
x→0+

and so the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote. In fact, the same is true for
y = loga x provided that a > 1.

3.3.4 Limits at infinity

In this section we will extend the concept of limit to allow for two situations not covered
by the definitions of limit and one-sided limit in the previous section:

• limits at infinity, where x becomes arbitrarily large, positive or negative;

• infinite limits, which are not really limits at all but provide useful symbolism for
describing the behaviour of functions whose values become arbitrarily large, positive
or negative.

51
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Let’s begin by investigating the behavior of the function f defined by

x2 − 1
f (x) =
x2 + 1
as x becomes large. The table below gives values of this function correct to six decimal
places, and the graph of f has been drawn by a computer.

As x grows larger and larger you can see that the values of f (x) get closer and closer
to 1 . In fact, it seems that we can make the values of f (x) as close as we like to 1 by
taking x sufficiently large. This situation is expressed symbolically by writing
x2 − 1
lim =1
x→∞ x2 + 1

In general, we use the notation

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

to indicate that the values of f (x) approach L as x becomes larger and larger.

Let us consider another function

x
f (x) = √
2
x +1

52
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The table below gives values of this function correct to seven decimal places, and the
graph of f has been drawn by a computer.

The values of f (x) seem to approach 1 as x takes on larger and larger positive values,
and -1 as x takes on negative values that get larger and larger in absolute value.

Definition 3.5. Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently
large.

Another notation for lim f (x) = L is

x→∞

f (x) → L as x→∞

The symbol ∞ does not represent a number. Nonetheless, the expression lim f (x) = L
x→∞
is often read as “the limit of f (x), as x approaches infinity, is L ” or “the limit of f (x),
as x becomes infinite, is L ” or “the limit of f (x), as x increases without bound, is L ”
Geometric illustrations of Definition 1 are shown in the figure below. Notice that
there are many ways for the graph of f to approach the line y = L (which is called a
horizontal asymptote) as we look to the far right of each graph.

53
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Definition 3.6. Let f be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a). Then

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently
large negative.

Again, the symbol −∞ does not represent a number, but the expression lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
is often read as “the limit of f (x), as x approaches negative infinity, is L ”

Definition 3.7. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x)
if either
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L
x→∞ x→−∞

Example 3.3.16. ind the infinite limits, limits at infinity, and asymptotes for the
function f whose graph is shown in the figure below.

54
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 3.5. If r > 0 is a rational number, then

1
lim =0
x→∞ xr
If r > 0 is a rational number such that xr is defined for all x, then
1
lim =0
x→−∞ xr

[Link] Limits at Infinity for Rational Functions

The only polynomials that have limits at ±∞ are constant ones, P (x) = c. The situation
is more interesting for rational functions. Recall that a rational function is a quotient of
two polynomials. The following examples show how to render such a function in a form
where its limits at infinity and negative infinity (if they exist) are apparent. The way to
do this is to divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x appearing
in the denominator. The limits of a rational function at infinity and negative infinity
either both fail to exist or both exist and are equal.

Example 3.3.17 (Numerator and denominator of the same degree). Evaluate

2x2 − x + 3
lim
x→±∞ 3x2 + 5
Solution. Divide the numerator and the denominator by x2 , the highest power of x
appearing in the denominator:

2x2 − x + 3 2 − (1/x) + (3/x2 ) 2−0+0 2

lim 2
= lim 2
= = .
x→±∞ 3x + 5 x→±∞ 3 + (5/x ) 3+0 3

55
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 3.3.18 (Degree of numerator less than degree of denominator).

Evaluate
5x + 2
lim .
x→±∞ 2x3 − 1

Solution. Divide the numerator and the denominator by the largest power of x in the
denominator, namely, x3 :

5x + 2 (5/x2 ) + (2/x3 ) 0+0

lim = lim = = 0.
x→±∞ 2x3 − 1 x→±∞ 2 − (1/x3 ) 2−0

Example 3.3.19 (Rational functions with numerator of higher degree). Evaluate

x3 + 1
lim
x→∞ x2 + 1

Solution. Divide the numerator and the denominator by x2 , the largest power of x in
the denominator:
 
1 1
x+ 2 lim x + 2
x3 + 1 x x→∞ x
lim 2 = lim = = ∞.
x→∞ x + 1 x→∞ 1 1
1+ 2
x

Example 3.3.20. Evaluate the following limits:

56
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2x2 − 3x + 4 3x + 1
(a) lim (e) lim
x→∞ 3x2 + 4x + 1 x→∞ 2x2 − 9x + 4
3x3 + 4x2 − 2
(b) lim
x→∞ −x3 + 2x − 1 3x2 + 5
(f ) lim
x4 x→∞ −x4 + 2x + 1
(c) lim
x→∞ (x + 1)(2x + 3) (3x2 + 4x + 9)
√ √
(2x x + 9)( x + 4) x4 + 3x + 1
(d) lim (g) lim
x→∞ (4x + 1)(2x + 9) x→∞ 10x2 − 3x + 7

[Link] Limits at Infinity for Irrational Functions

Example 3.3.21. Evaluate the following limits:

√
√ √
(a) lim x2 + x − x (e) lim ( x + 2 − x − 2)
x→+∞ x→∞
√

(b) lim x2 + x − x √ √
x→−∞

√ (f ) lim x2 − 4x + 3 − x2 − 3x + 2

x→∞
(c) lim 2x − 1 − 4x2 − 4x − 3
x→∞
√
√ √

(d) lim 2x − 1 − 4x2 − 4x − 3 (g) lim x2 − 4x + 3 − x2 − 3x + 2
x→−∞ x→−∞

[Link] Other Basis Limits

sin θ
Theorem 3.6. The basic trigonometric limit is: lim = 1 if θ is measured in radians.
θ→0 θ

sin θ
NOTE: lim = 0, why?
x→∞ θ
Definition 3.8. The number e can be defined as follows:
 n
1
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n

The value of e can be approximated on a graphing calculator to a large number of

decimal places by evaluating  x
1
y1 = 1 +
x
for large values of x.

Example 3.3.22. Evaluate the following limits:

57
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

sin 3x sin(2πx) 1 − cos 2x

(a) lim (c) lim (e) lim
x→0 x x→0 sin(3πx) x→0 x2
cos x
(f ) lim
sin 3x tan 2x π x− π
(b) lim (d) lim x→
2
x→0 sin 2x x→0 tan 5x 2

The greatest-integer function g(x) = [x], shown in the figure below, has different
left-hand and right-hand limits at every integer.

For example,
lim [x] = 0 but lim [x] = 1.
x→1− x→1+

This function, therefore, does not have a limit at x = 1 or, by the same reasoning, at
any other integer. However, [x] does have a limit at every nonintegral real number. For
example,

lim [x] = 0 lim [x] = 0 lim [x] = 2 lim [x] = 2

x→0.6 x→0.99 x→2.01 x→2.95
lim [x] = −4 lim [x] = −3 lim [x] = −1 lim [x] = −1
x→−3.1 x→−2.9 x→−0.9 x→−0.01

3.3.5 Newton and Limits

Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day in 1642, the year of Galileo’s death. When he
entered Cambridge University in 1661 Newton didn’t know much mathematics, but he
learned quickly by reading Euclid and Descartes and by attending the lectures of Isaac
Barrow. Cambridge was closed because of the plague in 1665 and 1666 , and Newton
returned home to reflect on what he had learned. Those two years were amazingly
productive for at that time he made four of his major discoveries: (1) his representation
of functions as sums of infinite series, including the binomial theorem; (2) his work on
differential and integral calculus; (3) his laws of motion and law of universal gravitation;
and (4) his prism experiments on the nature of light and color. Because of a fear of

58
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

controversy and criticism, he was reluctant to publish his discoveries and it wasn’t
until 1687, at the urging of the astronomer Halley, that Newton published Principia
Mathematica. In this work, the greatest scientific treatise ever written, Newton set forth
his version of calculus and used it to investigate mechanics, fluid dynamics, and wave
motion, and to explain the motion of planets and comets.
The beginnings of calculus are found in the calculations of areas and volumes by
ancient Greek scholars such as Eudoxus and Archimedes. Although aspects of the idea
of a limit are implicit in their ”method of exhaustion,” Eudoxus and Archimedes never
explicitly formulated the concept of a limit. Likewise, mathematicians such as Cavalieri,
Fermat, and Barrow, the immediate precursors of Newton in the development of calculus,
did not actually use limits. It was Isaac Newton who was the first to talk explicitly about
limits. He explained that the main idea behind limits is that quantities ”approach nearer
than by any given difference.” Newton stated that the limit was the basic concept in
calculus, but it was left to later mathematicians like Cauchy to clarify his ideas about
limits.

3.3.6 Exercises
Exercise 3.3.1. Explain in your own words what is meant by the equation

lim f (x) = 5
x→2

Is it possible for this statement to be true and yet f (2) = 3? Explain.

Exercise 3.3.2. Given that

lim f (x) = 4 lim g(x) = −2 lim h(x) = 0

x→2 x→2 x→2

find the limits that exist. If the limit does not exist, explain why.

(a) lim [f (x) + 5g(x)] 3f (x)

x→2 (d) lim
x→2 g(x)

(b) lim [g(x)]3 g(x)

x→2
(e) lim
x→2 h(x)

g(x)h(x)
(f ) lim
p
(c) lim f (x) x→2 f (x)
x→2

Exercise 3.3.3. Use the given graph of f to state the value of each quantity, if it exists.
If it does not exist, explain why.

59
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

(a) lim− f (x) (c) lim f (x) (e) lim f (x)

x→2 x→2 x→4

(b) lim+ f (x) (d) f (2) (f ) f (4)

x→2

Exercise 3.3.4. For the function f whose graph is given, state the value of each quantity,
if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.

(a) lim f (x) (c) lim+ f (x) (e) f (3)

x→1 x→3

(b) lim− f (x) (d) lim f (x)

x→3 x→3

Exercise 3.3.5. For the function f whose graph is shown, state the following.

(a) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x) (e) limx→6+ f (x)

x→−7 x→0

(b) lim f (x) (d) lim− f (x)

x→−3 x→6

60
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

(f ) The equations of the vertical asymptotes.

Exercise 3.3.6. The graphs of f and g are given. Use them to evaluate each limit, if it
exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why.

(a) lim [f (x) + g(x)] (c) lim [f (x)g(x)] (e) lim [x3 f (x)]
x→2 x→0 x→2

f (x)
(d) lim
p
(b) lim [f (x) + g(x)] x→−1 g(x)
(f ) lim 3 + f (x)
x→1 x→1

Exercise 3.3.7. Determine the infinite limit.

x+2 ex x2 − 2x
(a) lim + (d) lim− (g) lim− 2
x→−3 x+3 x→5 (x − 5)3 x→2 x − 4x + 4

x+2 x2 − 2x − 8
(b) lim − (e) lim+ ln (x2 − 9) (h) lim+
x→−3 x+3 x→3 x→2 x2 − 5x + 6
2−x
(c) lim (f ) lim− cot x
x→1 (x − 1)2 x→π

Exercise 3.3.8. Let 

x 2 + 1 if x < 1
f (x) =
(x − 2)2 if x > 1

(a) Find lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x).

x→1 x→1

(b) Does lim f (x) exist?

x→1

(c) Sketch the graph of f .

Exercise 3.3.9. Let 



 x if x < 1



3 if x = 1
g(x) =
2 − x 2
 if 1 < x 6 2



x − 3

if x > 2

61
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Evaluate each of the following, if it exists.

(i) lim− g(x) (iii) g(1) (v) lim+ g(x)

x→1 x→2

(ii) lim g(x) (iv) lim− g(x) (vi) lim g(x)

x→1 x→2 x→2

x2 + x − 6
Exercise 3.3.10. Let g(x) = .
|x − 2|
(a) Find

(i) lim+ g(x) (ii) lim− g(x)

x→2 x→2

(b) Does lim g(x) exist?

x→2

(c) Sketch the graph of g.

Exercise 3.3.11. In the following exercises, evalute the limit or explain why it does not
exist.
√
(1) lim (x2 − 4x + 1) x−3 t2 + 3t
x→4 (11) lim (21) lim
x→9 x − 9 t→0 (t + 2)2 − (t − 2)2
(2) lim 3(1 − x)(2 − x) √
x→2 4+h−2 (s + 1)2 − (s − 1)2
(12) lim (22) lim
x+3 h→0 h s→0 s
(3) lim √
x→3 x + 6 (x − π)2 y−4 y+3
(13) lim (23) lim
x→π πx y→1 y2 − 1
t2
(4) lim (14) lim |x − 2| x3 + 1
t→−4 4 − t
x→−2 (24) lim
x→−1 x + 1
x2 − 1 |x − 2|
(5) lim (15) lim x4 − 16
x→1 x + 1 x−2
x→0 (25) lim
x→2 x3 − 8
x2 − 1 |x − 2|
(6) lim (16) lim x2/3 − 4
x→−1 x + 1 x→2 x−2 (26) lim
x→8 x1/3 − 2
x2 − 6x + 9 t2 − 1  
(7) lim (17) lim 2 1 4
x→3 x2 − 9 t→1 t − 2t + 1 (27) lim −
√ x→2 x − 2 x2 − 4
x2 + 2x 4 − 4x + x2  
(8) lim (18) lim 1 1
x→−2 x2 − 4 x→2 x−2 (28) lim −
x→2 x − 2 x2 − 4
1 t √ √
(9) lim (19) lim √ √
2 + x2 − 2 − x2
h→2 4 − h2 t→0 4 + t − 4 − t (29) lim
x→0 x2
3h + 4h2 x2 − 1
(10) lim (20) lim √ |3x − 1| − |3x + 1|
h→0 h2 − h3 x→1 x+3−2 (30) lim
x→0 x
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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Exercise 3.3.12. Find the limits:

x x2 + sin x
(1) lim (6) lim
x→∞ 2x − 3 x→∞ x2 + cos x

x √
(2) lim 3x + 2 x
x→∞ x2 − 4 (7) lim
x→∞ 1−x
3x3 − 5x2 + 7 2x − 1
(3) lim (8) lim √
x→∞ 8 + 2x − 5x3 x→∞ 3x2 + x + 1
x2 − 2 2x − 1
(4) lim (9) lim √
x→−∞ x − x2 x→−∞ 3x2 + x + 1
x2 + 3 2x − 5
(5) lim (10) lim
x→−∞ x3 + 2 x→−∞ |3x + 2|

Exercise 3.3.13. In the following exercise, evaluate the indicated limits. If a limit does
not exist, determine whether the limit is ∞, −∞, or neither?
x √ √
1 (9) lim x x + 1(1 − 2x + 3)
(1) lim x→2+ (2 − x)3 (17) lim
x→3 3 − x x→∞ 7 − 6x + 4x2
1 x
(2) lim (10) lim √
x→3 (3 − x)2 x→1− 1 − x2 
x2 x2

1 (18) lim −
1 (11) lim x→∞ x+1 x−1
(3) lim x→1+ |x − 1|
x→3− 3 − x

1 1 √ √

(4) lim (12) lim (19) lim x2 + 2x − x2 − 2x
x→3+ 3 − x x→1− |x − 1| x→−∞

2x + 5 x−3 √ √
(5) lim (13) lim

x→−5/2 5x + 2 x→2 x2
− 4x + 4 (20) lim x2 + 2x − x2 − 2x
x→∞
√
2x + 5 x2 − x
(6) lim (14) lim
x→−2/5 5x + 2 x→1+ x − x2 1
(21) lim √
2x + 5 x + x3 + x5 x→∞ x2 − 2x − x
(7) lim (15) lim
x→−(2/5)− 5x + 2 x→∞ 1 + x2 + x3

2x + 5 x3 + 3 1
(8) lim (16) lim (22) lim √
x→−(2/5)+ 5x + 2 x→∞ x2 + 2 x→−∞ x2 + 2x − x
f (x) − 8
Exercise 3.3.14. If lim = 10, find lim f (x).
x→1 x − 1 x→1

f (x)
Exercise 3.3.15. If lim = 5, find the following limits.
x→0 x2

63
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

(a) lim f (x) f (x)

x→0 (b) lim
x→0 x

3.4 Continuity

3.4.1 Continuity at a point

Most functions that we encounter have domains that are intervals, or unions of separate
intervals. A point P in the domain of such a function is called an interior point of the
domain if it belongs to some open interval contained in the domain. If it is not an interior
point, then P is called an endpoint of the domain. For example, the domain of the
√
function f (x) = 4 − x2 is the closed interval [−2, 2], which consists of interior points
in the interval (−2, 2), a left endpoint -2 , and a right endpoint 2 . The domain of the
function g(x) = 1/x is the union of open intervals (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) and consists entirely
of interior points. Note that although 0 is an endpoint of each of those intervals, it does
not belong to the domain of g and so is not an endpoint of that domain.

Definition 3.9 ( Continuity at an interior point). We say that a function f is continuous

at an interior point a of its domain if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

If either lim f (x) fails to exist or it exists but is not equal to f (a), then we will say that
x→a
f is discontinuous at a.

Notice that Definition 1.9 implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at c:

• f (c) is defined (that is, c is in the domain of f ).

64
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

• lim f (x) exists.

x→c

• lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

In graphical terms, f is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if its graph has
no break in it at the point (c, f (c) ); in other words, if you can draw the graph through
that point without lifting your pen from the paper. Consider the figure below.

• In (a), f is continuous at c.

• In (b), f is discontinuous at c because lim f (x) 6= f (c).

x→c

• In (c),f is discontinuous at c because lim f (x) does not exist. In both (b) and (c)
x→c
the graph of f has a break at x = c.

Although a function cannot have a limit at an endpoint of its domain, it can still have a
one-sided limit there. We extend the definition of continuity to provide for such situations.
Although a function cannot have a limit at an endpoint of its domain, it can still
have a one-sided limit there. We extend the definition of continuity to provide for such
situations.

Definition 3.10 (Right and left continuity ).

(a) We say that f is right continuous at c if lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c+

(b) We say that f is left continuous at c if lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c−

Example 3.4.1. The Heaviside function H(x) is continuous at every number x except 0.
It is right continuous at 0 but is not left continuous or continuous there.

65
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Definition 3.11 (Continuity at the endpoint ).

(a) We say that f is continuous at a left endpoint c of its domain if it is right continuous
there.

(b) We say that f is continuous at a right endpoint c of its domain if it is left continuous
there.
√
Example 3.4.2. The function f (x) = 4 − x2 has domain [−2, 2]. It is continuous
at the right endpoint 2 because it is left continuous there, that is, because lim f (x) =
x→2−
0 = f (2). It is continuous at the left endpoint -2 because it is right continuous there:
lim f (x) = 0 = f (−2). Of course, f is also continuous at every interior point of its
x→−2+ √
domain. If −2 < c < 2, then lim f (x) = 4 − c2 = f (c).
x→c

Example 3.4.3 ( Continuity on an interval). We say that function f is continuous

on the interval I if it is continuous at each point of I. In particular, we will say that
f is a continuous function if f is continuous at every point of its domain.

Theorem 3.7 (There Are Lots of Continuous Functions). Theorem The following types
of functions are continuous at every number in their domains: polynomials, rational func-
tions, root functions, trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions, exponential
functions, logarithmic functions.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 3.8 ( Combining continuous functions). If the functions f and g are both
defined on an interval containing c and both are continuous at c, then the following
functions are also continuous at c :

(a) the sum f + g and the difference f − g;

(b) the product fg ;

(c) the constant multiple kf , where k is any number;

(d) the quotient f /g (provided g(c) 6= 0 ); and

(e) the nth root (f (x))1/n , provided f (c) > 0 if n is even.

Theorem 3.9 (Composites of continuous functions are continuous). If g is continuous at a

and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite function f ◦g given by (f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x))
is continuous at a.

Example 3.4.4. The following functions are continuous everywhere on their respective
domains:
√
(a) y = 3x2 − 2x (c) y = |x2 − 1| (e) y = x2 − 2x − 5

x−2 |x|
(b) y = √ (f ) y = p .
x2 − 4 (d) y = x |x + 2|

3.4.2 Classification of Discontinuities

In Example 1.3.3. the function y = f (x) is definied as follows:


 x + 1 (−2 < x < 0)

2 (x = 0)




f (x) = −x (0 < x < 2)

0 (x = 2)





x − 4 (2 < x 6 4)


The graph is shown below

67
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

We observe that f is not continous at x = −2, x = 0, and x = 2.

• At x = 0, f is not defined. However, lim− f (x) 6= lim+ f (x). Where the left- and
x→0 x→0
right-hand limits exist, but are different, the function has a jump discontinuity.
Another example is the greatest-integer (or step) function, y = [x], has a jump
discontinuity at every integer.

• At x = 2, f is defined, in fact f (2) = 0. Also, lim f (x) = −2. The limit exists,
x→2
however, lim f (x) 6= f (2). This discontinuity is called removable. If we were to
x→2
redefine the function at x = 2 to be f (2) = −2, the new function would no longer
have a discontinuity there. We cannot, however, “remove” a jump discontinuity by
any redefinition whatsoever.

• Whenever the graph of a function f (x) has the line x = a as a vertical asymptote,
then f (x) becomes positively or negatively infinite as x → a+ or as x → a− . The
function is then said to have an infinite discontinuity.

Example 3.4.5. Discuss the continuity of f , as graphed in the figure below.

68
 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

(
4
x−2
if x 6= 2
Example 3.4.6. Is h(x) = continuous
1 if x = 2
(a) at x = 2; (b) at x = 3 ?

If it is not continuous, classify the discontinuity.

(
x2 + 2 x 6 1
Example 3.4.7. Is f (x) = continuous at x = 1? If it is not continuous,
4 x>1
classify the discontinuity.
(
x2 x 6= 2
Example 3.4.8. Is g(x) = continuous at x = 2? If it is not continuous,
1 x=2
classify the discontinuity.

3.4.3 Some properties of continuous functions

Theorem 3.10 (The Extreme Value Theorem ). If f is continuous on the closed interval
[a, b], then f attains a minimum value and a maximum value somewhere in that interval.
More specifically, if f (x) is continuous on the closed, finite interval [a, b], then there
exist numbers p and q in [a, b] such that for all x in [a, b],

f (p) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (q).

Thus, f has the absolute minimum value m = f (p), taken on at the point p, and the
absolute maximum value M = f (q), taken on at the point q.

The conclusions of Theorem 1.10 may fail if the function f is not continuous or if the
interval is not closed. See Figures 1.28-1.31 for examples of how such failure can occur.

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 3.11 (The Intermediate-Value Theorem ). If f (x) is continuous on the interval

[a, b] and if s is a number between f (a) and f (b), then there exists a number c in [a, b]
such that f (c) = s.
In particular, a continuous function defined on a closed interval takes on all values
between its minimum value m and its maximum value M , so its range is also a closed
interval, [m, M ].

An important special case of the Intermediate-Value Theorem: If f is continous on [a, b]

and f (a).f (b) < 0 then exist c ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) = 0.

Example 3.4.9. Show that the equation x3 − x − 1 = 0 has a solution in the interval
[1, 2].

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 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

3.4.4 Exercises
Exercise 3.4.1. Find the numbers at which f is discontinuous. At which of these numbers
is f continuous from the right, from the left, or neither?
 
2


 1+x if x 6 0 

 x+1 if x 6 1
 
(a) f (x) = 2 − x if 0 < x 6 2 . (b) f (x) = 1/x if 1 < x < 3


(x − 2)2 if x > 2


 √
 x − 3 if x > 3


Exercise 3.4.2. For what value of the constant c is the function f continuous on
(−∞, ∞) ? 
cx2 + 2x if x < 2
f (x) =
x3 − cx if x > 2

Exercise 3.4.3. Find the values of a and b that make f continuous everywhere.

x2 −4
 if x < 2
 x−2


f (x) = ax2 − bx + 3 if 2 6 x < 3


2x − a + b

if x > 3

Exercise 3.4.4. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a root of the
given equation in the specified interval.

(a) x4 + x − 3 = 0, (1, 2) (c) ex = 3 − 2x, (0, 1)

√
(b) 3
x = 1 − x, (0, 1) (d) sin x = x2 − x, (1, 2)

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