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Chapter 8
Environmental and Health Effects
of Pesticide Residues

Sajjad Ali, Muhammad Irfan Ullah, Asif Sajjad, Qaiser Shakeel,

and Azhar Hussain

Abstract Now a days, agroecosystem is largely dependent on pesticides to meet the

ever-increasing demand of food and ber. Tons of synthetic pesticides are deposited
to increase the yield. This scenario poses great threat to non-target organisms
because 98% sprayed pesticides directly or indirectly affect them. Several studies
estimated that 80% of sprayed pesticides directly contaminate the environment. This
chapter reviewed the pesticides effects on environment, natural biodiversity, polli-
nators, food chains and outcome health issues. It was reviewed that soil and water
qualities are deteriorated because of pesticide depositions. Due to microbial life
threat, soil respiration is decreased by 35% and almost 90% water sources in agro-
lands are polluted with pesticides. The aquatic and terrestrial food chains are being
endangered because of bioaccumulation and biomagnication of loads of pesticides.
Studies revealed that biodiversity and species are endangered because of pesticide
exposures. During last few decades, 70% decline in insect biomass and 50% decline
in farmland birds is reported in European nations. Similarly, 42% reduction in
species richness was also noted in Europe, Australia and North America. Pesticides
residues have injurious effects on bees which ultimately decrease their ecological
service. United Nations warned that 40% of invertebrate pollinator, particularly bees

S. Ali (*) · A. Sajjad

Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences,
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
M. I. Ullah
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
e-mail: mirfanullah@[Link]
Q. Shakeel
Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences,
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
A. Hussain
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences,
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 311
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
Inamuddin et al. (eds.), Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 48, Sustainable Agriculture
Reviews 48, [Link]
312 S. Ali et al.

and butteries, are at risk to global extermination. Almost, 30% honey bee popula-
tion decline in American and European countries is reported due to extreme use of
pesticides. Through food chain contamination, adverse effects reach to human life.
These ingestions have resulted serious carcinogenic, endocrine, neurological, repro-
ductive and other ailments. Even, many casualties have been reported due to
exposure to poisonous pesticides. Bundle of research indicated that cancer risk and
mental health problems are enlarged by 25–30% after exposure to pesticides.
Similarly, 50% elevated risk of leukaemia, lymphoma and brain cancer in children
is linked with paternal exposure to pesticides. Now, it is time to nd out some
alternatives focusing the environmental protection and ultimately human health.
Integrated pest management can be the one and only option to minimize the use of
pesticides.

Keywords Air pollution · Biodiversity · Carcinogenic · Diseases · Food chain

contamination · Pollinator · Pesticide pollution · Water pollution

8.1 Introduction

Application of pesticides to prevent, kill, repel or mitigate the harmful and invasive
organisms, has become an integral input in modern agriculture system to meet the
ever-increasing demands of food and ber. Tons of synthetic chemicals, mainly
herbicides, insecticides and fungicides, are being deposited into the natural and
agroecosystems every year to protect the crop produces from the weeds, insect and
pathogens. By 2050, we need to feed 10 billion population of the world (Eddleston
2000). Since 1940, many agricultural practices including pesticides would have
become a new trend in modern farming for improved crop yields; eight times better
than the previous one. Without pesticide application, losses of fruits, vegetables and
cereals due to various pest injuries can reach up to 78, 54 and 32%, respectively (Cai
2008).
Around 2 million tons of pesticides (45% Europe, 25% United States and 25%
other countries of the world) are consumed every year worldwide for the crop
protection. Worldwide, 40% of the pesticides is conned to herbicides, 17% to
insecticides, 10% to fungicides and rest of the pesticides fall into other small usages
(Fig. 8.1) (Alavanja 2009; De et al. 2014).
Almost, 98% of the sprayed pesticide chemicals also inuence the non-target
organisms. Commonly, the pesticide residues through agro-ecosystem, domestic,
garden use and spray drifts are accumulating into soil, air, water and food. The
workers, who have direct exposure, are at more risks to carcinogenic and mutagenic
illnesses but the common people are also not excluded from this danger being
exposed to pesticide residues in nature. Besides the use of smart technology in
agriculture and increased focus on organic farming, still around 25 million workers
of agricultural community are diseased by exposure to pesticides residues exclusive
to infection of farm land animals. Environmental scientists are trying to reduce
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 313

Fig. 8.1 Global share of different kinds of pesticides application

pesticide application to minimize the poisonous residues exposure (Alavanja et al.

2001; Alavanja 2009).
The monitoring of pesticide residues in food stuff was started in the European
Union since 1996. Due to food uncleanness, most of the deaths are noted in hospital
reviews (Eddleston 2000). In India, the rst pesticides poisoning report was from
Kerala in 1958, where over 100 people expired after eating wheat our with
parathion contaminations (Karunakaran 1958). The land can become contaminated
during each pesticide application. Likely, 80–90% of pesticides are volatilized into
environment within few hours of application (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos 2011).
The drift of pesticide causes, not only, the loss of 2–25% of chemical but also causes
spread of pesticide residues over longer distances. Large number of pesticide
transformation products, from a widespread range of chemicals, were also
documented in the past which are entering into our environment every year
(Hernández et al. 2008).
Similarly, application of pesticide on plants, contaminate the surface and ground
water by leaching down of pesticide residues from soil. A complete survey of at least
43 states in United States was reported by United State Department of Geo Sciences;
in which 143 pesticides and 21 transformation products from all major pesticide
classes were noticed in ground water (Waskom 1995). Approximately, 90% water
samples from all rivers, stream and sh contain one or several pesticides in a study
conducted in India. Additionally, 58% water of human consumption was polluted
with Organo-Chlorine insecticides above the Environmental Protection Agency
values (Kole et al. 2001). If ground water is polluted with toxic chemicals once,
naturally it may take several years for purication from these toxic chemicals. In
314 S. Ali et al.

most of the cases, cleanup is very costly with complex processes, if not impossible
(Waskom 1995).
The use of pesticides is increasing day by day. For example, during 1990–2006,
the total area treated with pesticides and herbicides increased by 30 and 38% in the
United Kingdom (Fera 2009). The excessive use of pesticides may induce different
health problems to human after they are exposed to these toxins at various levels.
The main problem is the duration of the exposure to pesticide residues. Some people
like children, pregnant women, sick or aged persons are more sensitive to the
residual effect of pesticide. Now-a-days, pesticides have passed into natural food
chains and tend to be bioaccumulated in the higher tropic levels (Mostafalou and
Abdollahi 2013). So, there is utmost need for scientists to make strategies to reduce
the pesticide residue exposure to save the environment and living beings.

8.2 Soil and Water Contaminations by Pesticide Residues

Agro-ecosystem is being contaminated directly or indirectly through plenteous use

of pesticides. In addition to reducing the harmful insects, pathogen or weeds;
pesticides can be lethal to a range of non-target organisms including benecial
insects, birds, sh, and non-target plants. Insecticides are generally the most acutely
toxic group of pesticides, but herbicides can also exert hazards to non-target living
organisms. Agricultural systems are disturbed because of pesticide residues after
they enter into ecosystem through surface water, ground water and contaminate the
soil (Fig. 8.2) (Wasim et al. 2009).

Fig. 8.2 Pesticide application, decomposition and residues entry into ecosystem through soil,
surface and ground water
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 315

Similarly, pesticides transformation products are also accumulated in the soils

and may disturb the soil microbial life benetting our crop system. The benecial
micro fauna is declining because of heavy deposits of pesticides in the agricultural
soils and their surrounding areas. For example, nitrogen xing bacteria are disturbed
by the heavy applications of herbicides and insecticides into the soil. Similar effects
have also been noted in case of mycorrhizal fungi (Lu and Lu 2018). Due to declined
populations of benecial microbes after long exposures of pesticides; the crop
productivity might be lowered in future.
A larger fraction of pesticides amasses in the soil due to unselective and frequent
use of pesticides. Afterwards, properties and microbiome of soil regulate the destiny
of the applied pesticides and their residues, through many degradation processes,
transformation products, and adsorption-desorption courses (Weber et al. 2004;
Hussain et al. 2009). Degrading pesticides tend to change the soil textures and
microorganism activities by changing its microbial biodiversity, biochemical and
enzyme activities in the soil (Hussain et al. 2009) which may lead to worrying soil-
ecosystem and soil fertility loss. Additionally, repeated applications of pesticides
pose impact on the function of helpful root-colonizing soil microorganisms like
bacteria, fungi, arbuscular mycorrhiza and algae by manipulating their growth,
colonization ability and metabolic events (Tien and Chen 2012). For example,
herbicides like chlorsulfuron, sulfonyl-urea, metsulfuron and thifensulfuron methyl
decrease the growth of Pseudomonas strains in agricultural soil which is key player
in soil fertility (Boldt and Jacobsen 1998). Likewise, benomyl, chlorothalonil and
captan tend to lower the soil respiration process (a microbiota indicator) by 30–50%
(Tien and Chen 2012). Pesticides residual masses also disturb the soil biochemical
reactions i.e. nitrogen-xation, ammonication and nitrication by manipulating
certain soil microbial organisms or their enzyme activities (Hussain et al. 2009).
Pesticides may inuence soil mineralization and organic matter, key soil property to
regulate soil productivity. For example, herbicides application including atrazine,
glyphosate, primeextra, and paraquat signicantly reduce the soil organic matter
(Sebiomo et al. 2011). It is vital to assess the responses of soil microbes and
numerous enzyme activities to pesticide depositions so their deleterious effects can
be minimized.
Pesticide runoff from treated plants and soil can pollute the surface water bodies
which may disturb the water life in the long run. According to United States
geological survey; urban water resources are polluted with pesticides than the
agricultural water bodies. Pesticide leaching from the soil surfaces is accumulated
into ground water system (Kole et al. 2001). In the United States, 90% of the wells
water samples were found contaminated with pesticides during a study by the US
Geological Survey (Gillion et al. 2006).
Accidental spillages, waste efuents, surface run-off and shifting from pesticide
applied soils, cleaning of spray machinery after spraying, leaching into water bodies
and aerial sprays to kill water-dwelling pests can be ways for pesticides to get into
water resources. Pesticides not only affect the sh fauna, but also disturb the food-
webs afterwards. Many persistent pesticides like organochlorines and
polychlorinated biphenyls were noticed in the chief Arctic Ocean food-webs. The
316 S. Ali et al.

residual effects of pesticides, on aquatic environment, are governed by their solu-

bility in water and penetration into an organism. The hydrophilic or lipophobic
nature of the pesticide residual mass makes it less available in the fatty tissues of
aquatic organisms which mat later its toxicity (Pereira et al. 2013). If pesticide
application remains continued it will be a prodigious threat for agro-ecosystem so,
now it is right time to be aware all about this issue and nd alternative and
environmentally friendly strategies.

8.3 Pesticide Bioaccumulation and Bio-magnication

in Living Systems

Pesticide chemicals can enter into living systems from the environment directly or
through agricultural runoff. They pass through different trophic levels in food web
from bottom (algae, oysters and sh) to top (eagle, bears and humans) level and tend
to accumulate in living organisms’ tissues at each trophic level because most of the
chemicals have half-lives between 1 and 4 years (Mostafalou and Abdollahi 2012).
At each following food chain level, pesticide residues increase in the tissues of living
organisms due to their non-biodegradable nature which is known as
biomagnication. This fact was described by studying many food chains and it
was noted that higher trophic level possesses elevated levels of the toxins as
compared to primary exposures. For example, Fig. 8.3 is depicting the
biomagnication ability of Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT) insecticide
at different trophic levels (Deribe et al. 2013; Katagi and Tanaka 2016).
This phenomenon poses greater threat to higher trophic levels. The hostile effects
of pesticides residues on non-target organisms like aquatic fauna and humans,
occurred due to biomagnications of these toxins. For instance, population declines

Fig. 8.3 Biomagnication

of pesticides (DDT) at
different trophic levels in a
food chain
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 317

and reproductive disabilities in many sh-eating birds like gulls, terns, and herons
etc. were observed as a consequence of Dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethylene induced
eggshell weakening (Grasman et al. 1998). It is observed that biomagnications
increase with increasing lipophilic features and persistence of the pesticide residues
in living organisms. Due to this reason, organochlorines are ranked as chemicals
with higher biomagnication rates and are persistent in a broader array of living
organisms as compared to organophosphates. That’s why, they are banned with time
(Favari et al. 2002).
Pesticides can affect living organisms, in two ways. Firstly, they become the
source of sudden death of directly exposed organisms or secondly, these toxicants
accumulate in the living organisms or in sediments of aquatic environments and
cause death chronically afterwards. Usually the bio-degradation process of pesti-
cides and polychlorinated biphenyls is very slow as the residues in sediments below
water surface cannot degraded by UV light or microorganism activity. Fish species
can be exposed to these sediments through skin or gills contact or by direct
consumption (Walczak and Reichert 2016). In a study, Striped weaksh (Cynoscion
guatucupa) was used as a biomonitoring agent of environment. Nineteen pesticides
standards were used to detect the pesticides and isomers of endosulfan, chlordanes
and hexachlorocyclohexane were found in sh tissues and food contents of
C. guatucupa showing extreme bioaccumulation and biomagnication of these
chemicals at different trophic levels (Lanfranchi et al. 2006). Similarly, sulfotep,
demeton-O, dimethoate, disulfoton, fenitrothion and malathion pesticide residues
were also detected from coconut oil at higher concentrations. It was concluded that
pesticides were bioaccumulated in commercial coconut trees through the rough use
of agrochemicals in the elds (dos Anjos and de Andrade 2014). As most of the
pesticides are non-biodegradable in nature so, their residual effect cannot be elim-
inated easily. Even UV light is unable to degrade the pesticide residues in sediments.

8.4 Impact of Pesticide Residues on Biodiversity

Pesticides are regarded as one of main constituent of ‘Green Revolution’. Mainly,

the function of a pesticide is to help the users to avoid pest losses. In addition to
controlling pests, the declining biodiversity in nature is obvious now. Pesticide
residues are often persistent in nature, remain stable in environment and are causing
a serious threat to non-target and non-pest organisms. (Venter et al. 2006). Many of
these compounds are extremely toxic to exposed insects, birds, mammals, amphib-
ians and sh. During last few decades, 70% decline in insect biomass in Germany,
50% decline in farmland birds in Europe was recorded due to pesticide applications.
Removal of weed can modify the habitat type by discarding of vegetation and
eventually leading to insect population reduction. Elimination of some arable
weeds was caused by the usage of fungicides which allows farmers to stop ‘break
crops’ such as grass and roots (Storkey et al. 2012). Arial spraying was a major
problem prevailing in Canada related to biodiversity loss and 62% of species decline
318 S. Ali et al.

was associated directly or indirectly with pesticide usage. A study investigated that
average specie loss was 10% in common bird species from 1980 to 2006 but the
decline was recorded up-to 50% in common farmland bird species in 2006 in United
Kingdom leaving no option for recovery and suggesting the harmful effect of
pesticides in environment (Gibbs et al. 2009). On the same lines, the currently
used pesticides in Europe and Australia, are major reason for 42% regional diversity
losses of invertebrates in streams and rivers. Similarly, in Europe, 42% species
richness was reduced due to pesticide exposures even at environmentally safe
doses (Beketov et al. 2013). It is estimated that yearly 72 million birds are killed
due to pesticides applications in the United States (Fimrite 2011).
Collectively, 1211 species of birds was regarded as threatened species and among
these 86% are endangered due to demolition and deprivation of habitat because of
discriminating usage of pesticides and other synthetic compounds (Mitra et al.
2011). Pesticides can accumulate in the tissues of prey and can cause toxic effect
to top predators. Particular rodenticides are very toxic and can accumulate in the
body of rodents. These can cause secondary poisoning to predators like dogs, foxes,
non-target mammals and raptors by eating pesticide exposed prey (Brakes and Smith
2005). Herbicides damage the vegetation and can affect the life of common shrew,
wood mouse and badger due to the shortage of food and alteration in microclimate
(Hole et al. 2005).
Organochlorine belongs to the most important group of insecticide which is the
most persistent and stable compound in the environment and its application causes a
huge loss to biodiversity. According to a study by (Newton 1976), it was estimated
that the usage of compounds such as Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and dieldrin
from organochlorines group of insecticides resulted a heavy loss to many bird
species like sh eating birds and Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) in some
regions of Europe and Americas. It was concluded that applications of granular
formulation of carbofuran has an effectual impact on the populations of songbird
exposed to insecticide when they were breeding alongside the edge of contaminated
elds (Stinson et al. 1994). Carbofuran in liquid form was also reported for its lethal
effects on Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia), a bird species with was recalled as
endangered (Gervais et al. 2000). The negative impact of diazinon applied on the
grasslands showed maximum mortality in the population of Brant geese (Branta
bernicla) which used to harbour their nests at that place to lay eggs (Stinson et al.
1994).
The negative impact of pesticides on sh have been widely documented.
According to a study, the insecticidal residues of Hexachlorocyclohexane and
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane was found in four different species of sh in
freshwater in China. Residual scale of Hexachlorocyclohexane contents was found
comparatively higher in grass carp and chub while that of
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane was examined higher in snakehead species of sh
(Wu et al. 2013).
According to a research, the predator-avoidance behaviour of guppy sh
(Poecilia reticulata) in response to the effect of pentachlorophenol in the presence
of a predator largemouth bass (Micropterous salmoides). The ndings of this study
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 319

suggested that the groups of guppies treated with higher level of chemical exhibit
sluggish response and could not maintain an optimal ux of speed to get escaped
after the attack of predator (Brown et al. 2009).
There are approximately 6000 species of amphibians documented in literature to
date world widely. One-third of this amount is endangered due to various reasons
like overexploitation, introduction of predator species and habitat destruction by
using pesticides. The prominent factor in this context is the water pollution caused
by runoff and leaching of pesticide residues (Brühl et al. 2013). In addition to the
insecticides, herbicide like diclofop-methyl and fungicide like difenoconazole also
indicated toxic effects of these chemicals on albino rats. These compounds had
altered the enzymatic and metabolic activities of tested rats. These chemicals possess
higher potential to cause toxic effect to humans as well as environment
(Abd-Alrahman et al. 2014).
Cereal yield loss was widely documented and inspected that it was affected due to
one-half reduction in plants, one-third loss in insects and about one-fth decline in
bird species in the United Kingdom (Robinson 2016). Residues of
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, chlordane and Hexachlorobenzene was found in
blubber of franciscana dolphins in Brazil from 1994 to 2004 (Leonel et al. 2010). A
study was arranged from 1992 to 2006 determining the concentration of pesticides
(Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Hexachlorocyclohexane and Dieldrin) residues in
blubber of bycaught female common dolphins (Law et al. 2013).
Hazardous impact of pesticides residues to non-target organisms were
documented by several specialists. Yadav (2017) highlighted the risk of biodiversity
to the toxicants of pesticides. In this study, it was described that the physiological
activity of pesticides has a similarity between both pest and non-target species. For
example, Carbofuran, Chlorpyrifos and Terbufos are very efcient and well-known
pesticides to control the corn rootworm immatures present in the soil but these
insecticides impose extremely lethal effects to populations of earthworms.
Aerial application of some pesticides was responsible for total extinction of
arthropods in different crops such as cotton. Systemic insecticides caused secondary
poisoning in predator species like Chrysoperla carnea which fed on pesticide
exposed insects which are threatened by agrochemicals in farmland ecosystems
(Mansoor et al. 2015). Similarly, lethal and sublethal effects of some insecticides
were tested against a predatory bug Orius insidiosus. According to results of studies,
it was derived that insecticides such as abamectin, cartap, imidacloprid, and
ubendiamid was seemed to be safe and those pyriproxyfen and rynaxypyr were
characterized as non-injurious and pymetrozine was categorized as somewhat dam-
aging the bugs (Moscardini et al. 2013).
Pesticides exert very devastating effects to honey bees. Impact of imidacloprid,
diafenthiuron and ethofenprox was observed in response to metabolic changes in
larvae and adults of wild honey bees (Apis dorsata). Haemocytes of bees were badly
affected resulted in the loss of immunity against diseases and other abnormalities
such as agglutination, denucleation and cell shape distortion. It was concluded that
pesticide exposure was the key factor in the destruction of immune system in honey
bees (Perveen and Ahmad 2017).
320 S. Ali et al.

The impact of neonicotinoids was observed affecting the immunocompetence of

honey bees (Apis mellifera). Thiacloprid and imidacloprid reduced the number of
haemocytes, encapsulation response, and antimicrobial activity. Clothianidin was
responsible for carrying out these abnormalities at somehow large concentrations
(Brandt et al. 2016). Sublethal effects of clothianidin, imidacloprid and
thiamethoxam against the foraging behaviour of honey bees were also recorded.
Neonicotinoids were associated with multisensory disruptors and had a damaging
role counter to feeding activity of pollinators (Démares et al. 2018).
After green revolution, agrochemicals became an integral part of modern crop
production technologies to full the dietary demands of rapidly increasing
populations but in current scenario, their toxic and deadly effects to living organisms
demand restricted use of these agrochemicals. Organic farming is much important to
specie richness and abundance of living organisms. Though, more quickly degrad-
able chemicals are invented which exchange the persistent ones, but their residues
are still capable of putting an organism’s health at risk by contaminating food,
environment and water. Increment in food production in present and future point
of view, must oblige with production of good class of food and with less lethal
contaminants (Carvalho 2017). Data recorded from various countries showed that
due to pesticide toxic effect biodiversity is declining day by day.

8.5 Impact of Pesticides Residues on Pollinators and Bees

Pollinators facilitate the transfer of pollen between owers. Almost, 90% wild plants
are reliant on insect pollination (Ollerton 2017). One third of global food production
is materialized due to insect pollinators, mainly because of bees which have more
than 20,000 species worldwide. Honey bees add about US $200 billion to the world
economy each year through crop pollination (Eilers et al. 2011).
In 2016, the United Nations warned that 40% of invertebrate pollinator, partic-
ularly bees and butteries, are at risk to global extermination. During past few years,
decline of bee species and downfall of honeybee colonies, due to continuous
pesticides applications to agricultural crops, have worried the apiculturists and
ecologists About, 25–30% honey bee population decline in American and
European countries is due to extreme use of pesticides. More than half of native
bee species are in endangered in North American regions (Sanchez-Bayo and Goka
2014).
These benecial insects are exaggerated by sub-lethal effects of pesticides which
are often ignored. Due to repeated and long-term exposure to pesticides, physiology,
neurobiology, behavior and other mechanisms of survival of pollinator insects can
be changed. Pesticides residues may be carried back to hive and fed to the young
ones thus imposing an extra risk and pressure to bee populations which are on
continuous decline in agricultural lands (Connolly 2013).
Toxicity of pesticides may vary to honey bees. Most of the miticides, fungicides
and herbicides are nontoxic to the honey bee. The biological insecticide Bacillus
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 321

thuringenesis shows very low toxicity to bees. Different formulations of the same
pesticides vary signicantly in their toxicity to bees. Dust formulations are more
dangerous for bees than others because they can stick to their hairs. However,
granular formulations are less dangerous to bees. Residual characteristic of a pesti-
cide is an important factor in dening its safety for pollinators. An insecticide which
has low residual activity and degrades within few hours can be applied with less risk
when bees are not foraging actively on plants (Sponsler et al. 2019).
Bee killing, due to pesticide use, have been known since the late nineteenth
century but the discovery huge declines in wild and managed pollinators indicated
reduction in crop productivity and honey yields (Berenbaum 2016). The pyrethroid
insecticides can kill more bees when used in combination with fungicides and their
toxicity is increased by 10 to 100 times. In Europe, almost 9% bee and buttery
species are endangered to be lost due to pesticides. A decline of 37% of bee species
and 31% of buttery species is reported in European regions. Similarly, beekeepers
in the United States also testied 50% hive losses yearly with some grief losses up-to
100%. Since 2006, about 10 million bee hives have been reported to be lost, with a
value of about $200 per hive. These sufferings are magnied due to neonicotinoids
application at large scale (Whitehorn et al. 2012).
Unfortunately, mix of pesticides is a common practice among the farmers to save
time and labour. Many pesticides like pyrethroids, imidacloprid and clothianidin
produce a great reduction in foraging and navigation abilities of bees and other
pollinators (Schneider et al. 2012; Feltham et al. 2014). In addition to behavioral
degradation, colony collapse disorder in honeybees is also reported frequently,
worldwide. Several studies narrated that the declining of bee colonies is a conse-
quence of exposure to pesticides or their residues in cropping areas.
Organophosphate, Pyrethroid and systemic neonicotinoid insecticides like
thiamethoxam and imidacloprid are mainly responsible for bee declining in exposed
areas due to reduced colony initiation, lowered colony growth, and lesser reproduc-
tive outcome after exposure to certain pesticides (Fig. 8.4). Imidacloprid trace
dietary residues through nectar have no lethal effects, however, can cause 6–20%
reduction in the expected performance of honey bees. Overall, up-to 50% colony
collapse disorders are occurring due to pesticide applications (Baron et al. 2017).
Many neonicotinoids were present in plant nectar and pollen of insecticide treated
crop area and nearby wild owers also and therefore, taken into bee colony food-
storage which pose serious danger to the immatures (Alaux et al. 2010).
In addition to bee damages, pesticide residues have also been reported in honey
and bee-wax samples around the globe which is threatening for the end consumers
(Noori et al. 2012). Eventually, agricultural production and source of revenue of
small farmers will be greatly affected due to loss of benecial insects like pollinators
and specially honey bees. This challenge can be overcome by formulating the strict
rules and regulations for pesticides use (Connolly 2013). Due to repeatitive appli-
cation of pesticides, the physiology and other mechanisms of pollinaters become
modied or altered. So, it is need of an hour to protect the pollinaters and other lives
either by limiting the use of pesticides or by making strict rules and regulations about
its application.
322 S. Ali et al.

Fig. 8.4 Effect of pesticide

exposures on honeybees and
their life activities

Fig. 8.5 Application

various kinds of pesticides
for food production leading
to residual accumulation in
food

8.6 Pesticides Residues and Food Chain Contamination

Pesticide contamination is a worldwide food safety issue. The magnitude and effect
of pesticide exposures through food is of great concern for food consumers. Envi-
ronmental contaminants like pesticides possess potential to be accumulated in both
terrestrial and aquatic food chains (Fig. 8.5).
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 323

Many studies have reported pesticide buildups in soils, terrestrial and aquatic
frameworks, and their lethal consequences on human and non-human biota. Inno-
vations are utilized rst and their undesired impacts appear later on. Pesticides are
one of the best examples in this case (Clarkson 1995). Synthetic pesticides chemicals
were presented to improve crop yields by shielding crops from pests. Because of
crop yield security new pesticides products are utilized for higher crop production.
The Pesticide utilization remains a typical practice particularly in Tropical and South
nations (Carvalho 2017).
As the persistent synthetic chemicals have been eliminated and limited by
progressively biodegradable synthetic compounds, contamination by pesticide
deposits and late buildups still affect the natural human nourishment, for example,
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, hexachlorocyclohexane and lindane, are long-
lasting chemicals. Now a days, these pesticides are prohibited for farming use in
most nations. As an outcome, residues of these synthetic compounds cause contam-
ination to the environment by scattering in the ecosystem (Reeves et al. 2019).
Agriculture needs to additionally create better practices to secure general well-being,
which requires progressively safe utilization of pesticides through earlier testing,
cautious hazards, and additionally through training of farmers and clients, measures
for better insurance of biological systems, and great practices for the reasonable
improvement of agribusiness, sheries, and aquaculture (Green et al. 2016).
Pesticide chemicals enter into the natural food chains, and lastly are ingested by
people consuming such food and water. Due to pesticide resistance development,
pesticide companies persistently develop new synthetic compounds. In the European
Union, there are more than 800 synthetics are enlisted as pesticides. We know
slightly about the ecological effects of these synthetic compounds and their negative
impacts on living organisms (Köhler and Triebskorn 2013). As they are toxic and
deliberately mixed in the environment, their production, distribution, and use neces-
sitate purposeful and regular monitoring of their residues in food. The acceptable
daily intakes are being established and used by governments and international risk
managers, to set maximum residue limits for pesticides in food items to facilitate
safer food (FAO 2010).
Numerous instances of pesticide intoxication in farmers, workers, and their
families occurred during pesticide application. Pesticides application in agriculture
is derived with the assistance of a few systems, from the manual services by laborers
by walking to truck-and plane-based application methods. It is assumed that acci-
dental pesticide poisoning kills an estimated 0.35 million people every year, glob-
ally. Such, poisonings are strongly related to unnecessary exposures and
inappropriate use of toxic chemicals (Carvalho 2017). Dispersion of pesticide
residues in the environment and large killings of human and non-human biotas,
such as amphibians, bees, birds, sh and minor mammals were reported in the
literature (Köhler and Triebskorn 2013).
Throughout the years, extensive research was conducted, additionally, to know
the behavior of these synthetic compounds in nature to understand their
decomposing cycles and fate with respect to their lethality to biota. The
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane used to save crops was regularly noticed to be
324 S. Ali et al.

transported to the water bodies where it is quickly processed to

dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene and tend to be bio-accumulated in the oceanic
food-chains and returned to end consumers in the long run (Carvalho 2006).
The organochlorine pesticides, long before were revealed as steady products, stay
longer times in soils and silt, accumulating in non-human creatures with devastating
impacts at the population level. Ultimately, they move in food chains with adverse
effects on human health (Carvalho 2006; Köhler and Triebskorn 2013). Organo-
chlorine synthetic compounds were queried and replaced by less persistent synthetic
substances, like organophosphate, carbamate and pyrethroids based on research with
respect to their degradation rates in soil and aquatic situations (Carvalho 2006). For
instance, toxaphene is not used in cotton elds anymore in Nicaragua but years after
end of its applications, the deposits in agricultural soils is still a contaminant source
transported to marine environment with a huge danger to food farming in coastal
areas (Carvalho 2006).
Soils are serving as the fundamental source of constant organochlorines. Soil
erosion, surface runoff, and river bodies convey a large number of detrimental
organochlorines to the ecosystem and contaminating natural food chains. Pesticide
residues, conveyed to the ocean, pose higher risks to enormous marine biological
systems, for example, coral reefs and other biota in the deep sea (Jamieson et al.
2017). Poisonous remains of pesticides in water systems may eradicate marine
species, decrease biodiversity, and disturb the natural ecosystem functioning. Mas-
sive research in aquatic toxicology helped to comprehend pesticide bioaccumulation
mechanisms to set toxicity levels for certain representative species (crustacean, sh,
plants) and intricate strategies to control pesticide pollution under tolerated limits
(Carvalho 2017).
The pesticides residues in food, on ingestion interact with the human gastroin-
testinal microbiota consisting of certain bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa. These
pesticide residues cause disruption in the composition of microbiome, which could
have lethal effects on intestinal homeostasis and overall systemic immunity (FAO
2010). The consumption and ingesting contaminated food weaken the human
immunity. So, the food at MRL (maximum residual level) should be consumed
that will be tolerant by the human body.

8.7 Pesticide Resdues and Health Concerns

Exposure to agrochemicals is posing serious concerns to human health. The dermal

exposures account for almost 90% of the pesticide exposures (Ross et al. 2001).
Toxicities by pesticide exposure are expressed in a variety of ways, ranging from
mild symptoms, like slight skin irritation or allergic indications to severe symptoms,
like strong headache, dizziness, or nausea. Longer exposures can cause chronic
abnormalities in human ranging from cancer to other serious diseases (Fig. 8.6).
The most important ailments raised by pesticide exposures are discussed here in this
section.
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 325

Fig. 8.6 Exposure routs and effects of pesticide exposure on human health

8.7.1 Carcinogenic Effects of Pesticide Residues

Many kinds of cancer have been produced in human due to pesticide residues
exposures. Even, if a pregnant woman is exposed to the pesticide residues then
there is a possibility that her child may be sensitive towards the brain cancer,
leukemia, and Wilms’ tumor. Pesticides exposures from outside is mainly related
to the causes of blood cancer in children (Srivastava and Kesavachandran 2019). In
2010, a review found that 19 out of 32 pesticides were linked with at-least one type
of cancer, including brain, bladder, colon and rectal, leukaemia, lung, melanoma,
multiple myeloma, non-hodgkin lymphoma, and pancreatic cancer (Weichenthal
et al. 2010).
Carcinogenic effects are still underdiscussing and there is an urgent need of
research to explore the association of organochlorines and cancer, but the danger
cannot be underestimated (Calle et al. 2002; Witczak and Abdel-Gawad 2014). It
was documented that glyphosate was determined in endocrine disruptor
(Thongprakaisang et al. 2013). Data was analyzed from ten different Districts of
Spain to investigate the association of pesticide with cancer from occupational and
non-occupational papulations. It was observed that cancer rated were maximum in
areas belonging to intensive usage of agrochemicals compared to those of minimized
consumption of such carcinogenic compounds. The study strengthened and
supported the evidences of involvement of pesticides to threat of cancer (Parrón
et al. 2014). Organochlorine residues, in blood stream from adipose tissues, might be
mixed up with breast milk and injurious to infants (Mrema et al. 2013).
Several case-control studies analyzed rates of cancer among youngsters exposed
to pesticides and inated rates of all kinds of cancer were found higher in folks
326 S. Ali et al.

exposed to pesticides within the garden and on indoor plants and whose mothers had
been exposed during pregnanancy. An outstanding study exhibited that inated rates
of childhood cancer are linked with exposure to pesticides (Srivastava and
Kesavachandran 2019). In USA, a study expressed 19 and 28% excess prostate
cancer risk among the farmers and commercial pesticide applicators (Koutros et al.
2010). Certain studies, from Canada, Europe and the United States, investigating the
association between toxic chemical exposure and brain cancer also disclosed inated
cancer risks among the folks exposed to pesticides. Almost all organochlorines are
lipophilic in nature and their bioaccumulation is very high remaining in the adipose
tissues for decades (Mrema et al. 2013).
Six studies investigated the links between chemical exposure and carcinoma.
Most of these, supported the supposed association. A study of feminine greenhouse
employees in Kriti found that exposure to pesticides for quite 4 h daily for a
minimum of 10 years inated the chance of benign breast unwellness (Calle et al.
2002). In the same line, several studies evaluated the connection between chemical
exposure and urinary organ cancer, and they found positive associations. The link
was found not solely in directly exposed populations, however conjointly in young-
sters of exposed folks, and was most consistent once folks had prolonged exposure
(Xie et al. 2016). The relation between abdomen cancer and nitrates and some weed
killer chemicals indicated that the rate of abdomen cancer was found increased in
areas with high levels of weed killer contamination within the water (Sabarwal et al.
2018).
Four studies examined the association between carcinoma and chemical expo-
sure. Results of those studies are somewhat tough to interpret as solely two collected
data relating to smoking standing. In the end, pesticide associated elevated risk of
carcinoma among girls exposed to pesticides at work was found (Parrón et al. 2014).
Few studies were found on chemical exposure and gonad cancer. Gonad cancers are
considered as a health impact of interest and evaluated its association with exposure
to certain pesticides was found (Alavanja et al. 2004). During the evaluation of the
connection between carcinoma and chemical exposure of pesticide residues, and it
was found positive associations between pesticides exposures and this sort of cancer
(Bassil et al. 2007).

8.7.2 Neurological Effects of Pesticide Residues

Experimental evidences link the hazardous exposure to higher neurologic outcomes.

The residual effects of pesticide may result in each general and typical symptom.
Direct exposure, as an example, will cause typical indications like contraction of the
pupils, fuzzy vision, a supercilium headache, reddening and irritation in the eyes.
Symptoms of general poisoning are entirely because of the buildup of neurotrans-
mitter at the nerve ending. Under advanced poisoning, the target is pale with higher
sweating, and frothing from the mouth. Alternative symptoms embrace changes in
vital signs like muscle weakness, convulsions, disarray with or without coma. The
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 327

victim might be dead if treatment is not given timely. In-vitro and animal-based
studies showed that nanomolar concentrations of organochlorines such as
endusulfan and lindane were involved in the blockage of calcium channels resulting
in the deciency of calcium ions in pheochromocytoma cells leading to mental
disruptions (Heusinkveld et al. 2010).
Yokoyama (2007) highlighted Tokyo subway sarin poisoning cases along with
the pesticide users (tobacco farmers) in association with Green Tobacco Sickness in
Malaysia. It was determined that after 6–8 months exposure to pesticides leads to
neurobehavioral and neurophysiological abnormalities. Additionally, organophos-
phates and dithiocarbamate disrupt peripheral nerve conduction and some related
disorders (Yokoyama 2007). Similarly, mental health of Brazilian public was
assessed through a questionnaire and clinched that pesticides were found in blood
cholinesterase and found associated with mental disorders in all participated indi-
viduals (Buralli et al. 2019). In Mexico, farmers exposed to pesticides showed 25%
elevation in depression and depression–anxiety while 24% inhibited enzymatic
activity with generalized anxiety (Serrano-Medina et al. 2019).

8.7.3 Endocrine Disruptions and Pesticide Residues

Endocrine hormones play an imperative role in different body functioning particu-

larly in growth and reproductive function. There were signicant evidences of
involving of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its isomers like
Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene in disruption of endocrine glands (Turusov
et al. 2002). In general, about all classes of organochlorines were found to be
associated with abnormal functioning of endocrine with very small concentration
of residual contents (Lemaire et al. 2004). Organophosphates like malathion and
parathion were also found active in disrupting and malfunctioning of endocrine
glands (Gasnier et al. 2009).
Risk association between specic pesticide and incident polygenic disorder
ranged from 20 to 200%. Risks were larger once users of specic pesticides were
compared with applicators of United Nations agency who had never applied that
chemical. Synthetic pesticides can also extinguish cell structure and cell functioning.
Previous studies highlighted that at micromolar level of organochlorines like diel-
drin, cell propagation and cell capability was declined up to a considerable extent
(Slotkin and Seidler 2007). Another investigation revealed that heptachlor and
dieldrin are the causal agents of raising advance apoptosis in cell cultures producing
mitochondrial damage and oxidative stress (Culbreth et al. 2012).
328 S. Ali et al.

8.7.4 Effect of Pesticide Residues on Reproduction

and Fertility

Pesticide chemical exposures are also linked to birth imperfections, craniate death
and changed fetal growth. Figure 8.7 is explaining the mode of action and effects of
pesticide exposure on reproductive system on human (Bretveld et al. 2006). A weed
killer, a 50:50 mixtures of 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid and
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid has been related to dangerous health and hereditary
effects in Malaya and Vietnam. Additionally, it was found that descendants who
were exposed to pesticides had birth weight and biological process defects
(Srivastava and Kesavachandran 2019). A number of pesticides and a couple of
4-D compounds have been reported for impaired male fertility. Toxic chemical
exposures resulted in decreased male fertility, genetic variations and reduced variety
in spermatozoon, injuries to the germinal animal tissues and disturbed endocrine
performance (Srivastava and Kesavachandran 2019). Sabarwal et al. (2018) empha-
sized that the long-term exposure of pesticides are accountable as causal agents of
Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases in addition to various other reproductive and
respiratory disorders.

8.7.5 Pesticides Residues and Child Health

Children are very prone and susceptible of being affected by neurotoxins of pesti-
cides and exposure rates were very high. Scientists suggest that rapidly developing

Fig. 8.7 Pesticide actions and their effects on reproductive function of human
8 Environmental and Health Effects of Pesticide Residues 329

brain tissues and cells become most vulnerable. Nevertheless, the results of pesti-
cides were seen not as much linked with pre and postnatal exposure about neuro-
physiological effects. It was concluded from a study that parental exposure of
pesticides resulted in deprived mental performance level and this factor was
observed more in boys than in girls. It was also suggested that postnatal impact of
pesticides can adversely affect child’s neuropsychological behavior and parental
exposure was less associated with neurodevelopmental damages (González-Alzaga
et al. 2015). In 2011, a meta-analysis of 40 studies concluded that maternal pesticide
exposures before birth is positively associated with 48% elevated risk of leukaemia
and 53% increased risk of lymphoma in childhood. While, paternal exposures before
or after the birth is linked with 50–65% higher risk of brain cancer in children
(Vinson et al. 2011). Such ndings are discussed in many other studies also.

8.7.6 General Health Aspects and Pesticide Residues

It is growing belief that carcinogenic activity of pesticides is the main matter of

concern with public health. In addition to cancer, 4 non-cancer attributes such as
dermatologic, neurologic, reproductive, and genotoxic effects and their relationships
with pesticides were investigated by Sanborn et al. (2007). They concluded the
positive linkage between 4 above mentioned non-cancer human health issues with
pesticides. A comparative study was established to observe the effects of synthetic
pesticides in contrast to naturally occurring plant chemicals. The study demonstrated
that the toxicological effects of both synthetic and naturally occurring chemicals was
equally harmful in context to human cancer risks. It was also observed that with the
application of low doses the exposure rate of pesticides residues was insignicant
(Ames et al. 1990). The key signs of pesticides boozing can be distinguished into
syndromes like muscarinic syndrome; in which acetylcholine the exploitation, heart
disturbances and exocrine glands with raised bronchial secretions, sweating and
tearing disrupt the gastrointestinal tone. The conditions may cause diarrhea, nausea,
vomiting, bronchospasm, bradycardia and elicits urinary incontinence. Some studies
have reported accrued risks of eczema in the individuals exposed to pesticides
(Paudyal 2008).
As health is the most important thing to survive so, compromise in health can not
be afforded. Protective measures can help farm workers to avoid get exposed from
agrochemicals. Some preventive measures are such as goggles, mask, gloves,
shielding clothes and boots may reduce the chances of exposure. It was also reported
that lack of knowledge and skills about the application is the main source of
indiscriminating usage of agrochemicals and becoming the possible health hazard
foundations. The application of agrochemicals must be at suggested rate and use of
bio-pesticides instead of synthetic pesticides can lessen the public health issues
related to exposure of these agrochemicals (Elahi et al. 2019). For this purpose,
improved monitering programmes should be planed, prefer application of
330 S. Ali et al.

bio-pesticides rather than synthetic chemical pesticides, use of resistant varieties and
other alternative and preventive measures should be promoted.

8.8 Conclusion

Though, pesticide chemiclas were initiated to rescue human-life by increasing

agricultural productions and regualting harmful insects, weeds and diseases but
their hostile properties have created great concerns about paybacks related to their
uses. Above mentioned facts clearly highlights the negative costs of
undiscriminating use of pesticides. Some side-effects are appeared as increased
resistance in pest populations, reduced benecial organisms for example pollinators,
endangered soil microbial diversity, water and air contamination in natural ecosys-
tem. The persistency of pesticides has affected our ecosystem to a greater extent and
now pesticides have gone into countless food-chains. They are biomagnied into the
higher food trophic levels including humans and other mammals. Many human
illnesses, acute and chronic, have now become a big health concern because of
pesticides contaminated living resources.
Now, it is need of hour, we should focus on the proper and safer pesticide
applications to shield our environmental resources and prevent health hazards.
Alternate pest management approaches like integrated pest management, a combi-
nation of various controling tools such as, growing resistant genotype, cultural,
physical and mechanical pest control, must be deployed with rational pesticide use
to decrease the frequency and pesticide applications with least amounts. Moreover,
progressive cropping approaches including bio and nano-echnology can also sim-
plify the ways for developing pest resistant crop genotypes. Pesticides with low side-
effects must be explored and replaced the existing pesticdes with higher health and
environmental risks. Community awareness extension programs can be utilized and
promoted to teach and encourage the farmers to implement the advanced and
innovative integrated pest management approaches as key tool to decrease the
harmful effects of pesticides to our agro-ecosystem and natural environment.

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