UNIT FIVE
Operational Amplifiers and Oscillations
What is an Operational Amplifier?
The electronic circuit or device which amplifies the signal is
known as Amplifier.
An operational amplifier (op amp) is an analog circuit block that
takes a differential voltage in put and produces a single ended
voltage out put.
The op amp is one of the basic building blocks of linear design.
it consists of two in put terminals, one of which inverts the phase of
the signal, the other preserves the phase, and an out put terminal.
The standard symbol for the op amp is given in figure below,
This ignores the power supply terminals, which are obviously
required for operation.
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The name “op amp” is the standard
abbreviation for operational
amplifier. This name comes from
the early days of amplifier design,
when the op amp was used in
analog computers.
Amplifiers are two-port networks
in which the output voltage or
current is directly proportional to
either input voltage or current.
Op Amp, or Operational Amplifier
a complex device that may be
modeled as a voltage controlled
voltage source with high gain, high
input impedance and low out put
impedance.
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An Amplifier is a device which enhances or increases the
magnitude level of its input.
An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is an integrated circuit and is
widely used in computers, as video and audio amplifiers in
communication electronics.
Because of their multi-purpose.
OP-Amps are used in all branches of electronics, both digital and
linear circuits.
It has two input terminals, the inverting (-) input and the non
inverting (+) input, and one output terminal.
Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive
and the other negative, as shown in figure below
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Figure 1:Op-amp symbols.
An amplifier is a device that
accepts a varying input signal
and produces a similar output
signal with a larger amplitude.
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Most Op Amps behave like voltage amplifiers. They take an input
voltage and out put a scaled version
The name operational amplifier” comes from the fact used to
perform mathematical operations
such as integration and
differentiation.
Any circuit that generates an alternative voltage is called an
oscillator.
Oscillator – a circuit that produces a periodic output signal
without an input signal.
Op Amps are DC amplifiers with a very large gain, high input
impedance and low output resistance
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Open loop Amplifiers
The open-loop gain of an electronic amplifier is the gain obtained
when no overall feed back is used in the circuit.
The open-loop gain of many electronic amplifiers is exceedingly
high (by design) an ideal operational amplifier (op-amp) has
infinite open loop gain.
open loop indicates that no connection either direct or via another
network exists between input and output terminals.
Output signal is not fed back in any form as part of input signal.
When connected in open loop configuration, the op-amp simply
function as high-gain amplifier.
There are three open loop op amp configuration:
1) Differential amplifier
2) Inverting amplifier
3) Non inverting amplifier
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These configuration are classed according to number of in puts
used and the terminal to which input as applied when a single
input is used.
The OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input
signals, configuration is called the differential amplifier.
Because open loop gain of op amp is very high, only the smaller
signals (on order of micro volt or less) having very low frequency
may be amplified accurately with out distortion.
Open loop voltage gain of op amp is not constant and varies with
change in temperature and power supply.
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The Ideal Op Amp
Ideally, op-amps have characteristics (used in circuit analysis)
Infinite voltage gain.
Basic op-amp properties
Infinite open-loop voltage gain
Infinite input impedance (does not load the driving sources).
Zero out put impedance (drive any load).
Infinite bandwidth (flat magnitude response, zero phase shift).
Zero input off set voltage
Zero noise contribution.
The out put offset is the output voltage of an amplifier when both in
puts are grounded.
The ideal op-amp has zero output offset, but real op-amps have
some a mount of output offset voltage
The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis of
op-amp circuits.
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The input voltage, Vin, appears between the two input terminals, and
the output voltage is , indicated by the internal voltage source
symbol.
An op amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics :
1. Infinite open-loop gain,
2. Infinite input resistance,
3. Zero out put resistance,
No current flows into the in put terminals of the device.
The key electronic circuit in an OP-Amp is the differential
amplifier.
A differential amplifier (DA) can accept two input signals and
amplifies the difference between these two input signals.
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The Ideal Op Amp is a special case of ideal differential amplifier
with infinite gain.
Basic op-amp properties
Infinite open-loop voltage gain
Infinite input impedance
Zero output impedance
Zero noise contribution
Zero DC output offset
Infinite bandwidth
Differential inputs that stick together. The ideal op-amp acts as a
perfect internal voltage source with no internal resistance
This internal resistance is in series with the load, reducing the
out put voltage available to the load
Real op-amps have output-impedance in the 100-20 Ω range.
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Ideal Op-Amp
Most bioelectric signals are small and require amplifications Op-amp
equivalent circuit: Differential inputs that stick together. The ideal op-
amp acts as a perfect internal voltage source with no internal
resistance This internal resistance is in series with the load, reducing
the out put voltage available to the load
Real op-amps have output-impedance in the 100-20 Ω range
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Ideal Amplifier Approximation
properties of an ideal amplifier, a good approximation are
obeyed by an operational amplifier
1. large forward transfer function,
2. virtually nonexistent reverse transfer function,
3. large input impedance, Zin -> ∞ (any signal can be
supplied to the op-amp without loading problems),
4. small output impedance, Zout ->0 (the power supplied
by the op-amp is not limited),
5. wide bandwidth, and 6. infinite gain, A ->∞ .
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If these approximations are followed two rules can be used to
analyze op-amp circuits:
Rule 1: The input currents Ii and I are zero, Ii= I= 0 (Zin =∞ ).
Rule 2: The voltages Vi and V are equal, Vi= V (A =∞ ).
To apply these rules requires negative feedback.
Feedback is used to control and stabilize the amplifier gain. The
open-loop gain is too large to be useful since noise will causes the
circuit to clip. Stabilization is obtained by feeding the output back
into the input (closed negative feedback loop).
In this way the closed-loop gain does not depend on the amplifier
characteristics.
An ideal amplifier’s output depends only on the input voltage
difference and not on the source and load resistances.
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Ideal Op Amp analysis utilizes the following
assumptions: –
Infinite common-mode rejection,
power supply rejection,
open -loop bandwidth,
output voltage range,
output current capability and slew rate – Zero output
resistance,
input-bias currents and offset current, input-offset voltage.
Two assumptions are used to facilitate analysis of circuits
containing ideal op amps – Input voltage difference is
zero: Vid = 0 – Amplifier input currents are zero: i+ = 0
and i- = 0
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Ideal Op Amp
A =∞
Rid =∞
Ro = 0
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Non-inverting configuration
In the non-inverting configuration, two or more voltages to be
added are applied at the non-inverting input terminal of op-amp.
The op-amp inverting configuration, like the non-inverting.
configuration, requires only one operational amplifier and two
resistors.
The inverting configuration creates a negative gain, meaning that
one circuit can both amplify a signal and change its polarity from
positive to negative or negative to positive.
It consists of an impedance connected between the input source
and the OPAMP’s inverting terminal; the second impedance is
connected from the inverting terminal to the output of the
OPAMP
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provides a negative feedback (connecting the OPAMP’s output
and the negative input); this is the main reason for the excellent
properties of this configuration.
The simplified linear macro model of the OPAMP is used for
the representation of the inverting amplifier, and the equivalent
circuit.
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Application in op-amp
• There are 2 types of application in op-amp – Linear application –
Non-linear application
• Linear application is where the op-amp operate in linear region: –
Assumptions in linear application:
• Input current, Ii = 0
• Input voltage: V+ =V-
• Feedback at the inverting input
An inverting amplifier can be used as a trans resistance amplifier
which is also called a trans-impedance amplifier.
This amplifier works as a current to voltage converter, used in
less power-based applications.
Inverting amplifier is used at the output stage when any system is
designed with different types of sensors.
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An inverting amplifier takes the input through its inverting
terminal through a resistor R1R1, and produces its amplified
version as the output. This amplifier not only amplifies the input
but also inverts it (changes its sign).
inverting amplifier can be used as a trans resistance amplifier
which is also called a trans-impedance amplifier. This amplifier
works as a current to voltage converter, used in less power-based
applications.
Inverting amplifier is used at the output stage when any system is
designed with different types of sensors.
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