I. BLOOD III.
RED BLOOD CELLS
(ERYTHROCYTES)
Definition: A connective tissue
composed of blood plasma (liquid Functions: Carry oxygen (via
extracellular matrix) and various hemoglobin) and carbon dioxide.
cells and cell fragments. Normal Values:
Functions: o Male: 4.20–6.00 x 10⁶/μL
1. Transportation: Nutrients, o Female: 3.80–5.20 x 10⁶/μL
gases, hormones, and waste Anatomy: Biconcave, anucleate,
products. ~6–8 μm in diameter.
2. Regulation: Maintains body Disorders:
temperature, pH, and fluid o Polycythemia: High RBC
balance. count.
3. Protection: Prevents blood o Anemia: Low RBC count.
loss through clotting and
fights infections.
IV. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
(LEUKOCYTES)
II. BLOOD COMPOSITION
Functions: Protect against foreign
1. Plasma (55%): antigens and microorganisms.
o Composed of water (90%) Normal Values: 3.6–10.6 x 10³/μL
and dissolved substances like Types:
nutrients, salts, gases, and 1. Granulocytes (contain
waste. cytoplasmic granules):
o Plasma Proteins: Neutrophils: First
Albumin: Regulates line of defense; most
osmotic pressure. numerous.
Clotting proteins: Eosinophils: Attack
Aid in blood clotting. parasites and cancer
Antibodies: Protect cells.
against antigens. Basophils: Release
2. Formed Elements (45%): histamine for allergic
o Red Blood Cells (RBCs): responses.
Transport oxygen and carbon 2. Agranulocytes (lack visible
dioxide. granules):
o White Blood Cells (WBCs): Monocytes: Migrate
Protect against infections. to infection sites; kill
o Platelets: Aid in blood pathogens.
clotting. Lymphocytes:
Produce antibodies to
fight invaders.
Disorders:
o Leukocytosis: High WBC
count.
o Leukopenia: Low WBC
count.
VIII. PERIPHERAL BLOOD
SMEAR
V. PLATELETS Examines RBCs, WBCs, and
(THROMBOCYTES) platelets for disease indicators.
Stain Used: Wright–Giemsa.
Functions: Aid in clot formation. Procedure:
Normal Values: 150–450 x 10³/μL 1. Fixative application.
Disorders: 2. Eosin Red staining.
o Thrombocytosis: High 3. Methylene Blue staining.
platelet count. 4. Buffer application.
o Thrombocytopenia: Low
platelet count.
IX. BLOOD GROUPS AND
TRANSFUSIONS
VI. BLOOD PRODUCTION AND
HEMOSTASIS Blood Typing: Determines blood
type using antibodies for
1. Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis: agglutination.
o Continuous process of blood ABO Blood Group:
cell production. o O: Universal donor.
o Occurs in red bone marrow o AB: Universal recipient.
from hemopoietic stem cells Rh Blood Group: Mixing Rh+ with
(HSCs). Rh– blood can cause reactions.
2. Hemostasis: Stoppage of blood Crossmatching: Ensures donor
flow. blood compatibility.
o Primary Hemostasis:
Platelet plug formation.
o Secondary Hemostasis:
Fibrin formation via X. COMMON BLOOD
coagulation cascade. DISORDERS
1. Iron Deficiency Anemia: Low
hemoglobin due to insufficient iron.
VII. PHLEBOTOMY 2. Leukemia: Cancer of the blood/bone
marrow with abnormal WBC
Technique for collecting blood using production.
a needle. 3. Thrombosis: Blood clots blocking
Needle Size: 21-gauge (adults). vessels.
Common Veins: 4. Hemophilia: Hereditary bleeding
1. Median Cubital Vein disorder lacking clotting factors.
2. Cephalic Vein
3. Basilic Vein
1. Cardiovascular System Heart Chambers
Overview 1. Atria (Receiving Chambers):
o Right Atrium
Definition: A closed system o Left Atrium
comprising the heart and blood 2. Ventricles (Discharging Chambers):
vessels. o Right Ventricle
o Heart: Pumps blood. o Left Ventricle
o Blood vessels: Circulate
blood throughout the body. Heart Valves
Function:
o Deliver oxygen and nutrients. Ensure one-directional blood flow;
o Remove carbon dioxide and anchored by chordae tendineae
waste. (“heart strings”).
Key Term: Cardiology – The study
of the heart and its diseases. 1. Atrioventricular (AV) Valves:
o Tricuspid Valve (Right)
o Bicuspid/Mitral Valve (Left)
2. Semilunar Valves:
2. Anatomy of the Heart o Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
o Aortic Semilunar Valve
Location
Lies in the mediastinum, resting on
the diaphragm. 3. Blood Circulation
Apex points toward the left hip.
Approximately the size of a fist. Pathway
Layers of the Heart 1. Deoxygenated blood enters through
the Vena Cava (Superior and
1. Pericardium (Protective Covering): Inferior).
o Visceral Pericardium: Inner 2. Blood flows into the Right Atrium.
layer. 3. Passes through the Tricuspid Valve
o Parietal Pericardium: Outer to the Right Ventricle.
layer. 4. Ejected through the Pulmonary
o Pericardial Fluid: Reduces Semilunar Valve into the
friction. Pulmonary Arteries to the lungs.
2. Heart Wall: 5. Gas exchange: Deoxygenated blood
o Epicardium: Outer layer; becomes oxygenated.
connective tissue. 6. Oxygenated blood enters the Left
o Myocardium: Middle layer; Atrium via Pulmonary Veins.
cardiac muscle. 7. Flows through the Bicuspid/Mitral
o Endocardium: Inner layer; Valve to the Left Ventricle.
endothelial tissue. 8. Pumps through the Aortic
o Interventricular Septum: Semilunar Valve into the Aorta.
Separates the ventricles.
9. Distributed via the Ascending and 2. Tunica Media: Middle layer;
Descending Aorta to body tissues. smooth muscle controlled by
sympathetic nervous system.
3. Tunica Externa (Adventitia): Outer
layer; elastic and fibrous connective
tissue.
4. Conduction System of the
Heart
Ensures coordinated contraction of
heart chambers.
6. Vital Signs
Arterial Pulse
Nodal System Components:
Definition: Pressure wave of blood.
1. Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Natural
Normal Rate: 60-100 bpm.
pacemaker; initiates impulses (right
Palpated at pressure points (e.g.,
atrium).
wrist, neck).
2. Atrioventricular (AV) Node:
Delays impulse; located at the
junction of atria and ventricles. Blood Pressure
3. Atrioventricular Bundle (Bundle
Definition: Force of blood against
of His).
4. Bundle Branches (Right and Left). artery walls.
o Systolic Pressure: Peak
5. Purkinje Fibers: Spread impulse
within ventricles. during ventricular
contraction.
o Diastolic Pressure:
Relaxation phase.
Measured using a
5. Blood Vessels sphygmomanometer.
Types of Blood Vessels
1. Arteries: Carry blood away from the 7. Homeostatic Imbalances
heart.
2. Arterioles: Smaller arteries entering
tissues. Common Disorders
3. Capillaries: Site of exchange
between blood and tissues. 1. Hypertension: High blood pressure
4. Venules: Small veins leaving tissues. (>140/90 mmHg).
5. Veins: Carry blood back to the heart. 2. Atherosclerosis: Thickened arterial
walls due to plaque buildup.
3. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD):
Structure Impaired blood flow to the heart.
4. Angina: Chest pain due to reduced
1. Tunica Interna (Intima): Inner
oxygen supply.
layer; endothelium.
5. Myocardial Infarction: Heart
attack.
6. Arrhythmias: Irregular heart
rhythm.
7. Congestive Heart Failure (CHF):
Decreased heart pumping efficiency.
8. Rheumatic Heart Disease: Valve
damage caused by Streptococcus
pyogenes infection.
