Geography Class 01

Geography(6:15 PM)
• Cosmology includes Galaxies, stars, Sun, and Earth.
• Physical Geography includes Geomorphology, Climatology, Oceanography, and
Biogeography.
• Economic geography includes Resouces, Agriculture, Industries, and
Transportation.
• Social or Human Geography includes the Population, Settlement, and Culture of
people.
• An ecological aspect includes Ecosystems, Biomes, Types of vegetation,
biodiversity, Pollution, etc.
Syllabus of geography(6:27 PM)
• Prelims:
• Indian and World Geography - Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and
the World.
• Mains:
• Salient features of the world’s physical geography.
• Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the
Indian sub-continent); factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary,
and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India).
• Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, tsunamis, Volcanic
activity, cyclones, etc., geographical features and their location changes in critical
geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and flora and fauna
and the effects of such changes.
PYQ sample discussion (6:47 PM)
Sources and reference for geography (7:09 PM)
• Have limited sources.
• Primary NCERTs:
• Fundamental of Physical geography.
• India: Physical environment.
• Fundamental of Human geography.
• India people and economy.
• GC-Leong.
• Total geography of 10th class ICSE.
• Class notes(main source).
• VisionIAS value-added material.
Mapping (7:20 PM)
• Locations to be remembered:
• Static location.
• Current affair-based location.
• Atlas.
Earth, solar system, and Universe (7:51 PM)
• Geography is made up of two words Geo+Graphy which means the description of
the earth.
• The term geography was coined by Eratosthenes a greek philosopher called the
father of geography.
 • Geography is the study of places and relationships between people and their
environment.
• The shape of the earth:
• The earth is Flattened at the pole and bulged at the equator.
• It is due to the continuous rotation of the earth.
• This shape is called a geoid or oblate spheroid.
• Neuton proposed this for the 1st time and said the same applies to other planets
too.
The topic for the next class: The Shape of the Earth, longitude, and latitude.
Geography Class 02
The shape of the earth (5:10 PM)
• The earth is Flattened at the pole and bulged at the equator.
• It is due to the continuous rotation of the earth.
• This shape is called a geoid or oblate spheroid.
• Evidence of the geoid shape of the earth:
• Circumnavigation of the earth- Magellan completed the first circumnavigation in
1519.
• Circular horizon- The horizon appears circular when viewed from a high vantage
point and the horizon widens with the increase in altitude.
• Ship's visibility- A ship appears to be rising from water when viewed from the coast
or a ship(Bedford level experiment also proves the spherical shape).
• Sunrise and sunset- Different timing of sunrise and sunset at different locations.
• Eclipse- The earth's circular shadow falls on the moon during a lunar eclipse.
• Other planetary bodies- Since all other planetary bodies are spherical, the earth
should also be spherical since the earth is also a part of the same solar system.
Latitude and longitude (5:46 PM)
• Latitude:
• Diagramatic representation of latitude:

•
• The angular distance of the point on the earth’s surface measured in degrees from
the centre of the earth towards north & south of the equator is called the Latitude.
• Parallels of latitudes are the imaginary lines connecting places with the same
latitude.
• The largest parallel of latitude is zero degrees and is called the equator.
• The parallels of latitudes are always parallel to the equator and one another.
 • The length of the latitude decreases from the equator towards the north pole and
south pole, however, the distance between them remains the same.
• The distance between one degree of latitude is equal to 111 km anywhere on the
earth.
• Longitude:
• Diagramatic representation of longitude:

•
• Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the prime meridian.
• Meridians are the semi circles running from pole to pole connecting places with the
same longitude.
• The meridians of longitudes are not parallel to each other.
• The distance between them is maximum at the equator and decreases towards the
pole.
• The distance between two meridians separated by 1 degree is equal to 111 km at
the equator and it gradually decreases and is zero at the pole.
• The length of the meridian always remains the same.
• Great circle:
• It is the longest possible circumference that can be drawn on earth.
• A great circle divides the earth into 2 equal halves.
• An infinite number of great circles can be drawn on the surface of the earth.
• A Great circle is used to find the shortest distance between two locations on the
surface of the earth.
The rotation of the earth (7:02 PM)
• The spinning motion of the earth on its axis is called the rotation of the earth.
• The axis of rotation is the imaginary line passing through poles and the centre of
the earth around which the earth rotates.
• The orbital plane is the plane in which the earth orbits around the sun.
• The angle between the axis of rotation and the orbital plane is 66.5 degrees.
• The angle of tilt of the axis of rotation from its normal position is equal to 23.5
degrees.
• The direction of rotation is counterclockwise or West to East.
• Period of rotation:
 • Solar Day: The time taken by the earth to rotate on its axis so that the sun appears
in the same position in the sky is called Solar day.
• The solar day is equal to 24 hours.
• Sidereal day: The time is taken for the earth to rotate on its axis so that a distant
star appears in the same position in the sky is called a Sidereal day.
• The sidereal day is equal to 23 hrs 56min.
• Diagramatic representation of solar day Vs sidereal day:

•
• Speed of earth’s rotation:
• The linear speed of rotation of the earth is the maximum at the equator and
reduces towards the poles.
• Therefore rockets are launched closer to the equator so that it provides an initial
truth during the launching.
Revolution of the earth (7:43 PM)
• Revolution is the movement of the earth around the sun.
• Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
• The period of the revolution of the earth is 365 days and 6 hrs.
• The average speed of the revolution of the earth is nearly 1 lakh Km/hr.
• The direction of the revolution is in the anti-clockwise direction.
• Perihelion is the position of the earth nearest to the sun (On 3rd January).
• Aphelion is the position of the earth farthest from the sun (On July 4th).
Seasons (7:56 PM)
• Geographical there are 4 seasons- Summer, Winter, Autumn, and Spring.
The topic for the next class: The occurrence of Seasons on earth.
Geography Class 03
Last class revision (5:12 PM)
• Latitude and longitude.
• Rotation and revolution.
Seasons (5:25 PM)
• Tabular presentation for various cases of earth's movement:
•
The angle of Length of the
Conditions
incidence(intensity). day
90 degrees at the
Case 1:
equator(higher
No rotation.
intensity). 24 hrs of day
No tilt.
0 degrees at the or night.
No
poles(lower
revolution.
intensity).
Case 2: 90 degrees at the 12 hrs of the
Rotation is equator(higher day and 12
present. intensity). hrs of the
No tilt. 0 degrees at the night across
No poles(lower all the
revolution. intensity). latitudes.
Equator- 12
hrs of day
and night.
Case 3: 90 degrees at 23.5
The length of
Rotation is degrees north.
the day
present. The intensity is
increases
Tilt(northern higher in the northern
toward the
hemisphere hemisphere than in
northern
towards the case 2.
hemisphere
sun) is In the southern
and
present. hemisphere lower
decreases
No intensity than in case
toward the
revolution. 2.
southern
hemisphere.

Equator- 12
90 Degrees at 23.5 hrs of day
degrees south. and night.
Case 4: The southern length of the
Rotation, tilt, hemisphere has a day increases
and higher intensity than in the
revolution case 2. southern
all are The northern hemisphere
present. hemisphere has a and
lower intensity than decreases in
case 2. the northern
hemisphere.
• Seasons are periods of the year that are characterized by specific climatic
conditions.
• There are 4 seasons- Summer, Autumn, Winter, and Spring.
• Seasons are observed on the earth because the earth revolves around the sun with
a tilted axis of rotation whose angle of inclination is always constant.
 • This causes variations in the intensity of sunlight and length of day throughout the
year resulting in seasons
• The regions receiving higher intensity of sunlight for a longer duration experience
higher temperatures resulting in summer.
• Those regions receiving lower intensity of sunlight for shorter duration experience
winters.
• Diagramatic representation of earth and sun relation:

•
• Summer solstice:
• It occurs on 21st June.
• The sun's rays fall vertically at the tropics of cancer(23.5 degrees N).
• The intensity of sunlight has increased in the northern hemisphere.
• The length of the day increases from the equator to the north pole.
• Winter solstice:
• It occurs on 22 December.
• Sun rays fall vertically at the tropic of Capricorn(23.5 degrees S).
• The location of the southern hemisphere are receiving higher intensity of sunlight
and those in the northern hemisphere lower intensity of sunlight.
• The length of the day decreases from the equator to the north pole.
• Equinox:
• It happens on the 21st of March(Spring Equinox) and the 23rd of
September(Autumn Equinox).
• The sun's rays are falling vertically at the equator.
• The length of the day is 12 hrs along all the latitudes.
Video related to seasons (6:31 PM).
The extent of day and night (6:49 PM)
• Position of the overhead sun:
• It is a position where 90-degree sunlight falls.
 • The position of the overhead sun is always between 23.5 Degrees N and 23.5
Degrees S.
• Every location between the Tropic of cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn will
receive, at least 2 days of 90-degree sunlight and those which are located exactly in
the tropics receive 90-degree sunlight only once.
• Polar day:
• It is experienced in regions with 24 hours of daylight.
• The maximum extent of a polar day is 66.5 degrees N and S.
• Polar night:
• It is when there are 24 hours of darkness.
Time Zones (7:20 PM)
• A time zone is a region of the globe that observes uniform standard time.
• The entire globe is divided into 24 time zones with the Greenwich meridian as a
standard reference.
• The time along a particular longitude always remains the same.
• From the Greenwich meridian towards the east the time increases(EGA- east gain
addition), and towards the west time decreases(WLS-west lose subtraction).
• With a change of every 15 degrees time changes by 60 mins, therefore with a
change of every 1 degree, time changes by 4 mins.
• India follows 82.5 degrees east as Indian standard time.
• Multipule time zones:
• India followed 3 time zones based on Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, along with
local Chaibagan time in Assam.
• In 1906 India adopted 82.5 degrees east as Indian standard time(IST) and the local
time zones of Bombay and Calcutta were continued till 1955.
• The longitudinal extent of nearly 30 degrees between East and West has resulted in
a Mismatch of the Sun cycle and human activities.
• Issues in adopting multiple time zones in India:
• Economic integration- banking, stock exchange, etc.
• Administrative convince- offices, schools, etc.
• Issues in synchronization of transportation- Railways.
• Communication gap impacting security.
The topic of the next class: International Date Line and Origin of the Universe.
Geography Class 04
Last class revision (5:13 PM)
International date line (5:36 PM)
• Diagramatic representation of international date line:
 •
• It is an imaginary line of demarcation on the earth running from the North to South
poles and demarcating the change of calendar day.
• It was agreed in 1884.
• IDL is not a straight line and follows a zig-zag path.
• If a person crosses IDL from West to East, she/he gains a day.
• If a person crosses IDL from East to West, she/he loses a day.
Daylight saving time (5:54 PM)
• It is the practice of shifting time by 1 hour ahead by forwarding the time in the clock
just before the beginning of summer.
• It is practised in those regions where the length of the day varies between summers
and winters.
Universe (6:05 PM)
• The limitless expanse of space surrounding us consists of the solar systems, stars,
galaxies, etc.
• The Universe has around 100-400 billion galaxies with each galaxy having 100-400
billion stars.
• Origin of the Universe:
• Steady-state Theory:
• It was proposed by Fred Hoyle.
• The overall size and mass of the universe remain constant at any point in time.
• The universe has no beginning and no end and is always expanding, creating new
stars and galaxies at the rate old ones become unobservable.
• Pulsating Theory:
• Proposed by Arthur Eddington.
• As per the theory Universe expands and contracts alternatively.
• Big Bang Theory:
• It was proposed by Gorgeous Lemaitry in 1927.
 • According to the theory, 13.7 billion years ago, the Universe was an extremely
compact, dense, and hot singularity.
• There was no matter, no space, and no time.
• 13.7 billion years ago, a cosmic explosion happened called as Bing bang.
• From that time the universe started to expand and is continuing today.
• The expansion subsequently created the forces of Physics including Gravity, the
formation of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, gaseous compounds, stars,
and galaxies.
• Hubble, in 1929, proposed that all observable stars and galaxies are moving away
from earth.
• He discovered this through the phenomenon of the Red Shift.
• The rate of expansion of the universe is called Hubble's constant.
The life cycle of a star (7:16 PM)
• Diagrammatic representation of the life cycle of a star:

•
• A nebula is a huge cloud of gas and dust mainly consisting of hydrogen.
• The gas is pulled together by gravity and the entire nebula starts to spin.
• The spinning gaseous mass reaches a high temperature resulting in the formation
of a hot core called ProtoStar.
• When the temperature of the core crosses 15 million degrees, a nuclear fusion
reaction begins at the core resulting in the birth of a star.
• When the supply of hydrogen runs out the core contracts and simultaneously the
outer shell expands due to the fusion reaction resulting in Red Giant.
• If it is a low-mass star with less than 10 times the mass of the sun the core collapses
leading to the formation of a planetary nebula
• If it is an average star with less than 10 times the mass of the Sun, the core of the
Red giant collapses and leads to the formation of a Planetary nebula which is a
spherical shell of gas.
• After some time, only the core is left inside the shell, which is called a White dwarf.
• A white dwarf becomes a Black dwarf over some time.
• If the mass of a star is more than 10 times the Sun, the star results in Red
Supergiant.
• A Red Supergiant results in a supernova explosion due to the explosion of the iron
core
 • If the remnant core after the Supernova explosion is between 1.4 to 3 times the
mass of the sun, it leads to the formation of a neutron star, which is a very heavy
dense body consisting of closely packed neutrons.
• If the remnant core after the supernova explosion is more than 3 times the mass of
the sun, the core collapses under gravity leading to the formation of a black hole.
• A black hole is a body with infinite gravity and density that even light can not
escape from it.
The topic of the next class: Universe to continue.
Geography Class 05
Last class revision (5:17 PM)
Star and Galaxies (5:31 PM)
• Galaxy:
• It is a sprawling system of gas, dust, and stars held together by gravity.
• All galaxies contain a supermassive black hole at the centre of the galaxy.
• Types of galaxies:
• Spiral galaxy: It is a spiral galaxy with spiral arms.
• It has a relatively flat disc appearance with a central bulge.
• Elliptical galaxy: It is a spherical or oval-shaped galaxy with a fairly uniform
distribution of stars.
• Irregular galaxy: It has no definite shape or structure.
• Milkyway galaxy: It is a spiral galaxy with Sagittarius A black hole at its centre.
• Sun is located in Orion's arm of the Milkyway galaxy.
• Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the sun.
• Sirius is the brightest star in the sky.
• Andromeda is the nearest galaxy to Milkyway.
• Twinkling of Stars: Due to the turbulence in the atmosphere, the light coming from
stars is more deflected as it comes from a point source, However, planets do not
twinkle.
• Light year: It is the distance travelled by light in one year at the speed of 3X10^8
m/s.
• Constellation: It is a group of stars forming a recognizable pattern.
• For Example The Big Dipper (Saptarshi Mandal)
• Pole star: It is the star that is aligned with the axis of rotation of the earth because
of which it appears stationary throughout the night.
• In the northern hemisphere, it is Polaris, and south hemisphere it is Sigma Octantis.
• Pole start is always fixed in the sky however angle at which the pole star is visible
varies with latitude.
Origin of the Solar system (6:23 PM)
• There are 2 types of theories to explain the origin of the solar system, Evolutionary
and catastrophic theories.
• Evolutionary Theories: According to evolutionary theories the material of the solar
system condensed into the sun and other planets simultaneously as isolated
masses of matter from a single cloud of gas.
• Therefore both the Sun and the planets are of the same age.
• Gaseous hypothesis: It was proposed by Emmauinal Kant.
• There were cold and hard particles supernaturally created forming a gaseous
cloud.
 • The particles collide with each other due to gravitational attraction releasing heat.
• This gradually resulted in the formation of a rotating structure.
• Rings of matter were thrown off from this structure which cooled down to form
planets.
• Nebular Hypothesis: It was proposed by Laplace.
• It is the most widely excepted theory.
• There was a pre-existing nebula in a rotating state.
• With gradual cooling, the nebula shrank which led to more spinning and resulted in
the formation of a flat disk.
• The rings of matter got separated from this disk due to centrifugal force.
• The matter within the rings condensed to form planets.
• Catastrophic Theories: These theories are also called Binary theories since they
assume the existence of a 2-star system.
• Planetesimal Hypothesis: It was proposed by Chamberlin and Moulton.
• The proto-star is accompanied by a companion star.
• This companion star came near the protostar the gravitational pull led to the
ejection of matter called planetesimals.
• These planetesimals merged to form planets.
• Tidal Hypothesis: It was proposed by Genes and Jeffry.
• A very big intruding star came near to the sun and the gravitational pull led to the
ejection of tides of material that condensed to form planets.
The topic of the next class: Solar system and earth.
Geography Class 06
Last class revision(5.15 PM).
Solar system(5.23 PM):
• Sun:
• It is a dwarf star.
• The age of the sun is 4.8 billion years.
• Layers of the Sun:
• Core:
• The innermost layer of the Sun's interior where nuclear fusion reaction happens.
• It has the highest temperature which is 15 million degrees C.
• Radiative Zone:
• The energy from the Core is transferred outward by radiation through this zone.
• Convective Zone:
• The energy is transferred through Convection currents to the surface.
• Photosphere:
• It is the 1st layer of the Sun's atmosphere.
• Visible light originates from this zone.
• It is the brightest layer of the Sun.
• Its temperature is 5500 degrees C.
• Chromosphere:
• It is the intermediate zone of the sun's atmosphere and emits colorful light.
• Corona:
• It is the uppermost layer and is visible only during a total solar eclipse.
• It is hotter than the photosphere with a temperature of 2 million degrees Celsius.
• Solar Flare:
 • It is the sudden burst of energy with a storm of hot atoms released into space.
• Sunspots:
• These are the dark spots in the Photosphere.
• They experience reduced temperature but strong magnetic activity.
• The Number of sunspots increases or decreases over some time.
• Solar maxima are when the sunspots are highest and solar minima are when they
are lowest.
• The period between solar maxima or minima is 1 sunspot cycle(11 years).
Planets of our solar system(6.06 PM):
• They are of two types, Terrestrial planets (Earth-like) and Jovian Planets (Jupiter-
like).
• Differences between the Terrestrial and Jovian Planets:
•
Terrestrial
Jovian Planets
Planets

Earth-like Jupiter-like

High density Low density

Rocky Gaseous

Smaller in
Large in size
size
High solar Lower solar
winds winds
High Low
temperature temperature
Thin/no Thick
atmosphere atmosphere
Less no. of Large no. of
satellites satellites

No rings Rings

Speed of Very high

rotation speed of
lower rotation
• Mercury:
• It is the smallest planet.
• It is nearest to the sun.
• It has no atmosphere.
• Venus:
• It is called Earth's twin.
• It is the hottest planet (very high greenhouse effect due to the presence of Co2)
• Earth:
• It is called a Blue planet.
• It is the densest planet of all.
 • Mars:
• It is called a Red planet.
• the possibility of life due to its presence in Goldilocks Zones(habitable regions in
the universe).
• Jupiter:
• The largest planet in the solar system (11 times bigger than the earth).
• The giant red spot (a spinning cyclonic storm that appeared on Jupiter 400 years
ago) is the most characteristic thing about Jupiter.
• Saturn:
• It has the most prominent and spectacular ring system.
• It is the lightest planet in the solar system.
• Uranus:
• Its axis of inclination is tilted by 98 degrees.
• It rotates from East to West(Retrograde rotation).
• Neptune:
• It is the farthest planet.
• It cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Satellites(7.06 PM):
• It is a body that revolves or orbits around another planet (and not around the sun).
• Mercury and Venus have no satellites.
• Earth has one satellite - Moon.
• Mars has two satellites- Phobos and Deimos.
• Jupiter has 79 satellites, four of which are important (discovered by
Galileo/ Galilean satellites) Io, Europa, Ganymede(the largest satellite), and
Callisto.
• Saturn has the maximum number of satellites i.e. 82.
• One of the important satellites is Titan, which is the second-largest satellite in the
solar system.
• Titan is one of the most probable regions in the solar system where there is the
possibility of life's existence.
• Satellites of the Uranus are named after the characters of the play written by
Shakespeare, for example, Miranda, and Oberon.
• Triton, a satellite of Neptune, rotates in the opposite direction of Neptune.
• Moon:
• The period of rotation of the moon is equal to the period of revolution of the moon
around the earth, which is equal to 27.3 days.
• Therefore the other half of the moon is not visible from the earth.
Dwarf planet(7.36 PM):
• In 2006, the International Astronomical Union set the conditions for a body to be
declared a Planet:
• It should have an independent orbit around the Sun.
• It should have enough mass to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium i.e. spherical shape.
• It should have a cleared neighborhood.
• Officially there are 5 dwarf planets, there are the bodies that fulfill 1st 2 conditions
but not the 3rd one, for example, Pluto, Eris, Ceres, Haumea, and Makemake.
Other important bodies in solar system(7.51 PM):
• Asteroid belt:
 • It is a belt of Asteroids which are small rocky and metallic bodies with cores made
up of Iron and Nickel.
• They are orbiting around the Sun in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.
• Kuiper Belt:
• This is a belt of remnants of planets with frozen gases, rocks, and debris materials.
• Oort cloud:
• It is a layer of Ice pieces of space debris surrounding the entire solar system.
• Meteoroids:
• When an asteroid comes out of its orbit and moves toward the earth.
• Meteor:
• It is a flash of light due to the burning of meteoroids in the earth's atmosphere.
• It is also called a Shooting star.
• Meteorite:
• It is the remnant of a meteoroid that has survived its passage through the earth's
atmosphere.
The topic for the next class: Comet, Solar, and Lunar eclipses.
Geography Class 07
Comet (5:20 PM)
• Diagramatic representation of the orbit of Comet:

•
• It is a frozen, rocky core surrounded by gas and dust in a frozen state.
• They develop a very elongated orbit around the sun.
• The Comets originate from the Kuiper belt.
• As they come closer to the Sun, the Sun's heat melts the ages in Coma resulting in
the formation of a tail pointing away from the sun.
• The tail is longest when the Comet is closest to the Sun.
• For example Halley's comet(1986), Comet Neowise(2022), Hale Bopp(1997), and
Leonard(2021).
PYQ discussion (5:37 PM)
Eclipse (5:39 PM)
• When one heavenly body moves into the shadow of another it results in an eclipse.
• Umbra is the darker shadow of the blocking body
• Penumbra is a lighter shadow that causes a partial eclipse.
• Solar eclipse:
• When the moon blocks the light of the Sun from reaching the earth, it casts a
shadow onto the earth resulting in a solar eclipse.
• Types of solar eclipse:

•
• Total solar eclipse:
• It is when the sun is completely blocked by the moon.
• The photosphere is blocked and the Chromosphere and Corona will be visible.
• It is visible from the umbra.
• Partial solar eclipse:
• It is when the sun is partially blocked.
• It is visible from the penumbra.
• Annular solar eclipse:
• When the moon is farthest from the earth(apogee).
• It will not be able to block the entire photosphere creating a ring in the sky called
the ring of fire.
• Lunar eclipse:
• When the earth comes in between the sun and the moon blocking the light from the
sun which was supposed to be reflected by the moon causing the earth's shadow to
fall onto the moon.
• Type of lunar eclipse:
 •
• Total lunar eclipse:
• It is when the moon is located within the umbra of the earth and is totally
shadowed.
• In this position, only the light from the earth's atmosphere reaches the moon which
has only red light therefore the moon appears red.
• Partial lunar eclispe:
• When the moon is located between the Umbra and Penumbra, the earth's partial
shadow covers the moon resulting in a partial lunar eclipse.
• Penumbral lunar eclispe:
• When the moon is completely located in the penumbra.
• The moon appears darker in comparison to the full moon.
• Various types of the moon:
• Blood moon:
• Total lunar eclipse.
• Super moon:
• A full moon in perigee.
• Blue moon:
• It is the second full moon of the month.
The difference between the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse (6:34 PM)
• The solar eclipse happens during a new moon while the lunar eclipse happens
during a full moon.
 • A solar eclipse can happen during the daytime and a lunar eclipse can happen only
in the nighttime.
• The lunar eclipse is longer in duration as compared to the solar eclipse.
• You should not see the solar eclipse directly as it can damage the pupil of the eye
due to sudden changes in sunlight a solar eclipse lasts for a very short duration
while it is okay to see a lunar eclipse directly.
Mapping (7:17 PM)
• Oceans:
• 71% of the earth is covered with water.
• The oceans are interconnected with each other and don't have strict boundaries.
• There are 5 different oceans:
• The Pacific ocean.
• The Atlantic ocean.
• The Indian ocean.
• The Southern ocean.
• The Arctic ocean.
• Pacific Ocean:
• The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of all the oceans.
• The pacific ocean is twice the size of the Atlantic ocean(2nd biggest ocean).
• The Pacific Ocean is connected to all other oceans.
• It is connected to the arctic ocean through the Bering Strait.
• The strait is a narrow water body connecting two big water bodies.
• The Drake passage also connects the pacific and Atlantic oceans.
• The Strait of Malacca connects the Pacific and Indian oceans.
• The pacific ocean is the deepest part of the earth that is the Challenger deep(10,900
meters) in the Mariana Trench near the Philippines.
• Atlantic Ocean:
• It has an "S" shape.
• It is the youngest ocean of all oceans.
• It has a huge mid-oceanic ridge.
• Iceland is part of the mid-oceanic ridge.
• Indian Ocean:
• It is the only ocean named after a country.
• No connection between the Indian and the Arctic oceans directly.
• Arctic Ocean:
• It is the smallest ocean and remains frozen throughout the year.
• The impact of global warming is very high in the Artic ocean.
• Southern Ocean:
• International Hydrographic Organization ratified the southern ocean as the 5th
ocean.
• It is limited to 60 degrees south latitude.
Continents (7:53 PM)
• Listed in order of size the continents are:
• Asia> Africa>North America>South America,>Antarctica>Europe>Oceania.
• Asia:
• The Ural Mountains are considered the border between Asia and Europe.
• The Caucasus mountains are the boundary of southern Europe and southern Asia.
• Asia is connected to Africa through the Sinai peninsula(part of Egypt).
 • Caspian sea and the black sea as the water boundaries between Europe and Asia.
• Asia and Oceania have a land boundary in the new guinea islands.
• Mount Everest(located between Nepal and China) is the highest point on the earth
in the Himalayas.
• Dead Sea(Between Israel and Jordan) is the lowest point on the land surface.
The topic for the next class: Geomorphology
Geography Class 08
Geomorphology (5:09 PM)
• It is the study of the physical features of the earth and the process by which those
features are formed.
• Origin of the earth: Earth originated from a gaseous nebula.
• As the nebula cooled rings of matter ejected resulting in planets.
• Evolution of earth: The planet earth was initially barren, rocky, and in a volatile
state.
• This primordial earth gradually evolved into the present stable one with a thick
atmosphere.
• Formation of interior layers of the earth:
• Due to a gradual cooling down of the earth, the heavier elements started to sink
toward the centre and the lighter ones moved toward to surface through the
process of density separation.
• With the gradual increase in density at the centre, the interior temperature
increased
• With time as the earth cooled further, it condensed into a smaller
size(condensation).
• The further process of differentiation led to the formation of different layers in the
earth's interior.
• Evolution of atmosphere and hydrosphere:
• The early thin atmosphere with hydrogen and helium was stripped off due to solar
winds.
• During the cooling of the earth, gasses and water vapour were released from the
earth's interior.
• And the process through which these gases outpour into the atmosphere is called
Degassing.
• The volcanic eruption released more gasses and water vapour.
• The important gases at this stage were carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, water
vapour, and every little oxygen.
• As the earth cooled further the water vapour started to condense and the CO2 in
the atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and was brought down to the surface.
• This further reduced the temperature of the atmosphere which led to more
condensation and more precipitation.
• The rainfall from the atmosphere got collected in the depressions on the surface
forming oceans which were completed around 4000 million years ago.
• Life evolved in the oceans 3800 million years ago as Non-photosynthesis micro-
organisms.
• Between 3000-2000 million years ago, blue-green algae emerged in ocean water
which released oxygen through photosynthesis.
 • By 2000 million years ago ocean was saturated with oxygen and oxygen started
flooding the atmosphere.
Geological time scale (6:13 PM)
• Proterozoic Eon: Soft body marine organism.
• Hadean Eon: Ocean and continent were forming.
• Archean Eon: Blue-green algae evolved.
• Phanerozoic Eon: It is divided into 3 different eras:
• Palaeozoic era: It means old life.
• It includes periods Cambrian(no terrestrial life), Ordovician(1st fish), Silurian(1st
plant), Devonian(Amphibians), Carboniferous(286-360 Million years)(1st reptile),
and Permian(domination of reptiles).
• Mesozoic era: It means medium life.
• This era includes the Triassic, Jurassic (208-144 million years)(Age of dinosaurs),
and Cretaceous Periods(extinction of dinosaurs).
• Cainozoic era: The Cainozoic era is divided into periods of tertiary(evolution of
mammals, Himalayas, and apes) and Quaternary(the period of homo-sapiens).
• We are currently in the Holocene epoch (0-11700 years).
Holocene epoch (7:13 PM)
• Ages of Holocene: Greenlandian age:
• The 1st age is called Greenlandian (8200-11700 years ago)
• Northgrippean age: 8200-4200 years ago is called as Northgrippean age.
• Meghalayan age: 4200 years-Present is the Meghalayan age.
• In Mawluh cave in Meghalaya, evidence of change of age was found thus the name
of Meghalayan age.
The interior of the earth (7:28 PM)
• The sources of study of earth's interior:
• There are direct sources and indirect sources.
• Direct sources:
• Mining and Deep ocean drilling(the maximum depth up to which we were able to
drill is 12 km).
• Volcanic eruptions through which we can analyze the material from the earth's
interior.
• Indirect sources:
• Density studies:
• It is done by analyzing the average density of the earth( 5.5 gm/cm3) and its
comparison to the density of the surface(2.7-3 gm/cm3) and the core.
• we can conclude that the crust is lighter and the core is heavier.
• Seismic study:
• It is done by analyzing different earthquake waves, their speed, and their direction
while passing through the earth's interior.
• Tempratue and pressure:
• The temperature increases by 1 degree celsius for every 32 meters near the surface.
• With the increase in depth pressure increases and the melting point of rocks
increases.
• Using this correlation we can conclude about the earth's interior.
• Meteorite: It is by analyzing the structure, and mineralogy of meteorites we can
conclude about the earth's interior as meteorites are remanet of planets.
The topic of the next class: The layers of the Interior of the earth.
Geography Class 09
Last class revision (5:09 PM)
Interior of the earth (5:20 PM)
• The diagrammatic representation of the interior of the earth:

•
• The chemical divisions of the earth's interior:
• The 3 layers of crust, mantle, and core are the chemical division of the earth.
• Crust:
• It is the uppermost layer of the earth.
• It is made up of light elements such as silica, aluminium, magnesium, etc.
• It is the lightest in terms of density.
• It is of 2 types, continental crust, and oceanic crust.
• The difference between the continental crust and oceanic crust:
•
Continental
Oceanic crust:
crust:
Very thick(35- Very thin(8-10
45 km) km)
Lighter in Heavier in
density. density.
Rocks of Rocks of darker
brighter colour. colour.
Rocks are
Rocks are older
younger
 It is richer in
It is richer in
Alumium,
Magnesium,
sodium, and
calcium, and
Potassium
Iron. (SiMa
elements(SiAl
layer)
layer)
• Mantle:
• It is lighter than the core and denser than the crust.
• It accounts for 83% volume of the earth.
• It consists of 68% of the mass of the earth.
• The overall depth of the mantle extends to 2888 km.
• The mantle contains a higher proportion of magnesium and a lower proportion of
silica and aluminium.
• It is divided into the upper and lower mantle.
• Core:
• It is the innermost and densest layer of the earth.
• It is rich in nickel and iron therefore it is also called as NiFe layer.
• It is divided into the inner core and outer core.
• The inner core is solid and the outer core is liquid as the pressure at the inner core
is very high.
Physical division of the interior of the earth (5:58 PM)
• Lithosphere:
• It is a solid layer made up of Crust and the upper part of the Upper Mantle.
• It is a hard and rigid outer layer that is divided into different plates.
• The thickness of the lithosphere is nearly 100 Km.
• Asthenosphere:
• It extends between 100-400 km.
• It is in a semi-solid and semi-liquid state and undergoes deformation under
pressure.
• It is also a source of magma on the surface.
• It is also called a low-velocity zone due to the slowing down of earthquake waves in
this zone.
• Mesosphere
• It includes the rest of the Mantle.
• Barrysphere:
• It includes both the outer and inner core.
Composition of the earth (6:17 PM)
• Elements of the entire earth:
• Iron: 35%
• oxygen: 30%
• Silicon- 15%
• Magnesium: 13%
• Major Elements of the Earth's Crust:
• Oxygen: 46.60%
• Silicon: 27.72%
• Aluminium: 8.13%
• Iron: 5%.
Discontinuities in the interior of the earth (6:21 PM)
 • It is the transition zone between the different layers of the earth's interior with
different physical and chemical characteristics.
• Diagramatic representation of discontinuities:

•
• There are mainly 5 types of discontinuities:
• Conrad Discontinuity:
• It is Within the Crust (Upper and Lower Crust).
• Mohorovicic or Moho Discontinuity:
• It is Between Crust and the Mantle.
• Repetti Discontinuity:
• It is Between the Upper and the Lower Mantle.
• Guttenberg Discontinuity:
• It is Between Mantle and Outer Core.
• Lehmann Discontinuity:
• It is Between the Outer and Inner Core.
Types of rocks (6:32 PM):
• Any naturally occurring aggregate of minerals is called a rock.
• Difference Between Rocks and Minerals:
•

Rocks: Minerals:

Rocks are an Minerals are solid

aggregate of inorganic substances
mineral elements. occurring naturally.
A rock has no
Minerals have a definite
definite chemical
chemical composition.
composition
 Elements are organized to
Minerals are form compounds that are
organized to form known as minerals. An
rocks. element is a pure
substance.
The three chief
Four chief mineral groups
types of rocks are-
are- Silicates,
Igneous,
Carbonates, Sulphides,
Sedimentary, and
and metallic minerals.
metamorphic.
Basalt, Granite,
Iron, Silicon,
Sandstone, Slate,
Magnesium, Nickel, and
and Quartz are
Calcium, are abundant
some important
minerals of the earth.
types of rocks.
Types of rocks (7:02 PM)
Igneous rocks:
• They are formed due to the cooling, solidification, and crystallization of molten
material from the earth's interior.
• They are also called primary rocks.
• Igneous rocks are of two types, intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
• Intrusive igneous rocks:
• They are formed from the cooling of magma inside the earth.
• The slow cooling of magma results in a crystalline texture with higher strength.
• They are also called Plutonic rocks.
• Examples are granite, Gabbro, etc.
• Extrusive igneous rocks:
• They are formed due to the cooling of magma above the earth's surface.
• Faster cooling results glassy texture but with lower strength.
• They are also called Volcanic rocks.
• Examples are Basalt, Andesite, etc.
• Igneous rocks are also be classified as:
• Acidic or Silsic:
• Where the silica percentage is more than 66%.
• For example Granite.
• Basic or Mafic:
• Where the silica percentage is less than 52%.
• For example Basalt.
Sedimentary rock (7:29 PM)
• These are the secondary rocks formed by the solidification of sediments of original
igneous or metamorphic rocks or another sedimentary rock.
• Stages in the formation of sedimentary rock:
• Weathering>>Transportation(by a different agent such as wind, water, glacier,
etc)>>Deposition(in a basin)>>Lithification( conversion of loose sediments into
hard rock)>>Compaction(sediments are squeezed by the weight of overlying
layers)>>Cementation(It involves binding together of compacted sediments by
natural cementing material such as silt).
 • Sedimentary rocks are formed in different layers or strata.
• They contain fossil evidence.
• Examples of sedimentary rocks are Sandstone, Limestone, Shale, Clay, Chalk, Coal,
and Gypsum.
Metamorphic rock (7:47 PM)
• Metamorphism involves changes in the form of rocks through physical or chemical
processes.
• The change in pressure conditions results in dynamic metamorphism and the
change in temperature results in thermal metamorphism, together it causes
thermo-dynamic metamorphism.
• During the process of Metamorphism if the minerals are arranged in a series of
bands along a plain it is called foliation.
• foliation involves banding.
• When minerals are arranged linearly it is called Lineation.
• Examples of Metamorphics rocks:
• Granite resulting in Gneiss.
• Limestone resulting in Marble.
• Sandstone resulting in Quartize.
• Shale resulting in Schist.
• Clay resulting in Slate.
• Coal results in Graphite and Diamonds.
The Rock Cycle (8:01 PM)
• The diagrammatic representation of the Rock cycle:

•
• In nature, all the rocks get converted into each other form.
• The outcrop is the elevated part of the surface thus it undergoes weathering very
easily.
The topic for the next class: Earth's Movements.
Geography Class 10
Last class revision (5:14 PM)
Earth's movement (5:30 PM)
 • Various forces from the earth's interior as well as outside the earth's surface cause
physical stress and chemical actions on the earth's material bringing about
changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth called a geomorphic
process.
• The geomorphic process results from two types of forces, endogenetic and
exogenetic.
• Endogenetic forces:
• These are the forces acting from the earth's interior, the source of energy is
radioactivity and primordial heat.
• They result in large-scale upliftment or subsidence or folding and faulting.
• They are responsible for the formation of major structural units of the earth's
surface.
• Exogenetic forces:
• These are the forces acting on the earth's surface from above the surface.
• The sources of energy are sunlight and gravity.
• Wind, water, and glaciers are the different agents of exogenetic movements.
• These forces result in minor topographical features such as valleys and caves.
Endogentic movements (6:11 PM)
• They are classified into dystrophic and catastrophic movements.
• Catastrophic movements (Sudden movements):
• These are unpredictable movements of shorter duration.
• These movements can be observed.
• Examples are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc.
• Diastrophic movements:
• Some movements move, elevate, and buildup up the portions of the earth's crust.
• These movements operate very slowly and led to the formation of primary
landforms.
• They are of 3 types: tectonic, isostatic, and eustatic.
• Tectonic movement:
• The Word tectonic means to build.
• These are continent and mountain-building movements affecting the earth's
surface.
• They are of 2 types Epirogenic and orogenic.
• Epirogenic movements:
• These are vertical movements caused by radial forces.
• These are characterized by large-scale upliftment/ emergency and
subsidence/submergence of land areas.
• They are very slow and widespread.
• These movements led to the continental building.
• An example is the gradual upliftment of the Deccan plateau and the slow
subsidence of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
• Orogenic movement:
• These are mountain-building movements caused by tangential forces.
• They involve intense folding and faulting of narrow belts.
• The tangential forces are of 2 types, Compressional resulting in folding, and
tensional resulting in faulting.
• Folding:
 • When the compressional forces the earth's rocks to push or squeeze against each
other.
• It results in the formation of folds
• Folds are structures in which the layers are bent or distorted without the loss of
continuity.
• Faulting is when tensional forces pull the rocks apart, it results in the formation of
faults.
• Faults are the fractures, through which primary surfaces are broken and displaced,
with the loss of continuity.
• Type of faults:
• The up-folds are called anticlines and the Downfolds are called synclines.
• A fold will have two sides called limbs.
• Symmetrical Fold:
• If the limbs of a fold are inclined at the same angle, it is called a Symmetrical fold.
• Asymmetric Fold:
• If one of the limbs is inclined more than the other, it is called an Asymmetrical fold.
• Overfold:
• It is a fold where the strata in one limb have been folded beyond the vertical axis.
• Recumbent Fold:
It is a fold lying down resulting from the continuation of pressure on one of the
limbs.
• Nappe:
• It is formed when the pressure exerted upon a Recumbent Fold is sufficiently great
to cause it to be torn from its roots and thrust forward.
• Nappes are well-developed in the Himalayas.
• Types of Faults:
• Normal Fault:
• When one of the blocks moves downward relative to the other due to tensional
forces it is called a Normal fault or Dip Slip Fault.
• Reverse Fault:
• When one block moves up about the other one due to compressional forces it is
called a Reverse Fault or Thrust Fault.
• Strike-Slip Fault:
• Where both the blocks move across each other involving no vertical movements it
is called Strike-slip or Transform Fault.
• In a fault, the upthrust block is called a Horst and the down-dropped block is called
a Graben.
The difference between the fold and the fault mountains(8.03 PM):
•
Fault/block
Fold mountains:
mountains:
It is because of the Due to the Faulting
folding process. process
Only compressional Both compressional and
force tension force
 They are greater They are greater in
in length width.
For example Himalayas For example Vindhyas
and Alps and Blackforest
The topic for the next class: Isostatic movement and Eustatic movement.
Geography Class 11
Last class revision(5.10 PM).
Isostatcy/Isostatic movements(5.22 PM):
• Isostasy is the state of equilibrium or balance in the earth's crust.
• Isostatic movements involve vertical movements under the action of floatation
displacement between the rock layers of differing density and mobility.
• This is to achieve balanced crustal columns of uniform mass above a level of
compensation in which the topographic elevation is inversely related to underlying
rock density.
• For example, the Mountains have deep roots, like the Scandinavian mountains due
to the melting of ice sheets are observing the gradual rising of the land which is
evident in a series of raised beaches.
Eustatic movements(5.44 PM):
• They involve the worldwide movement of sea level resulting from changes in the
total volume of liquid seawater or capacity of ocean basins.
• The volume of seawater can be changed by melting or the formation of glaciers.
• The capacity of the basin can be changed through the formation of ridges or the
expansion of basins.
Continental drift theory(5.55 PM):
• The continental drift theory was proposed by Alfred Wegner(a german
meteorologist) in 1912.
• The theory was proposed to explain major variations in the earth's climate.
• Assumptions:
• The three layers of the earth with outer SiAl, intermediate SiMa, and inner NiFe.
• The continental masses were assumed to be floating on oceanic crust without any
resistance.
• The Theory:
• Before the Carboniferous period(280-250 million years ago), there was only one
supercontinent called Pangea and one superocean called Panthalassa.
• This Supercontinent started to rift during the Carboniferous period.
• It was split into northern Angaraland(Laurasia) and southern Gondwanaland by a
rift running east to west.
• Gradually this rift enlarged to form the Tethys Sea.
• The Angaraland consisted of North America, Greenland, and Eurasia without India
and Arabia.
• The southern Gondwanaland consisted of Africa, South America, India, Australia,
and Antarctica.
• A North-South rift separated North America from Eurasia and South America from
Africa which started to move towards the West.
• India started moving toward the North.
• Australia got separated from Antarctica and moved toward the northeast
 • Africa moved towards the north.
• Finally, Arabia got separated from Africa and merged into Asia.
• Forces responsible for the continental drift:
• Alfred Wegner proposed the following forces as the cause of continental motion:
• Equatorward or North-South movement is caused by the Pole-fleeing force due to
Gravitational differential force and the force of Buoyancy.
• The westward movement is caused by the tidal forces of the Sun and Moon.
Evidence in support of continental drift theory(7.12 PM):
• The diagrammatic representation of pieces of evidence:

•
• Justafix or zig-saw fits of continents:
• There are similarities in coastlines on opposite sides of the Oceans.
• All the continents can be merged to form one big continent.
• Structural pieces of evidence:
• The nature of physiography structure in different parts of the continents, having the
same age and structural properties
• The mountain belts of Brazil terminate on the South American east coast and the
same type of mountains reappeared again in Africa.
• Stratigraphic pieces of evidence:
• The eastern coast of brazil has the same type of rock formations observed along
with Northwest Africa.
• Fossil evidence:
• Mosasaurus is an aquatic reptile whose fossil remains are found only in South
America and South Africa separated by a wide ocean.
• The fossils of Glossopteeris(a fern) grown only in subpolar climates are now found
in warm climatic regions separated by wide Oceans.
• Glacial deposits:
• The layers of tillites are found in warm tropical regions like South America, South
Africa, Australia, and India.
• Placer deposits:
 • The rich deposits of gold Placer near the Ghana coast without any source of Gold
nearby.
Criticisms of continental drift theory(7.44):
• The forces suggested for the movement of the continent are considered to be
inadequate.
• The rocks of continental crust and oceanic crust are very rigid and would not
permit the drifting of continents over the oceanic floor.
• The theory did not describe the situations of pre-carboniferous times.
Mapping(7.49 PM):
• Africa:
• It is also called the dark continent as it was discovered very late.
• It is home to the largest desert(the Sahara desert).
• It is home to the longest river on the earth that is the Nile river.
• The Nile is made of 2 rivers, the blue and white Nile.
• Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest point in Africa.
• The lowest point in Africa is the lake Assal(in Djibouti).
The topic for the next class: Seafloor spreading and plate tectonic theory.
Geography Class 12
Last class revision (5:10 PM)
Seafloor spreading (5:17 PM)
• Mapping of the oceanic floor revealed the following information:
• Presence of mid-oceanic ridges along the seafloor.
• The ridges are volcanically active resulting in a continuous eruption of magma.
• Rocks on either side of the ridges are of the same age with similar composition and
magnetic properties.
• The age of rocks along the oceanic floors increases away from the ridge.
• The rocks of the oceanic crust are younger than the continental crust.
• The oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust.
• Theory:
• Based on the above observation, Herry Hess proposed the theory of seafloor
spreading in 1961.
• According to it, the continued magma eruption at the oceanic ridges causes a
rupture of the oceanic crust.
• The new lava wedges on to oceanic crust, which pushes the oceanic crust onto
either side therefore the ocean floor spreads.
• The spreading crust sinks at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.
Plate tectonics theory (5:46 PM)
• Introduction:
• The term plate was coined by JT Wilson in 1965.
• The theory of plate tectonics was proposed by Morgan, Mckenzie, and Parker in
1967.
• Plate tectonics:
• Plates are broad and rigid segments of the lithosphere which includes the ridge
upper part of the upper mantle and crust.
• The plates are in motion on underlined asthenosphere, which is in a semi-solid and
semi-liquid state.
 • Plate tectonics is the study of deformation within plates and of the interaction of
plates around their margins.
• Plates are nearly 100 km thick and have high rigidity and are unable to deform
except in response to very strong and prolonged force.
• There are 7 major plates on the earth's surface, pacific, north American, south
American, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Antarctican.
• There are many minor plates such as Nazca Plates, cocos plates, Arabain plates, etc
• The difference concerning continental drift theory:
•

CDT PTT

Lithosphere(SiAl
Sial, Sima,
and Sima) and
Nefi
asthenosphere
Freely
Offer High
floating
resistance
SiAl
• Plate movements:
• The plates are constantly in motion but with different speeds and directions, this
causes 3 types of plate boundaries, Divergent, convergent and transform.
• A plate boundary or margin is a zone of motion between two plates.
• Diagrammatic representation of different plates:
•

Divergent/constructive plate boundary (6:32 PM)

• The ocean-ocean divergent plate boundary:
• It is a type of plate boundary where two oceanic plate margins are moving apart in
opposite directions
• It is a zone of tension where the lithosphere split and hot magma comes up through
the cracks and solidifies leading to the formation of a new oceanic crust.
 • The continues built of solid magma results in the formation of mid-oceanic ridges
along the plate margins.
• In this plate boundary, shallow earthquakes with a focus of up to 70 km are
observed.
• The continental-continental divergent plate boundary:
• The formation of divergent plate boundaries along continents involves 3 stages:
• Intra-continental rifting:
• The upward movement of magma below the continental crust causes the
fragmentation of the continent through the creation of numerous cracks and faults.
• Such a series of faults is called a rift valley.
• Rising magma starts to come out through this rift.
• For example, the East African rift valley.
• Inter-plate thinning:
• It involves partial melting of the lithosphere and gradual thinning of continental
crust.
• Rift valley starts to widen and may gradually get filled with ocean water resulting in
the formation of a shallow sea.
• For example, the Red sea.
• Formation of mid-oceanic ridge:
• The continues spreading of continental plates away from each other and the
creation of new oceanic crust along the rift valley by the rising magma pulls the
continental mass sufficiently apart.
• At this stage, there will be a new oceanic basin along both the sides of mid-oceanic
ridge.
• For example mid-Atlantic ridge.
Convergent/destructive plate boundaries (7:42 PM)
• Oceanic-oceanic convergence:
• When two oceanic plate margins converge the ocean plate of higher density decent
into the asthenosphere.
• This process is called subduction and the zones are called subduction zones.
• Subduction leads to the formation of trenches, that is the deepest regions on the
surface of the earth.
• These subduction zones are the sites of the most widespread and intense
earthquakes.
The topic for the next class: Convergent/destructive plate boundaries to continue.
Geography Class 13
Last class revision(5.13 PM).
Ocean-Ocean convergence(5.20 PM):
• When 2 oceanic plate margins converge oceanic plates of higher density descend
into the asthenosphere, this process is called a subduction zone.
• The process of subduction leads to the formation of trenches which are the deepest
regions on the surface of the earth.
• For example subduction of the pacific plate below the Eurasian plate has led to the
formation of the Mariana Trench, and Japan Trench.
• The subducting plate undergoes deformation, intense compression,
metamorphism, and melting as it reaches the deeper parts.
 • Some of the molten material from the subducting plate rises upwards and
accumulate continually on the other oceanic plates, this results in the formation of
Volcanic mountains on the seafloor.
• When these Volcanic mountains rise above the sea level it results in the formation
of volcanic islands.
• The continued volcanic activity gradually increases the size and elevation of
volcanic islands.
• These islands are arranged parallel to the trenches in an arc shape and are called
island arcs, for example, japan, Aleutian, and the Caribbean islands.
• An Archipelago is a group of scattered islands in the ocean formed due to ocean-
ocean convergence plate boundary with intense volcanic activity, for example,
Indonesia, Philippines, etc.
• A subduction zone is the site of widespread volcanic activity and earthquakes.
• In ocean-ocean convergent, all 3 kinds of earthquakes shallow, intermediate, and
deep-seated are found.
• The majority of the earthquake appears to be confined to a dipping zone along the
subduction plate called Benioff Zone.
Ocean-Continent convergent plate boundary(5.35 PM):
• When a plate with an oceanic margin collides with a plate of the continental margin
oceanic crust is denser and subducts beneath the continental plate which is more
buoyant, for example, the Nasca plate subducting below the South American plate.
• During the subduction, the thick sequence of rocks along the continental margin is
compressed and deformed to form a chain of fold mountains, for example, Andes
and rocky mountains.
• As the oceanic plate subducts it creates trenches and earthquakes are generated at
Benioff zones.
• As the oceanic plate subducts deeper it gets melted and the magma starts to rise.
• The rising magma accumulates within the adjacent continental crust which
eventually rises to the surface resulting in the formation of volcanoes.
• For example, the subduction of the Nasca plate below the South American plate
has resulted in a series of volcanos in the Andes, such as Ozes del Salado and
Cotopaxi.
• St. Helens volcano in the Rockies is also similar.
• Ocean-continent convergence results in all the 3 types of earthquakes.
• The Pacific Ocean is surrounded by trenches on all sides, which are zones of intense
volcanic activities and earthquakes, therefore it is called as Pacific ring of fire.
Continental-continental convergence(6.09 PM):
• Before the collision of the continental margin, the land masses are usually
separated by the oceanic crust.
• As the two plates converge, the oceanic crust located in between starts to subduct
beneath one of the plates.
• The oceanic plate completely breaks from the continental block and assimilated
into the mantle, at this point, Volcanic activity stops.
• The continued convergence causes the two continual masses to get stitched
together along a zone called a suture zone.
• When continental margins continue to collide the low density of continental
material doesn't permit its subduction.
 • The continued convergence forces the continental crust partially under the other
one creating an unusually thick layer of intense folding.
• The sediments deposited in the basis between the continental margins undergo
continued compression resulting in the formation of very high-fold mountains, for
example, the Himalayas.
• Shallow and intermediate earthquakes are absorbed along this margin.
Parallel plate/Conservative plate margin(6.39 PM):
• At the conservative plate margins, the plate slightly passes each other without any
formation of new crust.
• The transform fault roughly moves parallel to the direction of plate movement, for
example, the San Andreas fault of Califonia.
• A conservative plate margin involves no volcanic activity.
• The earthquakes observed are shallow in depth but they are more frequent and
intense.
• Such a series of transform faults are also found along the oceanic plate margins
where they offset the oceanic ridges throughout their length.
Table summarizing plate boundaries(7.16 PM):
•

Divergent(O- Divergent(C- Convergent(O-O) Convergent(O- Convergent(C-

O) plates C) plates plates C) plates C) plates

suture zone,
Trenches,
partial
Mid-oceanic Trenches, subduction
Rift valley, subduction,
ridges, subduction zones, zones, fold
Features. shallow sea, geo-syncline,
transform archipelago, island mountains,
MOR. fold
faults. arcs, Benioff zone. volcanoes
mountains,
Benioff zone.
nappe.

shallow, shallow,
shallow and
Earthquakes. shallow. shallow. intermediate, and intermediate,
intermediate
deep. and deep.

volcanism Yes Yes Yes Yes No

East African
Mid Atlantic
rift valley,
Ridge, Japan, Aleutian, Andes, Rockies The
Examples Red sea, Mid
Carlsberg Indonesia, etc. mountains. Himalayas.
Atlantic
Ridge.
ridges
Causes of Plates movements(7.32 PM):
• Diagramatic representation of various causes:
 •
• The convection currents:
• They are generated due to the intense heat released from the interior of the earth.
• The theory of convention current was proposed by Arthur homes.
• As the currents ascend from below they diverge and spread laterally.
• Mantle plumes:
• It is a type of mantle convention that involves jet-like plumes of low-density magma
material from the core-mantle boundary.
• Mantle plumes are also the cause of the formation of volcanic hot spots, for
example, reunion, Hawai, etc.
• Ridge push:
• The magma rushes along the oceanic ridges from wedges of the new lithosphere on
either side trail edge of the plate and causes the plates to be pushed apart.
• Gravity sliding:
• The spreading centers along the mid-ocean ridges stand high on the oceanic floor
this results in the gravitation side of the lithospheric slab being away from the
oceanic ridges.
• Slab pull:
• It is considered to be along the subduction zone where the subducting plate pulls
the rest of the slab along.
The topic for the next class: Dictation for causes of plate movement and volcanism.
Geography Class 14
Last class revision (5:11 PM)
Causes of Plates movements (5:28 PM)
• The convection currents:
• Arthur homes proposed the theory of convention current.
• There are two types of convection current, one involves the whole of the mantle
and the second involves only the asthenosphere.
• They are generated due to the intense heat released from the interior of the earth
due to radioactivity.
• As the currents rise from below, diverge and spread laterally.
 • The convection causes the lithosphere to crack and rift forming a mid-oceanic
ridge.
• As the plates move laterally the currents carry the slab of the lithosphere with
them.
• When these currents encounter a similar current from the opposite direction, they
descend into the deeper part of the mantle and drag the lithosphere along with
them causing subduction.
• Mantle plumes:
• It is a type of mantle convention and involves jet-like plumes of low-density magma
material from the core-mantle boundary.
• As the plume reaches the lithosphere it spreads out latterly doming the surface
zones of the earth and moving them along the direction of the mantle plume.
• Mantle plumes are also the cause of the formation of volcanic hot spots, for
example, the reunion hotspot, Hawai hotspot, etc.
• Mantle plumes through a supply of magma transfer heat to the lithospheric plates
and keeps them in active motion.
• Ridge push:
• The magma rising along the oceanic ridges creates new lithosphere along either
side of the plates.
• This causes both plates to be pushed apart.
• Gravity sliding:
• The spreading centres along the mid-ocean ridges stand high on the oceanic floor.
• This results in the gravitation sliding of the lithospheric slab away from the oceanic
ridges.
• Slab pull:
• It is experienced along the subduction zone.
• As the subducting plate descends it pulls the rest of the slab along.
The criticism of plate tectonic theory (5:51 PM)
• The theory although widely expected is not able to explain the following:
• 1. Both Africa and Antarctica are surrounded by ridges but have no subduction
zones.
• The future of these plates is not clear yet.
• 2. Plate tectonics in the past like the formation of earlier mountains, movements of
different plates, and how they were different from the present ones.
Volcanism (6:08 PM)
• Volcanism includes all the phenomena associated with the movement of molten
material from the interior of the earth to the surface.
• It involves three stages:
• 1. Generation of magma in the earth's interior that is asthenosphere and the mantle
due to an increase in heat, decrease in pressure or increase in water content, which
lowers the melting point of rock causing it to generate magma.
• 2. The intrusion of magma from lower layers into the lithospheric layers
• 3. Extrusion of magma when sufficient pressure builds up in lithospheric chambers
the magma erupts onto the surface of the earth.
• Magma and Lava:
• Magma is hot, mobile and moltem silcate material.
• It is made up of a combination of solids, liquids, and gases.
• When magma reaches the surface, it erupts as lava.
 • Lava that erupts is hotter and more volatile
• It cools either on the surface or underwater.
• Types of Magma:
• There are mainly two types of magma:
•
Granitic Basaltic
magma: magma:

It has a high It has less than

silica content( 52% silica
more the 66%). content.

It has a lower It has a higher

density density

The Continental The oceanic

crust is made up crust is made up
of granite rocks of basaltic rocks

The temperature The temperature

is lower. is higher.

Viscous. Fluid.

It is generated at
ocean-continent It is generated at
convergence O-O divergence
and it is C-C divergence,
generated hotspots, etc.
rarely.
Magma generation and plate tectonics (7:03 PM)
•
O-O C-C O-O O-C
Hot spots
Divergence Divergence Convergence Convergence
Along the
Along the
subduction
subduction
Zone through Intra-
Mid oceanic Zone through
Location: Rift Valley volcanic plate
Ridge volcanoes
mountains or Hotspots
along the fold
islands.
mountains

Melting of Melting of
Convection Convection Mantle
Cause: Subducting Subducting
Currents current Plume
plate. plate.
 Type of
Basaltic Basaltic Andesitic Andesitic Basaltic
Magma:
Along
volcanoes
Fissure.
Nature of of the rift Violent and Violent and
Slow and Smooth
eruption: valley. explosive explosive
continues.
Slightly
explosive.
Distribution of volcanoes (7:42 PM)
• Ridge volcanism:
• Along the oceanic floor through mid-oceanic ridges
• For example mid-oceanic ridges in the Atlantic Ocean, East Pacific Rise, and
Carlsberg ridge.
• Arc Volcanism:
• Found along ocean-ocean convergence boundaries forming island arcs.
• For example Japan, the Aleutian Islands, the Caribbean islands, etc.
• Volcanic chains:
• Found along ocean-continent convergent plate boundaries with a straight chain of
volcanoes on the continental margin.
• For example Andes and Rockies.
• Volcanic clusters:
• Found along the continent-continent divergent boundary.
• For Example east African rift valley
• Volcanic lines:
• Line of volcanoes arranged along with the hotspots.
• For Example Hawaii islands and the Reunion islands.
Volcanic landforms (7:50 PM)
• There are two types of volcanic landforms, Intrusive and extrusive landforms.
• Extrusive landforms:
• Volcanic cones.
• Flood basalt province.
• Hot springs.
• Geysers.
• Fumarole.
• Mud volcano.
• Intrusive landforms include:
• Batholiths.
• Laccoliths.
• Lopoliths.
• Sill.
• Dykes.
• Type of Volcanic cones:
• There are 3 major types of volcanic cones:
• Shield volcano.
• Ash-cinder volcano.
• Composite volcano.
The topic of the next class: Volcanism (to continue)
Geography Class 15
Last class revision (5.13 PM).
Extrusive Volcanic landforms (continued) (5.25 PM)
• Volcanic cones:
• Diagramatic representation of Volcanic cones:

•
• Shield volcano:
• It is formed from eruptions of very fluid basaltic magma.
• It is formed along hotspots due to mantle plumes.
• They are the largest of all volcanoes.
• They are not very steep.
• Examples Mauna Leo and Mauna Kea.
• Ash-cinder volcano:
• They are formed due to the accumulation of loose particles around the vent.
• They are dominated by ash, debris, and other volcanic material with less lava.
• An example includes the Taal volcano in the Philippines.
• Composite volcano:
• They are formed due to the accumulation of viscous lava which is of lower fluidity.
• The alternating layers of ash and lava provide for composite structure.
• They are one of the steepest of all types of volcanoes.
• For Example Mount Fuji in Japan, Krakatoa, etc.
• Crater:
• It is a funnel-shaped depression formed at the mouth of the volcano.
• The crater filled with water results in the formation of a crater lake.
• Caldera:
 • It is a greatly enlarged depression resulting from the violent eruption volcano
resulting in the subsidence of much of the Volcano.
• When water is filled it results in the caldera lake.
• Flood basalt province:
• When a highly fluid basaltic magma erupts over a plateau region it flows for a long
distance covering large areas and creating a flood basalt province
• For example, the Deccan province and the Columbian plateau.
• Hot springs/thermal springs:
• When water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by a hot spot or a
magma chamber or a geothermal belt it rises to the surface continuously without
any explosion.
• Water from hot springs contains dissolved minerals with medicinal value.
• For example, the hot springs in USA, Iceland, and India (Rajgir, Manikaran, Manali,
etc).
• Geysers:
• They are the fountains of hot water and superheated steam, ejected at regular
intervals with explosions.
• For example Geysers of Iceland, New Zealand, USA(Old faithful Geysers)
• Fumarole:
• It involved continuous jet-like emission of steam and other gases.
• For example Fumarole in Iceland.
• Mud volcano:
• It involves the eruption of mud mixed with water and gases.
• They may not contain magma.
• For example Baratang island of Andaman and Nicobar.
Intrusive features of Volcanism(6.19 PM):
• These are the landforms that are formed inside the earth's surface as manga cools
down below the surface.
• Diagrammatic representation of Extrusive volcanic landforms:
 •
•Batholiths:
•It is a long irregular dome-shaped structure.
•They are large bodies formed by the cooling of magma along deeper layers of the
lithosphere.
• Laccoliths:
• It is a mushroom-shaped feature formed due to the intrusion of magma.
• It maintains contact with the magma chamber.
• Lopoliths:
• When the magma solidifies along a saucer-shaped depression it results in lopoliths.
• Sill:
• These are formed due to the cooling of magma along horizontal bedding planes.
• Dykes:
• These are vertical wall-like structures formed by the cooling of magma.
Geomagnetism(6.49 PM):
• The magnetic field associated with the earth is called geomagnetism.
• Earth has an outer rocky mantle, below which there is the liquid outer core that
surrounds the solid inner core.
• It is considered that the motion of iron charges in the liquid parts of the earth's core
generates a Magnetic field.
• The motion of iron-charged particles is caused:
• Rotation of earth.
• A convection current of molten material is generated in the outer core due to heat
released from the earth's inner core.
• The motion of ions in this molten material produces an electric current through the
earth's core that results in a magnetic field around the earth called geomagnetism.
• Palaeomagnetism and Polar wandering:
• It is the historical study of earth magnetism through rock called Paleomagnetism.
 • When the ingenious manga crystallizes, the crystal of ferromagnetic minerals such
as iron, titanium, etc acquires stable magnetism which becomes frozen as the
magma cools down.
• This acquired magnetism is called fossil magnetism.
• Such rocks will have ferromagnetic minerals aligned in the same direction as that of
the geomagnetic field at the time of its consolidation.
• When paleomagnetic pieces of evidence for a given region were checked over a
long period a gradual change in direction was detected.
• It shows that the position of magnetic poles has moved over of period, this
movement is called polar wandering.
• During the study of the oceanic surface, some of the rocks were found pointing
toward the north and some toward the south.
• It is inferred that the rocks can not change the polarity but it is the earth's magnetic
field that reveres its polarity.
• Such a reversal of magnetic field can be brought by the reversal of convection
currents in the outer core.
• The magnetic reversal occurs every 2,00,000-300,000 years.
• Aurora:
• The magnetosphere of the earth's atmosphere blocks the charged particles from
solar winds.
• But some of these charged particles get trapped near polar regions where the
magnetic lines are straight.
• Due to the interactions of charged particles in the earth's atmosphere near polar
regions, colourful lights are released called aurora.
• It is called Aurora Borealis in the northern region and Aurora Australis in the
southern region.
Earthquakes(7.52 PM):
• The vibration or oscillation felt near to the earth's surface due to transient
disturbance of the elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the rocks at or beneath the
surface of the earth.
• The various causes of earthquakes are:
• Plate movements.
• Minning.
• Reservoir-induced seismicity(RIS).
The topic of the next class: Earthquake to continue.
Geography Class 16
Last class revision (5:16 PM).
Earthquakes (continued) (5:28 PM):
• Causes of earthquake:
• Natural causes:
• Plate movements
• Volcanic eruption.
• Landsides.
• Land Subsidence.
• Meteoritic impact.
• Anthropogenic causes:
• Mining and blasting.
 • Nuclear explosion.
• Reservoir-induced seismicity(RIS).
• The scientific study of earthquakes is called seismology.
Earthquake waves(5.35 PM):
• Diagrammatic representations of Earthquake waves:

•
• During an earthquake, the point where the energy is released below the surface is
called the focus/hypocentre.
• The point on the surface nearest to the focus is called the epicentre.
• An earthquake generates two types of waves, body and surface waves.
• Body waves:
• These earthquake waves are generated at the focus and move through the earth's
interior.
• There are two types of body waves, P-wave and S-wave.
• P-waves(Primary waves):
• These are the first to be detected during an earthquake.
• They are also called compressional waves and longitudinal waves.
• They oscillate back and forth in the direction of propagation.
• P-Waves depend on the density and rigidity of the material.
• P- waves can travel through solid, liquid, and gas.
• S-waves(secondary waves):
• S waves oscillate perpendicularly to the direction of propagation.
• They are also called transverse waves.
• The S-wave movement depends on the material's density and rigidity.
• Therefore S waves cannot pass through liquid and gas.
• Surface waves:
• These are the earthquake waves confined to the surface of the earth.
• They are generated due to the interaction of body waves with the surface and
generally at the epicentre.
• Surface waves are much slower than body waves but cause more damage.
• Examples are Love waves and Raleigh waves.
Shadow zones(6.18 PM):
• Diagrammatic representation of shadow zones:
 •
• The seismic waves undergo reflection, bending, or changes in direction while
passing from one medium to another.
• This results in the creation of shadow zones.
• The Shadow zone is the zone in the earth's interior from where earthquake waves
are not reported.
• P-wave shadow zone:
• P-waves are not detected between 105-145 degrees from the focus resulting in the
P-wave shadow zone.
• It is due to a change in direction of P-waves as it enters the outer core.
• S-wave shadow zone:
• S-waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core.
• Therefore beyond 105 degrees, we observe S-wave shadow zones.
• By studying the different earthquake waves, the extent of their shadow zone, and
other characteristics we can conclude about the earth's interior.
Type of earthquake (6:32 PM)
• Shallow focus earthquake occurs at the depth of 0-70 km.
• Intermediate focus earthquake occurs at the depth of 70-350 km.
• Deep-focus earthquake occurs at the depth of more than 350 km.
Distribution of earthquakes (6:35 PM):
• Circum-pacific belt:
• Around the pacific ocean.
• Along the west due to ocean-ocean convergence.
• Along the east due to ocean-continent convergence.
• Mid-oceanic ridges:
• Around the regions of ocean-ocean divergence
• Meditarian and trans-asiatic belt:
• Continent-continent convergence.
• East African rift valley:
• Continent-continent divergence.
• Diagramatic representation of the distribution of earthquakes:
 •
Measurement of earthquakes (7:03 PM)
• The earthquake waves can be recorded by a seismograph.
• The record produced by the seismograph is called a seismogram.
• Magnitude and intensity of the earthquakes:
•

Magnitude: Intensity:

It is the
Intensity is the
measure of the
assessment of
amount of
visible damage
energy released
caused by an
during an
earthquake.
earthquake.

The magnitude Intensity

remains decreases away
constant for from the
earthquakes. epicentre.

It is an It is a
objective subjective
measure. measure.
 The magnitude
is measured by
the Richter
scale.
There is no Intensity is
upper limit for measured by a
the Richter Modified
scale. Mercalli scale.
Richter scale is The range of
a logarithm the Mercalli
scale that is 1 scale is 1-12.
unit change
means a 10
times stronger
earthquake.
• The highest recorded earthquake is a 9.5 Richter scale in Chile in 1960.
• 2004 Indian ocean(Indonesia) earthquake was 9.1 magnitudes.
• 2011 japan earthquake was 9.1 magnitudes.
• Earthquake in India:
• 2001 Bhuj earthquake was 7.7 magnitudes.
• The 2005 earthquake in Kasmir was of 7.6 magnitudes.
• 2011 Sikkim-Nepal earthquake was of 6.9 magnitudes.
• The 1993 Latur earthquake was of 6.2 magnitudes.
• 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake was of 6.1 magnitudes.
T-sunami (7:31 PM)
• A tsunami is a Japanese word for harbour waves.
• They are also called seismic sea waves.
• They are four stages in the occurrence of a tsunami:
• Generation:
• Tsunamis are generated due to vertical displacement of the column of seawater
which causes by:
• Earthquakes, normal and reverse fault earthquakes along the oceanic floor.
• Underwater Volcanic eruptions.
• Underwater landslide and subsidence.
• Meteorites impact.
• Underwater nuclear test.
• Propagation in deep water:
• Along deeper waters, the speed of waves is very high and the amplitude will is low.
• Therefore tsunamis will not be visible in the open ocean nor will cause any damage.
• Propagation in shallow water:
• As depth decreases, the amplitude increases, and the speed of waves decreases.
• This causes a pilling up of water near the coast, generating very high waves, this is
called the shoaling effect.
• Landfall:
• Where the waves break and submerge the coastal regions.
The topic of the next class: Exogenetic movements.
Geography Class 17
Last class revision. (5:11 PM)
Exogenic Movements: (5:18 PM)
• These are the earth's movements caused due to various forces acting from outside
the earth's surface.
• The source of energy for these movements are sunlight and gravity.
• Different agents of exogenic movements are wind, river, groundwater, waves, and
glaciers.
• Exogenic processes involve aggradation and degradation.
• Aggradation is the action of various processes that cause deposition on the surface
to bring uniformity of grade i.e. slope.
• Degradation or denudation involves the combined action of various processes that
cause the wearing away of the earth's surface and results in general lowering and
levelling out of the earth's surface.
• So, degradation involves weathering, erosion, and mass movements.
Weathering (5:41 PM):
• It is the total effect of various processes that cooperate in bringing about the decay
and disintegration of rocks involving no large-scale transportation.
• Factors affecting weathering:
• 1. Rock type and structure:
• It includes characteristics like origin, massiveness, porosity, permeability, presence
of fractures, etc.
• For example, sedimentary rocks are weathered faster than igneous rocks.
• 2. Slope and aspects:
• Steep slopes will greatly add weathering as disintegrated material gets removed
faster.
• The slopes which are exposed to wind, rainfall, and sunlight are more prone to
weathering.
• E.g. south-facing slopes of the Himalayas.
• 3. Temperature:
• The range of temperature, particularly the diurnal range subjects the surface layer
to expansion and contraction continuously causing a physical breakdown.
• Temperature also increases the rate of certain chemical reactions.
• 4. Water:
• When water is added or removed, it imposes mechanical stress on the rocks and
causes them to split.
• Water also decides the rate of chemical reactions.
• 5. Biological agents:
• These include the action of plant roots, micro-organisms, and burrowing animals.
Types of weathering (6:15 PM)
• Difference between Mechanical and Chemical weathering:
•
Mechanical
Chemical
(Physical)
Weathering
Weathering
The disintegration The disintegration
of rocks takes of rocks takes
place without any place with
change in the changes in the
 chemical chemical
constituents of the constituents of the
rocks rocks
Factors such as Temperature,
temperature, moisture, etc.
moisture, frost cause minerals in
action, and wind the rocks to either
cause the physical dissolve in water
breakup of the or change their
rocks. composition
It is more rapid in It occurs in moist
desert climates and cool climates
It mostly takes
Rocks are effect place near the
to great depth surface of the
earth
Its agents are
Its agents are water, oxygen,
temperature and carbon, and
moisture various organic
acids
• Physical weathering:
• Crystal growth
• Growth of water crystal: When water freezes it expands and finds its way into cracks
or pores, it wedges apart rock fissures and joints. In desert regions, it results in frost
shattering, in glacial regions it causes freeze-thaw.
• Salt crystal: Growth of salt crystal by crystallization as moisture evaporates creating
pressure in pore spaces and cracks. It is also called Haloclasty (salt weathering).
• Pressure or thermal expansion:
• 1. Exfoliation: Rapid expansion and contraction of surface rocks weaken the outer
shell creating cracks and causing the rock shell to peel off
• 2. Pressure release: Confining pressed from the weight of overlying rocks is
released, when the upper layer of rocks is removed by degradation. This causes
rocks to expand leading to the development of fractures.
• 3. Block disintegration: Here weathering causes the breakdown of rocks in blocks.
• 4. Granular disintegration: Here breakdown occurs in granules.
• Chemical Weathering:
• Hydrolysis:
• It is the chemical union of water and minerals.
• It produces solutions.
• Hydration:
• It is when minerals incorporate water into their molecular structure.
• It causes swelling.
• Oxidation and Reduction:
• It involves the addition or removal of oxygen.
• It causes discolouration. E.g. rusting of iron.
• They are the first visible sign of chemical weathering.
 • Carbonation:
• Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide and gets converted into carbonic acid.
• Limestone and dolomites are altered by the dissolving action of carbonic acid.
• Biological Weathering
• It is a type of weathering due to the action of biological agents.
Erosion: (7:20 PM)
• Erosion refers to the wearing away of the land surface by the mechanical action of
debris derived from weathering as they are transported to a different location by
agents of wind, water, glacier, etc.
• Types of Erosion:
• Abrasion:
• Wearing away surfaces by mechanical processes such as rubbing, scratching,
polishing, etc.
• Abrasion in water is called corrasion.
• Attrition:
• It involves the reduction in the size of fragments by friction and impact during
transportation.
• It breaks down the load into finer sediments.
• Cavitation:
• The collapse of water bubbles in rivers leads to an explosion sending a shock wave
that tends to disintegrate the adjacent rocks which are cavitation.
• Corrosion:
• It involves the breaking of rocks by the solvent and the chemical action of water.
• Deflation:
• The lifting and removal of dust and sand by wind are called deflation.
• Hydraulic action:
• Breaking of rocks by fast-moving water.
• Plucking:
• As the glacier moves, they drag the rocks and disintegrate them into smaller pieces.
Mass Movement: (7:53 PM)
• The weathered material moving downhill slopes under the influence of gravity with
or without the assistance of running water is called a mass movement.
• It is a large-scale breakdown or disintegration.
• It is also called mass wasting.
Topics for the next class: Types of mass movements, and different types of landforms.
Geography Class 18
A brief review of the previous class and doubts. (5:08 PM)
Types of Mass Movements.
• Slow:
• Creep: The slow downhill movement of the soil and weathered mantle along the
mountain slopes.
• It is a continuous movement but difficult to notice
• Solifluction: It involves the slow movement of soil mixed with water as a viscous
fluid
• It is more active in glacial areas
• Rapid:
 • Landslide: A landslide is the movement of a cross-section of a hill slope under the
influence of gravity is called as landslide
• The material maintains continuous contact with the surface as it moves
• Avalance: Similar to landslides, is sudden collapse and sliding of snow-covered
regions
• Earthflow: Thye occur along terraces and hillsides that are capable of flowing as a
single unit when saturated with water below the top layer
• Mudflow: It involves the rapid movement of masses of uncompacted soil ie
suddenly saturated with water
• Rock slide/fall: It is a rapid movement including rock material either sliding along
the mountain slopes (rock slide) or falling vertically
Landforms: (6:04 PM)
• Agent and its topography:
• River - Fluvial Topography
• Ground - Karst topography
• Waves - marine Topography
• Wind - Desert or Arid Topography
• Glacier - Glacial topography
• Each causes erosional as well as depositional topography
Riverine Topography:
• It is a topography which is built by riverine erosional and deposition
• 3 stages in riverine topography: Youth Stage, Mature Stage, and Old Stage
•
Youth Mature Old
Index
Stage Stage Stage

Slope High Moderate Low

Energy High Moderate Low

Low or
High - Moderate
Erosion No
Vertical Lateral
erosion
Very
Deposition Moderate High
low
Meandering No Moderate High
Features of Riverine Topography: (6:52 PM)
•
Topography Processes Erosional Depositional
 V-  Slip of
 Corrasion
Shaped slope
 Riverin
Valleys  Levee
e  Attrition
 Gorge  Flood
(Agent  Cavitatio
and Plain
- River n
Canyon  Ox-
water)  Corrosion
 Waterfal Bow
l, lakes
  Hydraulic Cataract,  Alluvial
Rapids s fans
 V-Shaped  Plunge and
Valleys pools Delta
and Pot  Estuary
Holes
 River
Capture
and wind
Gap
 Meander
- River
Cliff
Topics for the next class: Continuation of Landforms, etc
Geography Class 19
Geography Class 19 [Link]
A brief overview of the previous class i.e. Landforms of riverine topography
Karst Topography/ Limestone topography [Link]
• [* If Fresh water is 100 units then 67-68 units are ice caps, 30 units are groundwater,
1-1.5 units are water vapor, and 0.3 units are water in rivers, lakes, etc]
• Underground Rock systems are called Aquifers
• When water (Containing carbonic acid) falls on the surface, It melts the rocks very
easily. It will sip in and joins the groundwater

•
• This term was used in Eastern Europe, erstwhile Yugoslavia.
• Many large Caves are found- in erstwhile Yugoslavia, countries of Southeast
Asia[Thailand, malyasia], Meghalaya, Mexico - Yucatan peninsula [The meteorite fell
here led to the extinction of the dinosaurs, Mayan civilization flourished here,
devoid of surface Fresh water, they survived through the Karst topography],
Western Australia, In India these are found in Meghalaya
•
Topograph
Processes Erosional features Depositional features
y
 Conditions that
led to this karst
Features
topography
o Sinkholes ar
o Soft
e created-
and
very wide
Permea
and huge
ble
depression
rocks in
o Swallow
the
hole-
upper
Shallow
layer of Features
version of
lithosph o Stalactites-
sinkholes
ere such These
o Doline- Sink
as develop
holes merge
limesto from the
together to
ne, roof from
form Doline
dolomit the dripping
o Uvala-
e water
Dolines
o Modera o Stalagmites
merge
te to - The
together to
Karst/ heavy deposits
form Uvala
Groundwa precipit develop
[Refer to the
ter ation upward from
below
o Hard the floor.
diagram]
strata of o Cave Pillar-
o Blind
rocks at When both
valley/karst
the sub- the
valley- The
surface stalactites
river
level and
disappears
Processes stalagmites
and only
o Corrasi meet.
valleys are
on [Important activity-
visible, the
o Corrosi Cave diving]
rivers flow
on
underground.
o Attritio
n
o Caves- Grou
o Carbon
nd water
ation
creates caves
o Hydroly
Example- M
sis
exican caves,
[Less hydraulic
Meghalaya
action, No or less
caves
attrition ]
Erstwhile
Yugoslavia, South-
East Asia,
Regions
Meghalaya in NE
India, Mexico,
Western Australia
 •
Marine Topography [Link]
• Agent- Waves
• Source of energy- WInd (Driven by sunlight due to differential heating)
• Erosion and deposition are dependent on the type of coast
• If forward force is more then it will lead to erosional features whereas if backward
force is more then it will lead to Depositional features
• On the eastern coast deposition happens and on the Western coast erosion
happens (The exception is the Kerala coast)
• Processes- Corrasion, Attrition, Cavitation, Corrosion, Hydraulic action (No
deflation, no plucking)
Erosional features
• Cliffs- Near to coastal region [due to erosion-steep slope]
• Wave cut platforms- Upper part is eroded but the lower part is not eroded [The
lower part is hard rock], a platform is left due to differential erosion
• Bay- Too much erosion on the inner side, and wave action is more. And it creates a
semi-circle shape [Differential erosion] {* Gulf is not a part of marine topography, it
is a waterbody+ Gulf have narrow mouth or elongated mouth. For example- the
Persian gulf, and Mexican Gulf}. When the Mouth of the Gulf is too wide then it is
called a Bay. Example- the Bay of Bengal, Hudson bay.
• Hanging valley - It is a river valley that ends abruptly into the coastal region. That
river valley is hanging into the ocean. For Example- Found in Norway.
• Sea caves- Due to continuous waves hitting the cliffs, creates caves from the
seaside
• Sea arch or natural bridge- Development of sea caves from both sides, Gradually
it will deepen and merge together. When two sea caves merge together it is called a
sea arch.
• Sea stack- When the roof of an arch is broken by erosion or under its own weight or
due to any other reason a part of the original rock remains standing as a solitary
mass. It may be the rock forming the side of the arch. This type of feature is called a
sea stack.
• Sea stump- The smaller version of the sea stack is called the sea stump
• Blow holes- When a powerful wave hits, it creates a hole in the upper part. Then
the water comes out from the blow holes
 •
Depositional features
• Wave-built platform- When the sea recedes and due to the deposition of sand a
platform can be built, for Example- near the bay
• Beach- Where the wave speed reduces and the deposition of sand is more. In India,
along the eastern coast, we have more no. of beaches [The longest is Marina beach,
Chennai]
• Off-shore sand bars-When the slope is less and the water level is also less, then it
creates the feature of sand bars. Sand bars not connected to the land are called
offshore sand bars [Mostly found on the East coast, one of the sand bars is
strategically located in Sriharikota (ISRO satellite center, on Pulicat lake)]
• Sand spit- When the sand bar is connected on one end with land
• Tombolo- When the sand bars are connected on two sides with the land.
• Lagoons- A lake near the coastal region is called a lagoon. It is separated from the
main part. [* Kerala state is known for the backwaters, houseboats, etc]
•

•
Arid/ Desert topography [Link]
• Agent - Wind [It is more of physical weathering due to sunlight], Erosion [Wind is at
very high speed, as there is no vegetation]
• Erosional Process involved- Attrition, Abrasion, Deflation (Lifting action of wind)
[No corrosion, cavitation as they require water], No plucking
• [* Reasons for Desert formation- Low precipitation less than 25 cm]
Erosional features
• Deflation hollows- The hollows or empty spaces created by the winds. These are
created by Deflation
• Ventifacts- Abrasion causes the polishing of the surfaces, and the polished surfaces
are called ventifacts
 • Mushroom Rocks- Rocks near the surface go faster weathering than the above one
[Wind action is faster, as sands carried by the wind are below], this creates the
mushroom rocks. (Caused by Abrasion near the surface)
• Zeugen- Continuous layer of hard and soft rocks in a Vertical direction, Soft rocks
will easily be eroded. Differential erosion will lead to Zeugen. It is caused by
abrasion
• Yardungs- When differential rocks are there in a horizontal position.
• Inselbergs- Remanant of hills. In the central part, the hard rocks are there which
take a longer time to erode.
Depositional features/ landforms
• Sands are more in the desert because of attrition
• Sand dunes- famous beaches- Thar desert [Marusthali], Ladakh [Nubra
valley- Hundar sand dunes], Arabian sand dunes [Rub-al-khali sand dunes],
Namib desert [The largest sand dunes are in Namib desert]
• Barchans- crescent-shaped sand dunes are called barchans. If the limbs are in the
direction of the wind
• Parabolic-shaped sand dunes- if limbs are opposite to the direction of the wind
• Seif- Barchan with one limb
• Transverse sand dunes- Perpendicular to the direction of the wind
• Longitudional sand dunes- Parallel to the direction of the wind
• Bolson lake/Playas lake- Refer to the diagram [Above]
• Oasis- Fertile land around the playas region
• Pede-plain- Pediplains are formed when high relief features in deserts are lowered
to low featureless plains due to wind activity. The convergence of pediments forms
a Pede-plain, which is a largely flat landscape

•
Glacial Topography [Link]
• Formed along the mountain sides,
• During winter- when snow is deposited on the mountain sides, a thin layer of snow
is created. Where there is more depression, more accumulation of snow occurs.
Water will sip into the gaps of the snowflakes and it will get harden. Through
continuous melting and freezing, it becomes a thick block of ice
• During summer- The entire block of ice will start to melt from its base. It will start
to move. It has a very high erosional capacity
• Agent- Glaciers [Capable of movement, largest force]
 • Process involved- Abrasion, plucking, erosion
• [* 5 Big lakes are the result of glacial erosion]
Erosional features
• Nivation hollows- Small depressions where the glaciers start to build up [from
mountain size to huge glacier]
• Cirque- Continuous circulation of the glacier, enlarged depression
• Arete- It separates two Cirques
• Horn- When cirques are developed from all sides, and the top mountain becomes
too narrow and steep. For example- Matterhorn [Alps mountain], Kailash
mountain, Mt. Everest
• Col- When the horn is entirely eroded and the upper part is removed. Indira
col [North of siachen]
• U-shaped valley- It is the valley created by the glaciers. When multiple glaciers
merge together.
• Hanging valley- Small U-shaped valley merging with the big U-shaped valley.
• Fjords- The U-shaped valley directly enters the ocean [Norway is known for Fjords]

•
Depositional features
• Moraines- Unstratitifed mix of sand and ice carried by a glacier- lateral, medium,
end moraines, and at the base is called Ground moraines
• Moraine capped lakes- When these lakes outburst it is called GLOF [Glacier lake
outburst flood- example- Chorabari lake- north of Kedarnath]
• Tillites- It is a heterogeneous mixture of Clay and Till from pre-historic times
• Drumlins- Semicircle depositions are called baskets of egg topography or Drumlins
• Esker- When it is forming a longitudinal ridge it is called Esker
 •
The Topic for the next class- Climatology.
Geography Class 20
Questions on topics taught in the previous class (05:12 PM)
Climatology (05:21 PM)
• Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth from all sides and
is attached to the earth's surface by gravitational force.
• Weather: It is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere.
• Climate: The average atmospheric conditions of an area over a considerable period
of time calculated for a minimum of 30 years.
Composition of Atmosphere (05:45 PM)
 • Nitrogen: The atmospheric nitrogen gets converted into soil nitrogen
through nitrogen fixation.
• Plants are capable of absorbing it from the soil.
• Oxygen: Oxygen is chemically active. Oxygen is taken directly through respiration.
• It is consumed at the cellular level.
• Oxygen is released into the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis by
plants.
• Carbon dioxide: It is released by both plants and animals and consumed by plants
only i.e. during Photosynthesis.
• It is called Greenhouse Gas.
• It helps in maintaining a stable temperature in the atmosphere.
• Noble Gases: These gases are non-reactive in nature.
• Water vapour: It is the most variable gas in the atmosphere. It is responsible for
all weather phenomena in the atmosphere.
• It is a greenhouse gas capable of absorbing Heat.
• 99 per cent of water vapour is concentrated in the lower 16 km of the atmosphere.
• Dust Particles: It is concentrated in the lower levels of the atmosphere.
• It acts as hygroscopic nuclei and helps in condensation and cloud formation.
• It is released into the atmosphere through weathering, erosion, and from Volcanic
Eruptions.
Hygroscopic Nuclei: Hygroscopic
means something which attracts
water. Hygroscopic Nuclei are
microscopic particles that allow water
vapours to condense on their
surfaces.
Structure of Atmosphere (06:20 PM)
Homosphere Heterosphere

It is a layer with In this layer,

uniform mixing gases form
of gases. different layers.
It is beyond 80
It is up to 80 km.
km.
It contains the
It contains water
minimum amount
vapour and dust
of water vapour
particles.
and dust particles.
In this layer, In this layer,
gases are in gases are in
molecular form. atomic form.
It consists of
It consists of two
three layers:
layers:
troposphere;
Thermosphere
Mesosphere and
and Ionosphere.
Stratosphere.
Troposphere (06:47 PM)
• It extends from sea level to 16 kilometres in the tropics and 6 kilometres in the
poles.
• It is a zone of turbulence and convection due to the continuous mixing of gases.
• All weather phenomenon is restricted to Troposphere due to the presence of water
vapour and dust particles.
• Temperature decreases from sea level at 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometre,
called the Normal Lapse Rate.
• The edge of the troposphere is called the tropopause, which is a transition zone to
the stratosphere.
Stratosphere (07:14 PM)
• It extends from Tropopause to 50 Kilometres.
• It is called so because the layers are stratified and non-convective in nature.
• The temperature rises in the stratosphere due to the absorption of UV rays by
Ozone in this layer.
• The conditions are extremely dry except for some rare clouds called stratospheric
clouds. Example: Mother of Pearl.
• The top of the stratosphere is called Stratopause.
Mesosphere
• It extends from stratopause to 80 km.
• Temperature decreases with height and reaches its lowest in the atmosphere.
• The top of the mesosphere is called Mesopause.
Thermosphere (07:43 PM)
• It extends from 80 km to 500-700 km.
• It consists of a lower Nitrogen layer and upper oxygen layer.
• The temperature rises rapidly due to the absorption of high-energy solar radiation.
• Temperature reaching up to 1200 degree celsius at 350 km.
Exosphere
• It extends from the edge of the thermosphere to the vacuum.
• It contains atomic Oxygen, Helium, and Hydrogen.
• It contains a magnetosphere composed of electrons and Protons derived from
Solar Winds and charged particles.
• They have been arranged in two bands at 3000 km and 16000 km which are called
as Van-Allen Radiation Belts.
Ionosphere
• It exists between 80 to 650 km within the thermosphere.
• It is formed due to ionization by solar radiation. It is made up of multiple layers D,
E, F, G, etc
• Ionosphere reflects short-wave radio waves helping in radio communication.
Karman Line
• It is the boundary where outer space begins. It is at an altitude of 100 km from sea
level.
• International law does not define the limit of air space. It is a line agreed upon for
aircraft navigation through consensus.
• Above, this line of air is too thin for any aircraft balloon or any other flight, other
than spacecraft.
(Next Class: Insolation, Heat Budget)
Geography Class 21
INTRODUCTION (5:12 PM)
• Overview & doubts related to the previous class.
INSOLATION, HEAT BUDGET, AND ALBEDO (5:22 PM)
• The amount of incoming solar radiation is called insolation.
• The amount of insolation received by the Earth is 2 billionth of solar energy.
• The amount of insolation received on the surface= 1.92 calories per cm2 per minute
called the Solar Constant.
• The incoming solar radiation is shorter in wavelength.
• This radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface and is reemitted as long-
wavelength Terrestrial Radiation.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT (5:48 PM)
• The atmosphere is transparent to incoming solar radiation and opaque to outgoing
terrestrial radiation.
• The warming of the Earth's atmosphere and its surface by the absorption of
terrestrial radiation by some of the gases is called the Green House effect.
• The gases responsible are called Green House Gases, for example, CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCs (Hydro-fluro carbon), PFCs (Per-fluro carbon), SF6 (Sulphur
hexafluoride), Water vapor, etc.
• The Earth's surface absorbs incoming solar radiation and emits terrestrial radiation
hence it acts as a source of heat for the atmosphere.
• Therefore, temperature decreases with height at the rate of 6.5 degrees celsius per
km which is called the Normal Lapse Rate.
HEAT TRANSFER (5:56 PM)
• Methods of heat transfer:
• (1) Radiation
• It involves the transfer of heat in the form of radiant energy.
• The incoming solar energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
• (2) Conduction
• It involves the transfer of heat through molecular activity at the zone of contact.
• It occurs at the zone of contact between the troposphere and the Earth's surface.
• (3) Convection
• Transfer of heat by vertical movement of the mass of air.
• For Example, the convection of air along the equator.
• (4) Advection
• Transfer of heat by horizontal movement of mass.
• For Example, planetary winds and ocean currents.
FACTORS AFFECTING INSOLATION (6:16 PM)
• (1) Transparency of the atmosphere
• Cloud cover, dust particles, water vapor, etc. reduces the transparency of the
atmosphere and reduces insolation received at the surface.
• (2) Latitude
• Latitude of a place decides the angle of incidence of insolation which affects
insolation received per unit area of the surface.
• For Example, in tropical regions insolation falls vertically and is concentrated in a
small area. Along temperate and polar regions angle of incidence is oblique and
insolation is distributed over a larger area.
• (3) Length of the day
 • Longer the day, the more the insolation received at the surface. The length of the
day depends on the season.
HEAT BUDGET (6:29 PM)
• On the global scale the Earth must reradiate as much heat back to space as it
receives from the sun.
• This is necessary in order to maintain a uniform temperature on the Earth.
• The gains and losses in heat by way of incoming solar radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation are called Heat Budget.

•
• Doubts related to heat budget (7:15 PM)
ALBEDO (7:24 PM)
• Albeo is the ratio between the reflected amount of solar radiation and the incoming
solar radiation by the Earth as a whole.
• It is also called as Reflection Coefficient.
• The average albedo of the Earth = 35%.
 •
TEMPERATURE (7:42 PM)
• The degree of hotness or coldness of a surface is called temperature.
Factors affecting Temperature:
• (1) Insolation
• Insolation in turn depends upon the transparency of the atmosphere, latitude, and
length of the day.
• Even though the sun's rays are vertical along the equator throughout the year, the
equator will not have maximum temperature due to cloud cover.
• (2) Albedo
• Surface with higher albedo reflects back more insolation resulting in less
absorption of heat causing lower temperature.
• (3) Nature of the surface
• Earth behaves differently depending upon the specific heat of the surface.
• The land surface with lower specific heat, heats up more rapidly and intensely than
the water surface.
• Also, the land cools rapidly.
• (4) Distance from the sea or continentality
• The locations that are in the interior of the continent experience a higher range of
temperatures than coastal locations.
• For Example, Delhi experiences hotter summers and colder winters than Mumbai.
• (5) Distribution of continents
• Northern Hemisphere with more proportion of land than oceans experience a
higher range of temperature than the Southern Hemisphere with more water
surface.
• (6) Altitude
 • Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
• (7) Winds
• Air in motion is called Winds.
• They transport temperatures prevailing in one area to another.
• For Example, planetary winds.
• (8) Ocean currents
• Ocean currents are like rivers inside the oceans.
• They transport warm water from the tropics to polar regions and vice versa helping
in the global distribution of temperatures.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE ACROSS THE GLOBE
Geography Class 22
Revision of the previous class (05:10 PM)
Temperature and Factors affecting the temperature (05:18 PM)
• Terms related to the temperature
• Temperature is the degree of Hotness or coldness.
• The thermometer is used to measure the temperature
• Diurnal range of temperature: Difference between daily max and daily minimum.
• Mean Daily Temperature: Sum of 24 hours of temperature/24
• Mean monthly temperature: It is the sum of a daily temperature of a month divided
by the number of days in a Month
• Annual Range of temperature: Highest-Lowest Mean monthly temperature.
• The highest recorded temperature is 58 degrees in Al Azizia (Libya)
• But as per WMO, it is 56.8 in Death Valley (USA California)
• Lowest temperature: Vostok station, Antarctic (-88 degrees)
• Distribution of Temperature
• Variation in temperature, Is not uniform along the latitude at the different places
due to a number of factors, and when we connect these lines of uniform
temperature along the latitude is known as Isotherm.
• Across the earth, Isotherms shift north and south with the apparent movement of
the sun.
• The Isotherms move northward between January to July and they shift south
between July to January.
• The shifting of Isotherms is more in the Northern hemisphere than in the southern
hemisphere.
• This indicates higher seasonal variations in the northern hemisphere.
• This is due to the presence of a vast landmass in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Moving from land to oceans, Isotherms bents along a particular latitude.
• Isotherms bents polewards in January over the oceans.
• Isotherm bent Equatorward in July over the oceans.
• Near the Equator Annual range of temperature is very less, The Range of
temperature increases from the Equator up to higher latitudes, This Range is more
in the Northern hemisphere.
Temperature Inversion (05:57 PM)
 •
• The average rate of decrease in temperature up in the altitude is called as Normal
lapse rate
• Under certain special conditions, Reversal of the Normal lapse rate occurs so that
temperature increases with altitude. This phenomenon is called temperature
inversion.
• The Zone of temperature change in the atmosphere is called a temperature
inversion zone.
• Types of temperature inversion
• a)Radiation inversion
• The conditions that favour radiation inversion are:
• Long winter nights
• Calm and windless conditions
• Clear and cloudless sky.
• In these conditions, the land surface radiates heat more rapidly during the night,
This loss of Radiation by the land surface causes the land to cool down and the air
just above the surface also cools.
• This colder air is overlaid by warmer upper air which has absorbed heat from
radiation loss.
• Therefore temperature increases with increases in altitude creating a temperature
inversion
• b) Air drainage type of inversion(06:35 PM)
• The mountains and hilltops experience rapid fall in temperature during the night.
• The valley sides remain warmer due to radiation exchange between the valleys.
• The cooler and denser air from the hilltops sinks to the valley floor due to Gravity.
• After some time the warmer air rests over the cooler air resulting in a Temperature
inversion.
• c) Advection inversion
• It is produced when a thick layer of warm air passes over the cold water's surface or
snow-covered surface creating temperature inversion.
• d) Frontal inversion
• It is caused due to frontal convergence of air masses.
• Along the Fronts, the warmer air is forced upward from the ground by the
undercutting of cold air which leads to temperature inversion where warm air is
lying above the cold air.
Significance of temperature inversion (06:52 PM)
 • Temperature inversion prevents convection by creating stability in the lower
atmosphere and hence prevents precipitation.
• The temperature inversion conditions with cold air near the surface are suitable for
fog formation.
• It also reduces wind activity and prevents the distribution of pollutants causing bad
air quality, For Example: Around Delhi, during winters the pollutants are trapped for
a longer duration creating bad air quality.
• In urban areas during winter fog mixes up with smoke resulting in the formation of
Smog which is a thick layer and reduces air quality.
• The formation of Fog reduces visibility and disrupts the Transportation network.
• Air Drainage type of inversion decides the pattern of settlements in Mountainous
regions, Mountain slopes are preferred over valley floors or hilltops.
• Agriculture in hilly areas is impacted by Air drainage inversion.
• Example: Fruit orchards of Uttrakhand and Himachal, Coffee plantation of
Brazilavoid valley floors
Pressure (07:26 PM)
• Pressure is the force experienced per unit area.
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere.
• The average atmospheric pressure near sea level is equal to 1013milibars.
• Pressure is measured using barometers.
• Factors that cause variation in pressure
• a)Temperature: When Air is heated it expands and the outward pressure of
molecules is spread over a larger area therefore the pressure of air decreases.
• When Air is cooled it contracts to cause an increase in pressure
• b)Altitude: The pressure experienced by Air at ground level is higher than that of
Air at higher altitudes.
• When Air Rises due to convection its volume increases and pressure decreases.
• When air sinks due to subsidence its volume decreases and pressure increases.
• c)Rotation: The rotation of Earth causes air at the poles to be thrown away
towards the Equator.
• If we consider the effect of only rotation air piling up around the Equator produces
a belt of high pressure and along poles a belt of low pressure.
Formation of pressure Belts (07:53 PM)
• The Belt of low pressure experienced along the Equator region is known as the
Equatorial low
• And the Zone of High pressure at the poles is known as Polar High.
• Air Rises at the Equator and moves upward till tropopause and from there
separates in two directions i.e two poles.
• At 30 degrees (North and South) it sinks down due to the air being dense now as it is
now occupying a smaller area so the pressure increases, so the region is Sub
Tropical High.
• From 30 degrees Air then divides into 2 directions again, One moving towards the
equator and another moving towards the poles.
• The air near the polar region is always subsiding in nature, Because there is no
convection, There is a High-pressure belt so air never vertically rises,
• Air near the polar region gets thrown due to the rotation of the earth and starts to
move away from the poles, which earlier was occupying a smaller area now due to
 getting thrown away occupies a larger area and at a 60-degree belt has the low-
pressure belt. (Temperate low)
• And this air coming from the poles meet the air from the Sub tropics, This
convergence causes convection and rises vertically upward and upon reaching the
troposphere again divides into two one moving pole side and another towards the
subtropics.
• And again meeting the subtropics air at the upper atmospheric level descends at 30
degrees.
• This all results in the formation of Atmospheric cells.
• Between o to 30 degree=Headley cell
• Between 30 to 60 degree= Ferrel cell.
• Between 60 to 90 degree=Polar cell
• Planetary winds flow along the surface.
• 0 to 30 degree =Trade winds
• 30-60 degree= westerlies
• 60-90 degree=polar Easterlies

•
The Topic for the next class: Winds-Planetary, Local and Seasonal winds.
Geography Class 23
Last class revision(5.10 PM).
Development of pressure belts(5.19 PM):
• Air rising at the equator due to high temperature causes expansion and therefore
the development of a low-pressure belt at the equator.
• This connecting air at the equator spreads out as it reaches the top of the
troposphere and moves toward the poles.
• This air as it converges towards the polar region its density increases and begins to
sink which is subsiding, leading to a high-pressure belt at 30 degrees N and S.
• Some of the high-pressure air moves toward the equator and some toward the
pole.
 • The air moving towards the equator replaces the air rising there completing a cell.
• Low temperatures at the poles, resulting in a contraction of air and the
development of high pressure.
• Air blowing away from poles spread out to larger space and pressure falls leading to
a low-pressure belt along 60% north and south.
• Some of the air from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts moving toward the pole
reaches 60 degrees north and south and converges with air from the poles leading
to convection along 60 degrees north and south.
• The rising air 60 degrees north and south spread out at the edge of the
troposphere, a part of it moves towards the equator and the rest towards the poles.
Distribution of pressure across the world(5.41 PM):
• The distribution of pressure across the earth can be studied using isobars.
• Isobars are the lines joining places with equal pressure.
• With the apparent movement of the sun between the tropics, the pressure belts
shift north and south.
• Pressure in January:
• The equatorial low-pressure belt extends into the southern hemisphere.
• The sub-tropical high-pressure belt of the southern hemisphere is found only over
the oceans.
• The low temperature in the northern hemisphere produces a continuous high-
pressure system, linking it with the high-pressure cells of Siberia and North
America.
• Pressure in July:
• Equatorial low-pressure belts extend too much into the northern hemisphere due
to intense heating in India and Tibet.
• Sub-tropical high-pressure belt in the northern hemisphere is not continuous and
exists only over oceans as weak high-pressure cells.
• In the southern hemisphere, a continuous belt of high pressure is formed.
Winds(6.10 PM):
• The wind is air in motion.
• Forces affecting the motion of wind:
• 1. Pressure grading force:
• The rate of change of pressure concerning distance is called a pressure gradient.
• The pressure differential in the atmosphere causes the movement of air from high
pressure to low pressure.
• The force causing this movement is called the pressure gradient force.
• Pressure gradient force acts in a direction perpendicular to isobars.
• Pressure gradient forces increase with the increase in the rate of change of
pressure.
• That is pressure gradient force is more when isobars are placed closely.
• 2. Frictional force:
• Any moving object moving near land experiences a frictional force in the direction
opposite to that of its movement.
• It is maximum near the surface than at higher altitudes.
• It is maximum over the continents than oceans.
• 3. Coriolis force:
• It is a fictional force produced due to the rotation of the earth
 • It is the combined effects of various forces and factors such as centrifugal force,
angular velocity, and variation in speed of rotation at different latitudes.
• It causes any moving object to defect towards the right in the northern hemisphere
and the left in the southern hemisphere.
• The degree of Coriolis force depends on the speed of the moving body, the latitude
at which the body is moving, speed of rotation of the earth.
Geostrophic winds(7.17 PM):
• At some latitude where the isobar is straight and there is no friction, the pressure
gradient force is balanced by Coriolis force and the result wind flows n a parallel
direction of isobars. This is called geostrophic winds.
• Geostrophic winds along low-pressure and high-pressure cells result in the
formation of cyclonic and anticyclonic circulations.
•

Pressure The pattern of The pattern of

Pressure condition winds in the winds in the
system at the north South
center Hampshire Hampshire

Cyclone Low Anticlockwise clockwise

Anti-
High clockwise Anticlockwise
cyclone

Planetary winds(7.37 PM):

• These are the winds blowing throughout the year and are found across the entire
planet.
• Trade winds/Easterlies:
• They blow from subtropical high to equatorial low.
• In German trade means Track as they blow in the same direction, throughout the
year.
• Trade winds are dry and stable in the area of origin.
• Moving toward the equator picks up moisture and causes precipitation along the
eastern margins.
• Reaching the western margins, as they are devoid of moisture the offshore trade
winds will not result in precipitation causing desert formation.
• In addition to this nearness to the sub-tropical high-pressure belt and pressure belt
and presence of cold ocean current creates dry conditions, eg Sahara desert,
Kalahari deserts, etc.
The topic of the next class: Planetary winds to continue.
Geography Class 24
Revision of the previous class (05:07 PM)
Westerlies (05:21 PM)
 • They blow from Subtropical high to temperate low in both hemispheres.
• The vast landmass in Northern Hemisphere obstructs the Westerlies whereas, in the
Southern hemisphere, they blow strongly and consistently due to the huge water
expanse.
• Therefore they are called as Roaring forties, Furious fifties, and shrieking sixties in
the southern hemisphere.
• Polar Easterlies
• It blows from a polar high-pressure belt to a temperate low-pressure belt.
• They are extremely cold, stable, and dry.
• And they blow for long distances and affect the climate.
Zones of Planetary winds (05:30 PM)

• Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)

• Convergence of Trade winds from both the sides of tropics.
• It is centred on the Equator.
• 5 degree North and south of the Equator normally during Equinox, But shift as well
North and southwards.
• This zone experiences low-pressure, calm, and windless conditions therefore it is
called as the Zone of Doldrums.
• Summers: ITCZ Shift toward North of the Equator.
• Winter: ITCZ shift toward the south of the Equator.
• Humidity will be greater due to Convection.
Horse Latitude (05:41 PM)
 • 30 Degree North and South.
• It is a Zone of Sub tropical high-pressure belt near 30 degrees North and south.
• Due to vertically descending belts, This is the region of light and calm winds.
Tri-cellular Meridional circulation
• The Surface winds blow from High to Low-pressure belts but in the upper
atmosphere, the direction of air circulation is opposite to surface winds.
• This together with convection and subsidence along low-pressure and High-
pressure belts result in three cellular circulations along each meridian called Tri
cellular meridional circulation.
• The three cells are the Headley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the Polar cell.
Seasonal winds (06:00 PM)
• They are not flowing Throughout the year
• And do not cover the entire planet
• The seasonal differences in Temperature and pressure cause the movement of Air
and subsequent winds blowing in particular seasons are called Seasonal winds.
• Example: South West Monsoon.
• Local winds
• They are a regular phenomenon
• Differences in the heating and cooling of the Earth's surfaces and the cycles that
develop daily or annually create several common winds called local winds.
• Land and sea breeze

•
• The land gets heated up more quickly than the adjacent sea during day time.
 • Low pressure is developed over the Land and High pressure over the sea.
• This causes the circulation of relatively cool air from the sea to adjacent land called
sea breeze.
• Rapid loss of Heat from the land causes a reversal of daytime pressure conditions
due to High pressure on land and low pressure over oceans.
• Winds blowing from land to sea cause Land breezes.
• Fishermen along coastal regions use land and sea breeze for fishing activity.
• Mountain and valley breeze
• During Day time mountains' slope heats up rapidly compared to the valley.
• This results in the air from the valley moving up along the slopes called as valley
breeze or Anabatic winds.
• At night the temperature difference between Mountain slopes and valleys is
reversed causing winds to blow from mountain to valley causing Mountain breeze
which is also called Katabatic winds.
• Tips and tricks to outline the world physical Map (06:47 PM)
Local winds of the world in Map (07:28 PM)
• Hot winds:
• Chinook: Western North America along the Rockies mountain from the mountain
towards the plains in a west-to-east direction
• Significance: Also called a snow eater when the entire Rockies area, Prairies land is
covered with snow where wheat is grown in winter so snow melts which is helpful
for wheat cultivation during winter.
• Fohn: Along the Alps in Europe which flow south to North direction.
• Significance: It helps in the melting of snow in Germany, similar to chinook.
• Harmattan: The region is Nigeria and flows from Northeast to southwest, from
land to sea.
• Significance: Harmattan is dry winds that cut moisture when flowing from the
Humid region of Africa, This is the reason it is also called Doctor winds.
• Haboob: Hot winds of Sudan which have no specific direction
• Sirrocco: Winds from Sahara to the Mediterranean region and then crossed the
Mediterranean sea reaches Europe, hits the mountain, and causes orographic Rain.
Also called Blood Rain as the winds from the Sahara come along with the Red Dust
of the Sahara.
• Khamsin: Sirocco is known as Khamsin in Egypt, and Gibli in Libya, All the
characteristics same as Sirocco.
• Berg: In South Africa, East to West From Land to the ocean.
• Samoon: In Iran, and Iraq, No specific direction, Also called poison winds.
• Loo: North India, Direction west to East.
• Karaburan: Mongolia and Northern China, Direction: Northeast to the southwest.
• Brickfielder: In Southern Australia, Direction: North to south
• Cold winds (07:49 PM)
• Blizzard: North America, particularly in USA and [Link] from North to
south.
• Blizzard in Siberia is called Burran.
• Norte/Northe: Direction North to South, Region USA, and Mexico respectively.
• Pamperos: In Argentina, South to North
• Mistral: Region France, Direction North to south.
• Levant: Southern Spain, Direction East to west.
 • Bora: Along the coast of the Adriatic sea from North East to Southwest direction.

•
The topic for the next class: Humidity, Continuation of Climatology.
Geography Class 25
Revision of the previous class (05:12 PM)
Humidity, Evaporation, and Condensation (05:20 PM)
• The amount of water Vapour in the atmosphere is called Humidity, It helps in
energy balance on the surface of Earth through Evaporation and Condensation.
• Humidity is the index of the atmosphere's potential for Yielding precipitation.
• Measurement of Humidity in the atmosphere
• 3 ways:
• a) Specific humidity
• It is the ratio of the weight of water vapor in grams to the weight of air in kgs
expressed as grams/kg of Air.
• It indicates the actual amount of Moisture present in the air.
• Here amount of water vapor remains the same, It is not showing the effect of
temperature.
• b)Absolute humidity
• It is the ratio of the weight of water vapor in grams to the volume of air in a meter
cube
• Expressed as grams per meter cube of air
• Measures humidity in grams/m3 i.e 100 gms/m3
• It decreases with the expansion of air and increases with the contraction
• c)Relative humidity
• Measures Humidity in percentage
• It is the ratio between the amount of water vapor present in the air to the maximum
amount of water vapor it can hold at a given temperature.
• Relative humidity seen just with temperature.
• If the temperature is increased the maximum capacity increases and relative
humidity decreases.
• If the temperature is decreased maximum capacity decreases Relative humidity
increases.
• Air is said to be saturated when Relative humidity reaches 100%.
Evaporation (05:58 PM)
 • The conversion of liquid water into water vapor is called Evaporation
• 3 important factors
• a) Higher the temperature, the Higher the rate of evaporation.
• b) Humidity: Higher the humidity, the Lower the rate of [Link] to the
saturation of Air.
• c) Wind speed: Higher the wind speed, the Higher the rate of evaporation as Air
movement provides a constant supply of fresh air.
• Distribution
• Highest in 30 degrees
• Lowest in the polar region.
Condensation (06:07 PM)
• The process of conversion of water vapor into liquid water is called as
condensation.
• It is the reversal of evaporation.
• The temperature at which condensation takes place is called a dew point.
• If condensation happens below zero degree celsius it is called a frost point.
• Condensation forms
• Dew
• It is the moisture deposited in the form of liquid water droplets on land surfaces.
• The conditions favorable for the formation of dew are long winter nights, Calm air,
and cloudless sky.

•
• Frost
• It is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface.
• It is formed when the temperature of the surface is below the freezing point and the
water droplets are falling on such a cold surface.

•
• Rime
• The deposition of needle-like white opaque icy crystals on the surfaces with
temperature below zero degrees Celcius.
• It occurs when supercooled water droplets in the air come in contact with the
surface below the freezing point.
 •
• Fog (07:05 PM)
• It is produced near the surface when the temperature of the air drops suddenly.
• The visibility will be less than 1 km.
• The condition required for the formation of fog is the same as the condition of
temperature inversion
• Following conditions favor fog formation commonly
• Long winter night, Calm air, and cloudless sky.
• Types of Fog:
• Radiation fog, Valley fog, Frontal fog, Advection fog
• Mist
• It consists of small droplets of water suspended in the air.
• It is similar to fog but with a lower density of water vapor.
• Visibility in Mist is between 1-2 km.

•
• Haze
• It is caused by smoke and dust particles with humidity.
• It is generally observed in Urban areas.
• Visibility in Haze is up to 2 km.
Clouds and precipitation (07:13 PM)
• Stability condition
• It is the condition when air resists vertical movement and remains in its original
position.
• Stability is when the air is cooled at its base or when air subsides along high-
pressure belts.
• Pressure is unlikely in this condition.
• Instability condition
• It is a condition where air does not resist vertical movement and leads to cloud
formation and precipitation.
• Instability occurs along the regions of High temperature and low pressure.
Types of Clouds (07:26 PM)
• Cirrus
• Cirrus means Thin, High altitude, and feathery appearance
• White in color and indicates fair weather.
• Ciro stratus
• Layered and High altitude with a milky appearance.
• Stratus
• Stratus means layered.
• Alto
• Alto means middle altitude.
• cumulus
• Cumulus clouds have a cotton wool-like appearance with dome-shaped cauliflower
top
• Also called globular masses
• Nimbus
• Nimbus means Rain bearing
• Alto Cumulus
• Globular masses of clouds with a cotton wool-like appearance at middle altitude.
• Altostratus
• A layer of clouds in sheets along the middle altitude.
• Stratus
• A low uniform layer of cloud near the ground level produces light drizzle.

•
• Cumulonimbus clouds
• Overgrown cumulus clouds are very dark heavy and dense with an anvil top.
• It causes heavy rainfall with thunder and lightning.

•
The Topic for the next class: Precipitation, Type of Rainfall.
Geography Class 26
Revision of the previous class (05:13 PM)
Precipitation (05:28 PM)
• Precipitation requires the following three condition
• a)Upliftment mechanism: To cause moist air to rise
• b)Saturation and cooling of air below the due point
• c)Presence of Hygroscopic nuclei such as dust particles around which water
droplets can accumulate.
• Types of precipitation
• a)Convectional Rainfall
• It occurs in the region of intense heating near the ground surface.
• Heating causes air to expand and rise resulting in the upliftment.
• They are often accompanied by thunderstorms and lightning due to the formation
of cumulonimbus clouds.
• They are experienced throughout the year in equatorial regions and in summers in
tropical regions.

•
• b)Orographic Rainfall
• When warm and moist air is forced to rise across mountain slopes it cools down
causing precipitation along the windward side.
• However, on the leeward side, the descending air will not cause precipitation
creating a rain shadow region, for example, The Western Ghats of India.

•
• c)Frontal Rainfall
• It occurs along frontal zones due to the convergence of different types of air
masses.
• The warm air mass rises above the cold air mass causing precipitation.
• Frontal precipitation is common along the temperate region.
 •
• Distribution of precipitation
• Along the Equatorial region, the highest precipitation is experienced above 200 cm
per annum.
• It is due to the convectional Rainfall
• Along subtropical regions around 30 degrees minimum rainfall experienced 25 cms
per annum.
• The Mid-latitude regions between 30 to 40 degrees of North and south experience
uniform and moderate precipitation due to the frontal rainfall.
• Due to the presence of moist maritime air mass oceans receive more precipitation
than the continents.
• Coastal regions receive higher precipitation than the interior.
Thunderstorm and Lightning (05:49 PM)
• Due to intense heating and strong vertical convection, Cumulonimbus clouds are
formed.
• The Raindrops in these clouds move up and down due to strong air currents
creating electric charges which accumulate on opposite sides of clouds.
• When both types of charges have attracted a flash of light is produced due to the
exchange of charges called lightning.
• Lightening causes Vaccum in the cloud due to the Rapid expansion of air.
• It is filled by the surrounding cold air producing claps of Thunder.
Cloud Burst (06:10 PM)
• IMD defines cloud burst as Rainfall over 10cm per hour concentrated in a small area
of a few km.
• Formation of cloud burst
• High temperature and higher humidity favour strong and rapid convection.
• Steep topography along the mountainous region causes a huge buildup of clouds
without precipitation due to the funnelling effect.
• The Rapid convection prevents the Raindrops to fall down.
• Once the cloud becomes too heavy for the air to hold on it drops together in quick
succession resulting in a cloud burst.
• In India, cloud bursts can be observed along the Himalayas, Rajasthan desert, and
monsoon coasts.
Tornado (06:36 PM)
 • A violently rotating column of air extends from the ground to the base of a
Thunderstorm.
• It appears like a funnel descending from a cloud.
• The wind speed goes up to 400 km per hour.
• It is formed with changes in wind speed and direction creating a horizontal
spinning effect within a storm cell.
• This effect is tipped vertically by rising air moving up through the thunderclouds.
• A water spout is a whirling column of air and water mist developed over water
bodies.
Jet streams (07:11 PM)
• WMO defines jet streams as a strong narrow current concentrated along a quasi-
horizontal axis in the upper troposphere or lower stratosphere characterized by
strong vertical and lateral wind shear.
• Featuring one or more velocity maxima.
• Characteristics:
• They are thousands of km in length and 100 km in width.
• Normally blows from west to east.
• winds are faster during winter.
• The entire system follows the sun.
• It follows the Zig Zag path in the form of Rosby waves.
• Causes
• Jet streams are generated due to the temperature difference between the two
regions that is Tropical and Temperate, Temperate and polar, etc.
• The difference in pressure gradient with altitude above cold and warm air mass
causes strong movements of winds.
• The larger the temperature difference, the stronger the winds.
Types of Jet streams (07:49 PM)
•
• a)Polar front jet streams.
• They are formed where the polar and Ferrel cells meet.
• They are irregular and discontinuous.
• They blow from west to East.
• b)Subtropical westerly jetstream
• Associated with temperature gradient between Headley and Ferrel cell.
• It is more regular and strong, It blows from west to east.
• c) Tropical Easterly Jet stream
• Forms over India and Africa only in summer due to the intense heating of the
Tibetan plateau.
• The direction is east to west.
• d)Polar Night jet stream
• Formed over the polar region above the troposphere during winters.
• They are associated with the formation of the ozone hole.
• The direction is from west to east.
• e)Local jet stream
• They are formed due to local thermal and dynamic conditions.
• Example: Somali jet streams
• Significance of the Jet streams
• The jet stream is responsible for cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions along the
surface.
• Upper divergence in jetstreams causes lower convergence and upper convergence
causes lower divergence.
• It changes the weather condition along the surface by suppressing or increasing
precipitation.
• It is used in Aircraft navigation.
• The polar night jetstreams are responsible for Ozone depletion.
• The jet streams help in the transportation of pollutants into the upper troposphere
from urban regions and help in clearing fog and smog during winter.
• It helps in the formation of temperate cyclones and intensifies them.
• The monsoon in south Asia is controlled and affected by subtropical westerly,
Tropical easterly, and Somali jet streams.
 • The sub-tropical westerly jet streams help in bringing western disturbance causing
precipitations during winters in the Northwest region.
• The interactions of jet streams with la Nina conditions cause the formation of a
heat dome over North America.
• Meandering of Jetstreams near polar regions during winters results in the outbreak
of polar vortex causing freezing conditions along lower latitudes.
The topic for the next class is: Polar vortex, Continuation of climatology
Geography Class 27
Revision of the previous class in a detailed way (05:05 PM)
• Polar Vortex (05:30 PM)
• Polar Vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the Earth's
pole.
• The term Vortex refers to the counter-clockwise flow of air which keeps the cold
polar air locked inside.
• The polar winter night jetstreams keep this region covered with strong winds.
• Occasionally when the vortex weakens due to the weakening of jetstreams the
vortex expands and sends the cold air southwards along with jetstreams.
• This brings down the temperature in southern Regions to colder levels of below
zero degree Celsius.
• Air masses (05:47 PM)
• It is the extensive portion of the atmosphere.
• Whose physical properties such as temperature pressure and Humidity are
homogeneous horizontally and vertically for hundreds of km.
• The temperature of the source area shall remain uniform horizontally with a very
gradual change in the vertical direction.
• The humidity conditions should also be uniform with the least variability.
• The surface area shall remain homogenous for a few hundred km.
• The Regions with light divergent winds, High-pressure belts, and anticyclonic
circulations are more favorable for the formation of air masses due to stable
conditions.
• Types of Air masses
• Classified based on different factors such as:
• a) Source area:Continental(c) formed over the continents and Maritime(m) formed
over oceans
• b) Temperature: Warm and Cold air mass
• c) Pressure: Stable(s) and Unstable air mass(u)
• d) Latitude:Arctic air mass(a) and Antarctic air mass(aa) Polar air mass(P) Tropical
air mass(T0 Equatorial air mass(E)
• a and aa is continental
• P & T is continental and maritime respectively.
• E is maritime.
Significance of Air mass (06:16 PM)
• Air masses Transport heat from one region to another and help in the global
distribution of temperature.
• When Air mass moves away from its source area it changes the temperature and
pressure conditions of the destination regions.
• Maritime air masses bring More moisture toward the continental region increasing
its humidity and causing precipitation higher precipitation along the coastal
regions due to the influence of Maritime air masses.
• The dry Continental air masses along the subtropical regions help in maintaining
the aridity conditions.
• The cold air mass formed over Siberia and Canada affects the surrounding region
for long-distance causing cold conditions.
• The maritime air mass of the Indian ocean plays an important role in precipitation
over India during Monsoon.
• The interaction of warm and cold air masses in temperate regions leads to the
formation of fronts and temperate cyclones.
• The maritime tropical and equatorial air masses in the Atlantic and Indian oceans
help in the development of Tropical cyclones.
• Temperate Cyclones (06:56 PM)
• Front
• A narrow zone of transition dividing two air masses of differing temperature and
humidity conditions is called the front.
• They are usually formed in Mid latitude or temperate regions.
• The process of formation of fronts is called frontogenesis
• The process of decay of fronts is called as
• Types of Fronts (07:07 PM)
• a) Stationary front
• It is a front where the surface position of a front is not changing and the two air
masses are unable to push each other.
• When a stationary front is disturbed it results in a warm front or cold front.
• b) Cold front
• It is the boundary between warm and cold air mass where the cold air mass is
advancing and undercutting the warm air mass.
• It results in a steeper gradient along the front leading to rapid upliftment of warm
air and the formation of cumulonimbus clouds.
• It results in heavy rainfall over the smaller regions.
• C) Warm front
• It is the boundary between warm and cold air mass where the warm air mass is
advancing and overriding the cold air mass.
• The gradient of the front is gradual resulting in strato nimbus clouds.
• It causes moderate rainfall over a larger area.
• Occluded Front (07:39 PM)
• It is the later stage of front formation where the air in the warm sector is no longer
at the ground surface due to the meeting of a warm and cold front.
• It is a compound zone with both warm and cold front characteristics.
• The occluded front gradually results in frontolysis.
• It is the later stage of front formation where the air in the warm sector is no longer
at the ground surface due to the meeting of a warm and cold front.
• It is a compound zone with both warm and cold front characteristics.
• The occluded front gradually results in frontolysis.
• Formation of Temperate Cyclones (07:45 PM)
• 6 Stages
 • Stage 1:Convergence of two air masses with different characteristics. Air masses
move parallel to each other and a stationary front is formed.
• Stage 2: Warm and cold air masses penetrate into the territory of each other
forming a wave-like the front.
• Stage3: With warm and cold fronts starting to move towards each other, The warm
sector is wedged between the cold sector.
• Stage 4: The warm sector is narrowed in extent due to the advance of a cold front.
• Stage 5: The occlusion starts with warm air rising completely above the cold air and
the cold front completely overtaking the warm front.
• Stage 6: The warm sector completely disappears, the occluded front is eliminated
and the cyclones die out.
• Temperate cyclones are also called Mid-latitude cyclones or extratropical cyclones
or wave cyclones.
• They are more prominent in the regions between 35-65 degrees North and south.
• Role of Jet streams in Temperate Cyclones
• Jet streams Being Quasi horizontal in nature results in upper divergence in some
locations and upper divergence causes surface convergence which helps in
bringing together the warm and cold air masses and the subsequent formation of
fronts.
The topic for the next class: Tropical cyclones
Geography Class 28
Revision of the previous class and Doubts are taken (05:12 PM)
Tropical cyclones (05:40 PM)
• A Tropical cyclone is a low-pressure high velocity wind system originating within
the tropics over the oceans.
• Names in different regions:

Indian
Cyclone
Ocean

Atlantic
Hurricane.
ocean

South china
Typhoon
sea

Japan Taifu

Philippines- Bagui

Willy
Australia
Willy
Stages in Tropical cyclone (05:58 PM)
• 7 stages of Tropical Cyclones
• a)Temperature: Above 27-degree celsius over the ocean to ensure sufficient
evaporation
• b)Depth of warm water: The 27-degree Celcius temperature should extend up to
60-70 meters in depth.
• c)The humidity of Air: High Humidity of 50-60 % near the surface.
 • d)Minimum vertical wind shear: So that Humid and warm air is not swept away.
• e)Coriolis force: It causes wind deflection therefore cyclones are developed only
between 5 degrees North to 25 degrees North or 5 Degree south to 25 degrees
south.
• f)Pre Existing Low-pressure conditions: These get intensified to form Cyclones.
• g)Upper Air divergence: Causing convergence near the surface.
• In the above, the First 5 are the necessary condition.
• Formation
• A strong Convection results in the build-up of huge cumulonimbus clouds
• The Release of Latent heat provides more energy to the system supporting further
strong Convection.
• When the wind starts to descend along the sides the entire system is stabilized.
• The Lateral winds near to the surface start to Rotate around the Low-pressure
centre due to the Coriolis force.
• After some time some of the dense air rising near the centre starts to descend
resulting in the formation of an eye.
• Once a cyclone is formed it moves under the influence of planetary winds and
deflects toward the northwest direction.
• When a cyclone makes landfall or enters the waters of higher latitude, It dissipates
and comes to an end.
Structure of the Cyclone (07:18 PM)
• Eye: It is the centre of the storm about 5-50 km in diameter with a clear sky, Calm
conditions, Lowest pressure, and Highest temperature.
• Eye wall: A wall of thick cumulonimbus clouds with 10-20 Km of width. It has the
strongest wind in the cyclone. Thunderstorm occurs in this region due to intense
convection.
• Spiral bands: AKA rain bands or feeder bands extend for 100 km and lead to Galaxy
like appearance.
• Annular Zone: A Zone of suppressed cloudiness, High temperature, and low
humidity.
• Outer convective bands: At the edge of the main cloud mass with instability and
convection
Naming System of Cyclones (07:25 PM)
• In 2004, 8 countries of the Northern Indian Ocean agreed to have a common
naming system for Cyclones. Each of the countries arranged them in alphabetical
order.
• And it was submitted in a set of 8 names.
• The Regional Specialized Meteorological centre of WMO located in New Delhi
maintains the list arranged in sequential order and assigns the names when the
wind speed crosses 62km/hr.
• The suggested names shall be neutral politically, Religiously, and Culturally as well
as concerning Gender.
• It should be easy to pronounce.
• All the names in the earlier matrix, Expired in 2019, and a new matrix suggested by
13 countries was agreed upon effective from 2020.
Recurvature of the cyclones (07:46 PM)
• When the Air currents in the local atmosphere push the air from the poles towards
the Equator and interfere with Cyclone formation the Cyclone which is about to
 diminish gets more wind and deflects right or eastward under the influence of
westerlies this phenomenon is known as Recurvature of the cyclones.
• Recurvature is very difficult to predict, for example, Cyclone Ockhi of 2018.
Cyclones in the Indian Ocean (07:52 PM)
• The number of Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal is more than in the Arabian sea in a
Ratio of 4:1
• Reasons:
• Strong Wind shear in the Arabian sea
• Temperature is higher in the Bay of Bengal because more rivers enter the Arabian
sea.
Colour-coded warning of IMD for Cyclones (07:57 PM)
• It is used by IMD to signify the intensity of the situation and the warning associated
with it
• Four colours are used:
• Green-No warning
• Yellow-Be aware
• Orange-Be prepared.
• Red-Take Action
• The objective is to alert people of Hazardous weather and prepare them for
handling disaster situations.
• It is Universal and issued during floods and heavier Rainfall for cyclones it is
represented through a matrix.
Difference between Tropical and Temperate cyclones (08:01 PM)
• You Can Refer to a chart Drawn in the class
The topic for the next class: Climatic Regions
Geography Class 29
Climatic regions: ([Link] PM):
• 0 to 10 degree:-Hot and a wet equatorial type of climate.
• 10 to 30 degree:-Hot zone includes desert, savanna climate, and Monsoon type of
climates.
• 30 to 45 degrees- Meditterean, steppe, and China type of climate.
• 45 to 60 degrees-Coll temperate zone Includes British, Siberian, and Laurentian
types of climate.
• 66 1/2 degrees and above-Arctic zone.
Hot and wet equatorial climate:([Link] PM):
• Temperature is always high throughout the year.
• Precipitation happens through convection.
• The daily maximum temperature is 30 degrees and the daily minimum is 20
degrees.
• The diurnal range of temperature is more than the annual range and both are very
less.
• Humidity levels are high.
• No marked differences between the seasons.
• Precipitation above 250 cm through conventional rainfall.
• Life is rich here.>> Vegetation is evergreen in nature.
• Evergreen rainforests exist here.
• Vegetation shows the layered arrangement of trees.
 • Sunlight is the limiting factor.
• The diversity of flora and fauna is very high.
• Regions- Amazon basin, Parts of Colombia, Ecuador, Congo Basin, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Singapore, Papua New Guinea.
Monsoon type of Climate:([Link] PM):
• Hot zone eastern Margin.
• Seasonal reversal of winds.
• Precipitation is concentrated during the monsoon period.
• One or more months of the dry season.
• Vegetation is a deciduous type.
• Trees shed leaves during winter.
• Regions- South Asia including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indo-China, Eastern
Africa, and Northern Australia.
• Within the monsoon type, onshore trade winds cause precipitation from both
directions throughout the year called a tropical marine climate.
• Examples- Central America, SE Brazil, etc.
Sudan type of climate:
• Hot zone continental type of climate.
• Grasslands in tropical regions.
• Precipitation is lesser in the eastern margin and more than in the western margin.
• Rainfall in summer due to convection.
• The definite dry season during winters.
• The average annual rainfall is 70 cm.
• Scattered drought-resistant trees.
• Regions- Sudan region, Savanna region to the south of the equator in Africa, South
America-Llanos, and Campos and North Australia.
Desert Type of climate:([Link] PM):
• Hot zone western climate.
• Formed by 3 conditions;
• -Nearness to the subtropical high-pressure belt.
• -Offshore trade winds.
• -the presence of cold ocean currents.
• Precipitation is very less with less than 25 cm per annum.
• High Diurnal range of temperature.
• Vegetation is xerophytic in nature.
• Eg- Cactus, dates, etc.
• Regions-Sahara desert, Mohave desert, Arizona desert, Atacama desert, Namib
desert, Kalahari desert, Victoria desert, Gibson desert.
Medditerean type of climate:
• Aso called warm temperate western margin.
• In summers ITCZ shifts northwards bringing offshore trade winds with no
precipitation.
• In winters ITCZ shifts southwards bringing onshore westerlies and causing good
rainfall.
• In winter they are also under the influence of temperate cyclones causing rainfall.
• It is known for its characteristic dry summers and wet winters.
• Summers are not very hot.
• Vegetation is drought-resistant, deep-rooted short bushes.
 • Examples-Grapes, are olives, oranges, and other citrus fruits.
• Regions- California, Central Chile, Southwestern part of South Africa, Southwest,
and Southern Australia.
Steppe type of climate:([Link] PM):
• Warm temperate continental type.
• Precipitation is higher than in tropical grasslands due to the influence of temperate
cyclones during winters.
• During summers the precipitation is through convection resulting in moderate
rainfall throughout the year.
• The grass is short and green.
• Soil is very fertile.
• They are known for large-scale commercial agriculture and animal rearing.
• Regions-Steppes of Central Asia, Prairies in North America, Pampas in South
America, Velds in south Africa, Downs in Australia, etc.
China Type of Climate:
• warm temperate eastern margin.
• Precipitation is throughout the year.
• In summer, they are affected by tropical cyclones and in winter they are under the
influence of temperate cyclones.
• Summers>> Not too hot, Winters>> Not too cold.
• Vegetation is dense and luxurious.
• Deciduous and evergreen species.
• Regoins>> Southeastern USA, SE Brazil, South Eastern China, SE South Africa, SE
Australia.
Laurentian type of climate:
• Cool temperate eastern margin.
• Temperature ranges between 20 degrees in summers to below zero degrees in
winters.
• Rainfall> throughout the year but more in summers.
• Under the influence of temperate cyclones.
• Vegetation- Upto 50 degrees N and S is deciduous and broad-leaved and beyond
that it is coniferous.
• Regions-Eastern Canada, NE USA, Northern China, Korea, and Japan, SE Argentina.
Next class-Continuation of the climatic regions.
Geography Class 30
Brief Discussion of Previous Class (5:09 PM)
Siberian Type (5:15 PM)
• This is also called cool temperate continental

•
• Summers are hotter, and winters are extremely cold and dry.
• This results in anti-cyclonic circulations.
• The rainfall is through the convection in summer, and through the snowfall in
winter
• Vegetation is coniferous and is in the single largest stretch of vegetation on the
earth.
• It is low in biodiversity but high in economic value.
• It is the only climate that is exclusively present in the northern hemisphere.
• Regions: Siberia, Russia, Poland, Scandinavia, Canada, Alaska
British Climate(5:30 PM)
• Cool Temperate Western Margin
 •
• They are under the influence of Offshore westerlies, throughout the year.
• This causes precipitation which is moderate throughout the year.
• They are under the influence of warm ocean currents, which keep their ports ice-
free even during winter.
• It is known for its characteristic mild winter and cool summer.
• Vegetation is a mixed type, i.e. mixture of broad-leaf and coniferous.
• Regions: United Kingdom, Norway, the western coast of Western Europe, Western
Canada, Southern Chile, New Zealand, and Tasmania.
Polar type of Climate (5:40 PM)
• It is also known as the Tundra type of Climate.
• It is covered with ice throughout the year.
• During summers when the snow melts, vegetation grows stunted, like mosses,
sedges, and lichens.
• The rest of the region is covered with permafrost.
• Regions: Any region beyond the Arctic and Antarctic circles.
Koeppen Classification
Oceanography (6:03 PM)
• Ocean bottom Topography
• Ocean temperature
• Salinity
• Ocean Deposits
• Coral reefs
• Oceanic Currents and Circulations
• El Nino and related phenomena
• Tides
Ocean Bottom Topography (6:24 PM)

•
• Continental shelf
• (a) These are submerged shallow portions of the continental crust with depths
between 150-200 m
• (b) It is rich in sunlight, oxygen, and nutrients, which favours the growth of
plankton.
 • (c) The width of the continental shelf is dependent upon the slope of the adjacent
land.
• (d) It is wider along the coastal plain, and narrow along the mountainous coast.
• (e) The continental shelf is rich in biodiversity and is known for its rich fishing
grounds.
• Continental Slope
• (a) It is the boundary between continents and oceans, formed by the outer edge of
the continents.
• (b) They are much steeper than the continental shelf
• Continental Rise
• (a) It is the base of the continental slope, with a lower slope.
• (b) It continues into abyssal plains.
Submarine Canyon (6:54 PM)
• These are the canyons, formed along the continental shelf and slope, because of
the turbidity currents of the river, entering the ocean.
• Abyssal Plain
• They are also called Oceanic basins
• They are tectonically inactive oceanic floors, with relatively smooth surfaces.
• The average depth varies between 3000-6000m
• Seamounts
• These are isolated volcanic features and volcanic mountains formed due to
volcanic activities, along hotspots and subduction zones.
• Volcanic Islands, Island Arc, Archipelago
• These are formed due to volcanic activities along the subduction zones and
hotspots.
• (* Formation has been covered in Plate tectonics)
• Guyots
• While seamounts are sharply pointed, guyots are flat-topped hills, with summits
below the water level.
• Mid-Oceanic Ridges
• They are formed along Ocean-Ocean divergent plate boundaries.
• Trenches
• They are formed along the Ocean-Ocean convergence and Ocean-continental
convergence plate boundaries.
Temperature (7:17 PM)
• Differences concerning the Atmosphere
• (a) The water heats up slowly and cools down slowly.
• (b) The sunlight penetrates only upto 200m
• (c) The albedo of the open ocean is low compared to land.
• (d) The temperature distribution through mixing is slower.
• Factors
• (a) Latitudes
• In Lower latitudes, higher insolation results in higher temperatures.
• Along, higher latitudes, lower insolation, and lower intensity cause lower
temperatures.
• (b) Winds
• Winds help in the distribution of temperature across the globe.
• For Example, in the regions where westerlies are active, water temperature remains
higher, than in the region of polar easterlies.
• (c) Ocean currents
• They help in heat balance, between the equatorial and polar regions.
• Warm ocean currents increase the temperature, and cold Ocean current decreases
it.
• (d) Role of Landmass
• The seas which are surrounded will have higher water temperatures, than open
ocean waters.
• Vertical distribution

•
• The first layer is called Epilimnion (up to 200m)
• The second layer is called Thermocline (or Metalimnion) (200-1000m)
• The third layer is called Hypolimnion (beyond 1000m)
• Epilimnion:
• It extends up to 200m in depth.
• The average temperature is between 20-25 degrees celsius.
• It is a zone of constant sunlight and mixing due to winds.
• It is a zone of uniform temperature.
• It is the zone of Life
• Thermocline:
• It is the twilight zone, because of the very low amount of sunlight.
• The temperature decreases rapidly with depth.
• Hypolimnion:
 • It is a zone of uniform and very cold temperatures.
• The average temperature is nearly 4 degrees Celsius
• It is because seawater attains maximum density at 4 degrees Celsius.
• It is also known as a dark zone.
• Horizontal Distribution
• The surface temperature lies between 20-25 degrees Celsius in tropical regions and
decreases gradually towards the polar region.
• The three distinctive layers are visible along tropical regions.
• However, along polar regions, there will be a single uniform layer of cold
temperature.
Salinity (7:50 PM)
• Salinity is the number of grams of dissolved salts in a thousand grams of seawater.
• It is measured as parts per thousand (ppt).
• The average salinity of Earth's ocean is 35 ppt.
• Sources of salinity
• Sources of addition
• (a) Sediments brought by rivers, which get dissolved over a long period of life.
• (b) Volcanic eruptions along the oceanic floor
• (c) Evaporation in Ocean
• The salinity of oceans always remains constant.
• The factors increasing salinity are balanced by the factors decreasing salinity.
• Sources reducing salinity
• (a) Addition of river water
• (b) Rainfall
• (c) Ice melting
• (d) precipitation of salts along the oceanic floors.
• Dissolved salts in Sea Water (Decreasing Order): Chlorine, sodium, sulfate,
magnesium, Calcium
The Topic for the Next class: Oceanography (continued)
Geography Class 31
Revision of the previous class (05:11 PM)
Factors influencing salinity (05:23 PM)
• a)Temperature: The higher temperature will result in Higher salinity
• b)Wind speed: Higher wind speed causes a higher rate of evaporation resulting in
higher salinity.
• c)Ocean Currents: Help distribute salinity from one region to another.
• Regions for Higher salinity
• Also, Refer World map as drawn in the class.
• Sub-Tropical Regions: Due to the Higher rate of Evaporation. Examples:
Mediterranean sea, Red sea, Persian Gulf, and Sub-tropical regions of the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans.
• Regions with below-average salinity: North sea, Baltic sea, Berring sea, Arctic
Ocean, Southern Ocean
• Regions with Exceptionally High salinity: Lake van, Dead sea, and Great salt lake.
Oceanic Deposits (05:37 PM)
• Terrigenous Deposit: Deposits are derived from the land and found in oceans
which is why also known as Lithigeneous. Example: Sand, Gravel, Mud, silt.
 • Biogeneous Deposits: Shells, Corals, Ooze(These are the deposits derived from
calcareous and silicious shells and skeletal remains of marine microorganisms.
Biogeneous deposits are also called organic deposits.
• Hydrogenous Deposits: Example: Salt, Polymetallic nodules.
• Cosmogenous Deposits: Meteorites debris.
Coral Reefs (05:47 PM)

• Coral Reefs are masses of limestone and dolomite accumulated by a lime-secreting

organism called coral polyps.
• They are developed due to the symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and
zooxanthellae algae.
• The coral reef provides habitat to nearly 31 phyla of Animals leading to Rich
biodiversity, Therefore they are also called rainforests of oceans.
• Conditions
• a)Temperature: 20 degrees celsius, Not beyond 30 degrees North and south
latitude.
• b)Depth: Maximum depth between 200-250 feet below sea level.
• c)Sediment-free water: Therefore coral reefs are not found near deltas.
• d)Salinity: Average of 35 parts per thousand.
• e)A platform on which the corals can build reefs i.e Continental shelves.
• Corals are not found in the western margins of the continents due to cold ocean
currents.
Distribution (06:15 PM)
• Atlantic Ocean: Around the Caribbean sea, Mexico, and the surrounding regions.
• Indian Ocean: Red sea, Persian gulf, western and Northern Indian ocean, A&N
islands, Lakshwadeep, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutchh, Maharashtra Coast, and Goa
Karnataka coast.
• Southeast Asia and Pacific: Covering Coral Triangle from Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, and Australia(Great Barrier Reef), The islands of the pacific ocean.
• Types of Coral Reefs (06:24 PM)
• Fringing Reefs

•
 • A narrow and discontinuous patch of coral reef located near the coast. Example
coral reef of the Caribbean sea.
• Barrier Reef

•
• A wide and continuous coral reef located far from the coast and is separated by a
lagoon, Example: Great Barrier Reef.
• Atoll Reef

•
• A circular Coral reef developed around a sea mount or Gyot or island. Ex:
Lakshwadeep, Maldives, and islands of the pacific ocean.
Coral Bleaching (06:34 PM)
• Corals receive their colouration from zooxanthellae.
• Coral Bleaching refers to the loss of colour of corals due to the stress-induced
expulsion of symbiotic algae.
• The reasons behind coral bleaching are:
• Changes in water temperature, salinity, Increased sedimentation, Increased
pollution, and Ocean [Link] incidence of cyclones, Storms, and
Elnino.
• Examples of Coral Bleaching: Between 2014 to 2017, Due to El Nino the Great
Barrier Reef was bleached by nearly 50%.
• In 1997-98 the Northern Indian ocean lost the majority of coral reefs.
Oceanic circulation (07:18 PM)
• Surface/Ocean Current
• An ocean current is the general movement of the ocean's surface water in a definite
direction over long distances.
• Types of ocean currents:
• a)Warm Ocean current: Moves from Equator to pole
• b)Cold ocean current: Moves from poles to the Equator.
• Factors affecting ocean currents
• Winds: The steady blowing of winds drag the surface water in its direction and
brings about the surface flow and sets the water currents in motion.
• The shape of the Coastline and Topography: Modify the ocean currents' direction.
 • Differences in temperature, salinity, and density: Cause the water to move and
reduce variations such differences guide the movement of ocean currents.
• Coriolis force: It causes ocean currents to deflect right in the Northern hemisphere
and left in the southern hemisphere.
Ocean Currents of the world (07:45 PM)

• Currents of the Atlantic Ocean

• Under Trade winds influence
• a)North Equatorial current
• b) South Equatorial current
• c)Counter Equatorial current which goes along the Equator in the west-to-east
direction.
• d)Florida current: Anteles +Gulf current, Along the coast of Florida.
• e)Gulf stream: Towards the Northeast direction, USA coast.
• f)North Atlantic Drift: Gulf stream takes a total right turn once it crosses
Newfoundland under the influence of westerlies and Coriolis force.
• g)Norweigian current: Along the coast of Norway
• h)The canary current: A cold current, Along the canary islands, flowing southwards.
• Two cold ocean currents Labrador and the East Greenland current. Labrador joint
Gulf stream and East Greenland joins North Atlantic Drift.
• Seaweed in the Gyre grows which is known as sargasso that is what the sea is
known as Sargasso sea.
The Topic for the next class: El Nino
Geography Class 32
Brief Discussion on the Previous Class (5:13 PM)
Currents of the South Atlantic Ocean (5:22 PM)
• South equatorial current, which moves along Brazil forms the Brazilian current. It
is a warm current.
• The Brazilian current gets deflected towards the left in the southern hemisphere
(Due to Coriolis force) and joins the West Wind Drift.
• West Wind Drift is a cold current, which circulates the continent of Antarctica. (It
flows under the influence of Westerlies).
• The Brazilian current once when comes under the influence of West wind drift is
called South Atlantic Drift.
 • Near the coast of Africa, it turns upward and is known as Cold Benguela Current.
• Benguela current is responsible for the formation of the Namib and Kalahari
Deserts.
• Cold Benguela current joins the South Equatorial current.
• Falkland Current flows along the eastern coast of the South American continent.
• Gyre is formed in the South Atlantic Ocean,
Currents of the Pacific Ocean (5:34 PM)
• North Equatorial current gets divided by the archipelago and turns rightward. This
current is known as Warm Kuroshio Current (along the coast of Japan).
• It is a warm current moving along the coast of the Philippines and Japan.
• The North Pacific Current is an ocean current that flows west-to-east between 30
and 50 degrees north in the Pacific Ocean.
• It gets divided near the North American Continent.
• One branch moves upward and is known as Warm Alaskan Current.
• Another branch moves southward and is known as the cold California Current.
• Cold California Current joins the North Equatorial Current. therefore a gyre is
formed here.
• Near Sakhalin Island, there are two cold currents- Oyashio Current and Okhotsk
Current.
Southern Pacific Ocean
• The southern equatorial current moves down and is called Warm East Australian
Current.
• Coming down, it joins West wind drift and is known as Cold South Pacific Drift.
• Then it flows along the coast of the South American continent and is known as the
cold Humboldt Current.
• Then, finally, it joins the South Equatorial current.
Indian Ocean currents (5:48 PM)
• Southern Indian Ocean
• There is a Southern equatorial current.
• It gets divided into two currents by Madagascar: Mozambique current and
Madagascar Current
• Mozambique and Madagascar combine to form the Agulhas current.
• It flows along with West Wind Drift and then, moves along the western coast of
Australia. It is then known as Western Australian Current.
• Western Australian Current then, merges with the Southern Equatorial current.
• Northern Indian Ocean
 •
• Here, the wind reversal takes place. Also, there is huge dominance of land in the
Northern Indian Ocean.
• Winters
• We have North Equatorial Current, South Equatorial current, and Counter
equatorial current during the winter.
• North equatorial current flows westward, above the equator.
• Counter equatorial current flows in between the North and South Equatorial
Currents.
• The Northeast monsoon drives the water of the Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea to
circulate in an anti-clockwise direction as the Northeast monsoon drift.
• Summers
• The entire water of the Northern Indian Ocean comes under the influence of the
Southwest Monsoon.
• This produces a clockwise flow of the southwest monsoon drift.
• During this time, there are no north equatorial currents and counter equatorial
currents.
Significance of Ocean Currents (6:25 PM)
• (a) The continuous movement of water from east to west in the tropical region
causes cold water upwelling, along the eastern parts of oceans.
• This causes a drop in the temperature
• (b) Accumulation of warm waters along the western parts of the ocean in tropical
regions, leads to a rise in water temperature.
• (c) The western parts of the Ocean within the tropical regions, experience
favourable conditions for the formation of cyclones.
 • (d) The cold ocean currents along the western coast in sub-tropical regions,
suppress precipitation through the desiccation effect.
• It contributes to the formation of deserts. For example, the Kalahari desert and
Namib desert due to the Benguela current, the Atacama desert due to the
Humboldt current, etc.
• (e) Warm and Cold ocean currents merge near the temperate regions to create
favourable conditions for the development of large-scale fishing banks.
• For Example Grand Bank (near Newfoundland Island due to the merging of labrador
current with the gulf stream)
• (f) The off-shore winds along the western margins of the continent, in tropical and
sub-tropical regions push the surface water away.
• This causes the cold water from the bottom to rise upwards to the surface.
• This brings cold and nutrient-rich water to the surface through upwelling.
• The reasons for upwelling support large-scale fishing growth. For example, the
Humboldt current along the coast of Peru and chile.
• (g) Ocean Currents help in the global distribution of temperature and salinity.
• (h) the warm ocean currents in the temperate region along the western coast of
continents, result in mild winters and keep the port ice-free.
• For example, North Atlantic Drift along Britain.
• (i) Ocean currents can be used in navigation, to find directions in the open oceans.
• (j) The merging of Warm and Cold Ocean currents results in fog formation, which
may obstruct ocean navigation.
Upwelling and downwelling (7:17 PM)
• Downwelling
• The on-shore winds pile up the water near the coast, causing the sinking of water
below the surface layer.
• Downwelling is more active where warm and cold ocean currents meet.
• Upwelling
• The off-shore winds push the surface water away and cause the cold water from the
bottom to rise from the surface.
• Upwelling is more active in the regions of cold ocean currents.
• In Polar regions, ice formation leaves the water saltier and denser causing it to sink.
Thermohaline Circulation (7:21 PM)
 •
• The deep ocean currents are driven by differences in the water density, which is
controlled by the temperature and salinity and is called thermohaline circulation.
• The circulation begins near polar regions, of the downwelling where ice formation
leaves the water saltier and denser leading to the sinking.
• This underwater current moves in a single and continuous belt across the different
oceans.
• They are connected to surface water currents in the regions of upwelling.
• They are also called Great Ocean Conveyor belts.
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (7:46 PM)
• AMOC is a part of the thermohaline circulation, in the Atlantic ocean.
• The recent report of the IPCC, talks about the weakening of AMOC, due to global
warming.
• Factors responsible for the weakening
• (a) The temperature difference between the tropical and polar regions is decreasing
due to the warming of the arctic region.
• This weakens the north Atlantic drift.
• (b) The excessive addition of freshwater due to increased melting of ice in polar
regions.
• This reduces downwelling as the freshwater is less dense.
• Impacts
• (a) Western European countries will experience harsh winters and frozen ports.
• (b) Western parts of Oceans in the tropical regions, will experience a rise in sea
levels.
• (c) Increased occurrence of cyclones in tropical waters.
• (d) Disturbance of fishing zones.
• (e) Disturbance of marine ecosystem.
• Water Mass (7:53 PM)
 •
• It is a body of water with uniform characteristics of temperature and salinity.
• They are three types:
• (a) surface water mass- For example, Antarctic Surface Water mass
• (b) Intermediate water mass: For example Sub tropical Intermediate water mass of
the Atlantic Ocean.
• (c) Deepwater mass: For example, North Atlantic Deep Water Mass
• water mass helps in the generation and maintenance of thermohaline circulation.
• they result in upwelling and downwelling.
• The movement of water mass helps distribute temperature, salinity, and oxygen.
• The uniformity of conditions, within water mass, supports plankton and coral
growth.
The Topic for the next Class: El Nino and the related phenomena
Geography Class 33

Discussions on the last Class (5:10 PM)

Walker circulation (5:39 PM)
• Along the western coast of South America, the ITCZ is usually above the equator
throughout the year, this results in strong trade winds.
• The offshore trade winds push the water, away from the coast, causing cold water
upwelling, along the eastern pacific in addition to existing cold ocean currents.
• This reduces the water temperature and the air above this cold water is dry and
stabilized, and Convection is suppressed.
• Water flows westward as southeast trade winds blow toward the western pacific
region.
• This water gets heated up and rises through convection causing cloud formation
and precipitation along the western pacific.
• The rising air flows eastward, in the upper troposphere, and descends along the
eastern pacific completing the cell.
• This results in high pressure and low temperature, in the eastern pacific ocean.
• And high temperature and low pressure in the western pacific region.
• This results in the convective cell, known as walker circulation.
 • In normal conditions, the eastern pacific coast experiences, drought, and the
western pacific experiences good rainfall.

•
El Nino (6:07 PM)
• Once in 3-7 years in October-November, the ITCZ moves too much south to the
equator.
• This results in the weakening of trade winds and disruption of upwelling.
• The warm tropical surface waters, earlier flowing towards the west, flow back
eastwards, causing a further reduction in the upwelling.
• This results in warm surface water on the coast, of central and South America,
which is called as El-Nino.
• The appearance of El Nino causes the air pressure to drop over the eastern pacific
coast and rise over the western pacific.
• This see-saw variation, of air pressure, is called El Nino southern oscillation (ENSO)
• El Nino causes heavy precipitation along the eastern pacific and drought conditions
along the western pacific.
•
• After one or two years the enhanced Hadley circulation strengthens the trade winds
and increases the upwelling, bringing back the normal condition
• Impacts of El NINO
• (a) The disturbance of the walker circulation causes the disturbance in global
weather patterns and the convective cycles are also disturbed in other oceans.
• (b) It causes drought and dry conditions in India and Australia.
• (c) It negatively impacts Indian Monsoon, causing delays in monsoon, a decrease in
precipitation as well as an increase in the number of breaks in monsoon.
• (d) It causes heavy precipitation along the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile.
• (e) The dry condition in India and Australia triggers forest fires and bushfires.
• (f) the warm water along the eastern pacific along Peru and chile coast inhibits the
growth of plankton and algae and suppresses upwelling devastating the marine
ecosystem, and killing fish on large scale.
• (g) It results in a catastrophic impact on the fishing and fertilizer industry.
• (h) the decomposition of fish releases hydrogen sulfide, causing dark waters and
making it toxic.
• (i) El Nino years cause mass coral bleaching due to disturbance of the stable
conditions and higher temperature.
 • (j) It results in severe dust storms in India and Australia.
• (k) During El NINO, high-pressure conditions in the Caribbean Sea, Western Pacific,
and Bay of Bengal suppress the cyclone formation.
• The strongest recorded El Nino was in 1982-83, 1997-98, and 2014-16, 2018-19.
La Nina (6:27 PM)
• El Nino is usually followed by La Nina.
• It is the intensified high pressure, and cold temperature along the eastern pacific
and lower low pressure and higher high temperature along the western pacific.
• This causes very heavy precipitation, in India and Australia, resulting in floods.
• The La Nina Years, 2020-21, 21-22, 22-23. This is called Triple Dip. (La Nina
consecutively in three years)
El Nino Modoki (7:21 PM)
• Modoki means similar but different.
• While El Nino is characterized by strong warming in the eastern pacific ocean, El
Nino Modoki results in warming in the central pacific with cooling in the eastern
and western pacific oceans.
• It creates a two-cell Walker circulation over the tropical pacific region, with
precipitation in the central part and dry conditions in the eastern and western
parts.
• While El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Caribbean sea, El Nino Modoki
results in increased hurricanes.
• During this time, the number of cyclones is more in the Arabian sea, than in the Bay
of Bengal

•
Madden Julian oscillation (MJO) (7:39 PM)
• Unlike ENSO which is stationary, MJO is an eastward moving disturbance of clouds,
rainfall, winds, and pressure that traverses the planet in the tropics and returns to
its initial starting point in 30-60 days on average.
• MJO has two parts, the convective part with enhanced rainfall and the subsiding
part with suppressed rainfall.
• MJO can influence the timing and strength of monsoons, as well as tropical
cyclones.
• MJO can increase or decrease the impact of El Nino on India.
 •

Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) (7:44 PM)

• The difference in sea-surface temperature between the Western Arabian sea and
the eastern Indian Ocean, near Indonesia and Australia is called as Indian Ocean
Dipole.
• Similar to MJO, it is a coupled ocean and atmospheric phenomenon.
• Positive IOD
• Warm sea surface in the western part compared to the east.
• Less rainfall in Indonesia and Australia.
• It is good for Indian Monsoon.
• Reduces the impact of El Nino on India.
• Arabian sea experiences a higher number of cyclones than the Bay of Bengal.
• Negative IOD
• Warm sea surface along the eastern part than the western part.
• More rainfall in Indonesia and Australia.
• Negatively impacts the Indian Monsoon.
• Increases the effect of El Nino on India.
The topics for the Next Class: Heat Domes, Biogeography
Geography Class 34
Discussion on the last class (5:12 PM)
Heat Dome (5:36 PM)
• The phenomena of heat dome that occurred in Canada and the USA in 2021.
• It occurs when the atmosphere traps hot air like a lid
• It is due to when the combined effect of La Nina and weakened Jet streams.
• La Nina results in strong subsidence of hot air, along the eastern pacific.
• Jet streams when weakened start to meander in their path.
• This weakened Jet stream, meandering too much allows the hot air from the
tropical region to reach the higher latitude and traps the hot air descending due to
La Nina too.
 • This results in higher than normal temperatures causing the heat dome.

•
Tides (6:03 PM)
• The regular rise and fall of water levels in the world's oceans resulting from
gravitational attraction by the moon and the sun is called Tides.
• The combined gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon pulls the oceanic water in a
bulge.
• The centrifugal force due to the earth's revolution pulls another bulge, in the
opposite direction.
• The bulges in one direction create low water in another.
• As the earth rotates, the position of high and low waters change across the surface.
 •
• Factors Affecting Tides
• (a) Gravitation pull of Sun and Moon
• (b) Relative position of the Sun and Moon
• (c) Centrifugal force of earth's revolution.
• (d) Uneven distribution of Water
• (e) Ocean Bottom topography
• Types of Tides
• (a) Spring tide
• These are very high, high tide, and very low tides.
• They are experienced when the sun, earth, and moon are in a straight position.
• This is called syzygy
• The conjunction is when the earth, moon, and sun are in E-M-S
• Opposition is when alignment is M-E-S
• (b) Neap tide
• These are smaller high tides and smaller low tides.
• A neap tide is when the sun and moon are in a perpendicular direction.
• The position is called Quadrature.
• The tides which are observed twice a day are called semi-diurnal tides
• Those which are observed once a day are called Diurnal tides.
• Significance of Tides
• (a) Tidal power generation
• (b) It helps in navigation for the tidal ports.
• (c) It helps in fishing activities.
• (d) Helps in maintaining higher biodiversity along the tidal range.
• (e) Helps in the natural cleansing of the coasts.
• (f) It restricts the delta formation, as it doesn't allow the sediments to accumulate.
• (g) At other places it causes coastal erosion.
Maritime Zones (6:42 PM)
 •
• Baseline
• It is the average line where the land ends and the ocean begins.
• Internal Waters
• It includes all the water bodies along the landward side of the baseline.
• Territorial Sea
• It is 12 nm from the baseline.
• A country exercises sovereign jurisdiction on the bottom, surface, and air. However,
innocent passage is allowed with restrictions.
• Contiguous Zone
• It is up to 24 nm from the baseline.
• Sovereign jurisdiction over the bottom and surface but not in the air.
• Exclusive Economic Zone
• up to 200 nm from the baseline.
• A country can exploit the resources on the ocean floor.
• It extends beyond 200 nm if the continental shelf crosses it.
• It will be allowed till the edge of the continental shelf.
• High seas
• International waters come under International Seabed Authority.
Biogeography (7:12 PM)
• It is the study of the soil in relation to vegetation.
• Soil
• The loose surface material consists of inorganic and organic matter and is the
source of water and nutrients for the vegetation.
• True soil is characterized by distinct horizons and the capacity to support
vegetation.
• Horizon
• Horizon is a distinguishable layer in the soil that has certain chemicals and a
distinct colour.
• Regolith
• The layer of unconsolidated materials is derived from weathering of the parent
rock.
 • Soil Profile
• It is the vertical arrangement of the horizons down to the parent rock material.

•
Soil Formation (7:45 PM)
• Soil depends on five major factors: Parent rock, climate, organism, relief, and time.
• Parent Rock Material
• It decides the texture, colour, and basic mineral composition of the soil.
• For Example Quartzite rocks, result in a sandy texture.
• However, the role of the parent rock decreases with time.
• Climate
• It is the most dominant factor which affects the soil directly, by controlling
weathering, percolation, and other processes.
• It results in the development of different horizons.
• Organisms
• Plant roots, burrowing animals, and microorganisms help in loosening up the soil
and better air and nutrient circulation.
• Relief
• It determines the thickness of the soil.
• Time
• It controls the other factors and determines the maturity of soil.
• Soil Formation Processes
• Transformational Process
• The change of soil constituents from one form to another through breakdown,
weathering, decay, etc.
• Translocational Process
• It involves the movement of soil constituents from one horizon to another within
the soil profile.
• Eluviation: The downward transport process through which the minerals are
removed from the top layer
 • Illuviation: It is the reverse of eluviation, in which matter accumulates in the lower
horizon.
• Leaching: the percolating water removes humus and the soluble bases from the
upper horizon and deposits them in the lower horizon through the process of
leaching.
• Leaching is more active in humid regions.
The Topic for the next class: Soil (continued), Mapping, and Indian Geography.
Geography Class 35
A brief discussion on the previous class (5:10 PM)
Laterization (5:34 PM)
• It is active in hot and wet equatorial regions.
• Heavy leaching removes silica and other minerals, except for iron and aluminium,
which accumulate at the surface, forming a hard crust.
• This process is called Laterization.
• It results in laterite soil.
• It is slightly acidic.
Podzolization(5:42 PM)
• It occurs in temperate regions and mountainous regions.
• The decomposition of coniferous litter releases organic acids.
• During precipitation, the water mixing through these organic acids creates a
strongly acidic solution that removes iron, aluminium, organic matter, and other
minerals except silica.
• This leaves the top layer acidic.
• It results in podzol soil.
Calcification (5:55 PM)
• It occurs in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
• Water rises through capillary action in the soil.
• It causes the deposition of calcium carbonate in the top layer
• It is more active in temperate grasslands.
• It results in the black earth
Salinization
• It involves the accumulation of highly soluble sodium and magnesium salts, in the
topsoil.
• It is due to excessive evaporation, and very less precipitation.
• It is active in arid and semi-arid regions
• It is also common in the regions of flood irrigation.
Gleisation
• It occurs in water-logged conditions.
• The colour of topsoil changes due to the reduction reactions.
• It involves the accumulation of organic matter in the upper layers of the soil.
• It is common in coastal regions along lagoons and deltas.
Distribution of Soils (6:04 PM)
• Two types of soil- Pedocal and Pedalfers
• Pedocal
• Net upward movement of water
• evaporation exceeds precipitation
• Types are Prairie soil, chernozem soil, chestnut soil, Desert soil
 • Pedalfer
• Net downward movement
• Precipitation exceeds evaporation
• Types are Laterite soil, red soil, Podzol soil
• USDA Classification
•

Entisol Fresh Alluvium

Inceptisol Old alluvial, volcanic soil

Spodosol Podzol soil

Leached Soil with Al and

Alfisol
Fe

Ultisol Leached Soil

The top layer is

Oxisol weathered with rich Al
and Fe

Vertisol Black Soil

Peaty Soil rich in Organic

Histosal
Matter

Mollisol Prairie Soil

Aridisol Desert Soil

Mapping (6:18 PM)
• Europe
• Seas: Mediterranean Sea, Adriatic Sea, Black sea, Caspian sea
• Mountains: Ural mountains, Alps mountain, Caucasus mountain, Mt Elbrus
• Countries: Vatican City
• Cities: Istanbul, Rome
• North America:
• Sea: Californian bay, Gulf of Mexico, Bering sea
• Mountains: Rocky Mountains, Appalachian mountains, Mt Denali
• Places: Death Valley
• Latin America: Except for Greenland, Canada, and USA, all other countries in the
North and South American continent.
• South America
• Places: Drake Passage, Valdes Peninsula, Angel falls
• Mountains: Andes Mountains, Mt Aconcagua, Ojas del salado
• Rivers: Amazon, Lake Orninoco
• Oceania (7:18 PM)
• Countries: Australia, New Zealand
• Island groups are divided into Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia
• Micronesia includes Caroline Island, Kiribati, etc
• Melanesia includes New Guinea, Fiji, etc
 • Polynesia includes Hawai, New Zealand, Tonga island, Easter Island
• Places: Great Dividing Range, Great Barrier Reef, Mt Wilhelm, Southern Alps
• Antarctica
• Antarctic treaty System, 1961 held that Antarctica can be used only for peaceful
experiments.
• The base stations of India in Antarctica are Dakshin Gangotri, Maithri, and
Bharati.
• India (7:38 PM)
• We have both land and maritime neighbours.
• Land Neighbours are Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and
Myanmar.
• Afghanistan shares a border with India along Wakhan Corridor.
• Countries arranged in order of length of the border with India: Bangladesh(4000
km)> China(3500 km)>Pakistan(3300 km)>Myanmar(1700 km)>Nepal(1650
km)>Bhutan(700 km)>Afghanistan(100 km)
• Countries with maritime boundaries: Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Maldives, Indonesia, Thailand
• Union territories of India: Andaman and Nicobar islands, The Government of NCT of
Delhi, Ladakh, Puducherry, Lakshadweep, Jammu and Kashmir, Chandigarh, and
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
• The highest peak in India is K2 and the Second highest peak is Kanchenjunga
• The lowest point in India is in Kuttanad (Kerala)
The topic for the next class: Physical geography of India
Geography Class 36
A brief discussion of the Previous Class (5:11 PM)
Mapping(5:25 PM)
• Sikkim and Meghalaya share a border with only one state.
• Sikkim shares a border with West Bengal only. Meghalaya Shares a border with
Assam only.
• Telangana doesn't share a border with Odisha.
• Madhya Pradesh doesn't share a border with Jharkhand.
• Yamuna flows through Himachal Pradesh as well.
Physiography of India (7:53 PM)
Subcontinent
• Subcontinent is the large landmass i.e. part of the continent but is considered
separate from the rest of the continent.
• For example, the Indian subcontinent, Alaskan Subcontinent, etc.
• Reasons for considering India as a subcontinent.
• (a) Geographical reasons
• Geographically, the Indian subcontinent has well-defined physical boundaries,
such as the Himalayas and the Hindukush in the north, Purvanchal in the east, and
the Indian Ocean in the South.
• (b) Geological reasons
• The countries of the Indian subcontinent share common geological history, such as
the formation of the Himalayas, northern plains, etc.
• (c) Common climatic conditions
• All these countries experience monsoon types of climate.
 • (d) Political reasons
• They share a common political identity i.e. South Asia.
• (e) Historical and Cultural reasons
• They share a common history, ruled by large empires such as Mauryan, Mughal, etc.
• They also share a common culture of language, festivals, etc.
Mountains of India (6:05 PM)
Himalayas
• Origin of the Himalayas
• (Discussed in the Plate tectonic Class. Please refer to the notes of those classes.)
• Different stages in the formation of the Himalayas
• The Himalayas were formed in three different phases,
• (a) First Stage between 120-70 million years ago
• During this stage, great Himalayas were formed.
• (b) Second stage between 30-25 million years ago.
• This resulted in the formation of the middle Himalayas.
• (c) Third stage between 20-2 million years ago
• This resulted in the formation of the Shivaliks.
• Syntaxial Bending
• It refers to a deep knee bent, with the strike of the ridges suddenly turning at right
angles.
• It is due to the maximum push offered at both ends of the Indian Peninsula during
its northward drift.
• In the northwest direction, the Aravalis and in the northeast the Assam ranges
acted as two extended arms, while the central area sagged giving an arcuate shape.
• Evidence to prove that the Himalayas are still rising
• (a) Frequent earthquakes
• (b) Recent adjustment in the height of Himalayan peaks.
• (c) Frequent disturbance in the topographies.
• (d) The rivers of the Himalayas, are in the youthful stage over a long time.
• (e) Drying up of lakes of Tibet, which shows that the Tibetan plateau is still rising.
• (Kindly refer to the diagram drawn by the faculty in the class for understanding the
Fracture Zones of the Himalayas)
Regional Division of Himalayas (7:17 PM)
• The Himalayas are divided by rivers. This classification is called regional division.
The main classifications are:
• (a) Kashmir Himalayas
• Between the river Sutlej and Indus
• (b) Kumaon Himalayas
• Between the river Sutlej and Kali
• (c) Nepal Himalayas
• Between the river Kali and Teesta
• (d) Assam Himalayas
• Between the river Teesta and Brahmaputra.
•

Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas

It includes Punjab and Kumaon It includes Sikkim and Arunachal

Himalayas. Himalayas.
 It is between River Teesta and the
It is between River Indus and River Kali.
Brahmaputra.

These are wider. These are narrower.

Middle Himalayas and Shivaliks are These have merged in the eastern
separate. Himalayas.

These are taller. These are comparatively shorter.

These rise gradually. These rise abruptly.

The temperature of the western Himalayas The temperature of the eastern Himalayas
is comparatively higher. is comparatively higher.
Evergreen and deciduous types of
Coniferous type of vegetation.
vegetation.

Lower biodiversity. Higher biodiversity

Lower precipitation. Higher precipitation.

Snowline at the lower altitude Snowline at the higher altitude.

Longitudinal Division (7:36 PM)
• (a) Trans Himalayas
• Karakoram range, Zaskar range, Ladakh range and Kailash range.
• (b) Great Himalayas
• It extends from Nanga Parbat to Namcha Barwa.
• These are also known as Himadri.
• (c) Middle Himalayas/ Lesser Himalayas/ Himachal
• These are discontinuous ranges.
• Pir Panjal range, Dhauladhar range, Mahabharat range, etc.
• the average height is 4000 m.
• (d) Shivaliks
• The average height is just 1000m.
• Dafla, Mirim Abhor, and Mishmi are parts of the Middle Himalayas and Shivaliks.
• (e) Purvachal
• These are hills of the northeast.
• It includes Mizo hills, Tripura Hills, Naga Hills, etc.
The Topics for the Next Class: Mountains of India (Continued)
Geography Class 37
Geography Class 37 [Link]
A brief overview of the previous class i.e. Himalayas and Q&A session
The Peninsular Block [Link]
• The peninsular block is a great complex of Ancient rocks which has existed as a
single rigid block for Millions of years
• It extends from Gujarat in the west to Meghalaya in the east and from Plains in the
north to the southern tip of India in the south
• [* Why did Meghalaya get separated?- A gap was formed named as "Malda gap" or
"Garo-Rajmahal gap"]
 •
• This region was subjected to a few episodes of Tectonic activity
• 1) Submergence of the Western part of Western Ghats
• 2) Formation of Rift Valleys such as Narmada-Tapi etc
• 3) Formation of Deccan traps when the Indian plate was moving towards the
Eurasian plate and it encountered the Reunion Hotspots

•
Mountain ranges in Peninsular Block [Link]
• Arvallis- Old fold mountains of earlier times
• Vindhyas and Satpuras- Block mountains
• From north to south- Vindhya> Satpura> Narmada> Tapi
• Western Ghats
• Eastern Ghats
Western Ghat and Eastern Ghat comparison [Link]
•
Western
Eastern Ghats
Ghats
Gujarat (south South of
Extent of Tapi) to Mahanadi to
kanyakumari Nilgiri
Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra
Goa, Pradesh,
Karnataka, Telangana,
Kerala, Tamilnadu,
Tamilnadu Karnataka
States
 Discontinuous
[* Due to the
rivers coming
Continuity Continuous from the west
which has
eroded the
eastern Ghats]

These are These are a bit

Slope
taller shorter

Narrow Wide

Highest peak-
Mahendragiri
Highest peak- Some sources
Anaimudi state that
Overall height Zindgada's
Topography
increases peak
towards the Height
south increases
towards the
North

Closeness with Closer to the A Bit far from

coast coast the coast

More river
Less river
originates
Physiography originates from
from western
eastern Ghat
Ghat

Higher Lower
Precipitation
precipitation precipitation

Vegetation in
Western ghat
Vegetation-
Vegetation is an
Deciduous
evergreen
type

Higher
Lower
Biodiversity
Biodiversity biodiversity in
in Western
Eastern Ghat
Ghat
• Ghat means Pass [Palghat, Bhorghat] or highly elevated regions
• Parts of Western Ghats
 • In Maharashtra and Karnataka- Called Sahayadri
• In Karnataka- Baba Budan Hills. It is the origin of coffee
• Nilgiri- Because of Neelkurinji Flowers
• Anaimalai Hills
• Cardamom Hills

•
• Parts of Eastern Ghats
• Mahendragiri
• Nallamala hills
• Palkonda Hills- Tirupati is part of this
• Javadi & Shevroy hills

•
Plateaus of Peninsular Block [Link]
• Malwa plateau
• Bundelkhand Plateau

•
• Chotanagpur Plateau- Entire Jharkhand state
• Meghalaya Plateau- Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills are part of this plateau
• Deccan Plateau- Between Western Ghat and Eastern Ghat- Maharashtra,
Karnataka, and Northern part of Telangana are covered in Deccan traps
• Rayalseema Plateau- Region within Andhra Pradesh. [* It is called Rayalseema
because it was ruled by the Clan of Rayas ]
• Telangana plateau
• [Krishna river marks the boundary between Rayalseema and Telangana plateau]
 • Karnataka plateau- Towards western ghat, it is a hilly region called Malnad and on
the other side it is a plain region called Rolling plain/ Maidan
• Dandakarnya plains
Plains of India [Link]
• Flat regions
• Two types- Northern Plains and Coastal Plains
• Northern Plains
• How it originated?
• The Northern Plains are formed by the deposition of sediments brought by the
Himalayan rivers into the basin between the Himalayas and Peninsular blocks.
• It extends for a total of 3200 KMs of which plains of India are for 2400 KMs
• This is the largest alluvial plain in the world
• It is divided into the Rajasthan plain, Punjab& Haryana Plains, Ganga plains, and
Brahmaputra Plains

•
Rajasthan Plains [Link]
• It is a riverine plain
• It is formed due to sediments brought by the rivers
• They may have formed due to the drying up of the rivers which once existed in this
region
• The western part of Rajasthan is a proper desert called "Marusthali"
• The eastern part of Rajasthan plains is called Rajasthan Bagar which is semi-arid
due to the presence of river Luni
Punjab & Haryana Plains [Link]
• These are the plains of the Indus
• Doab is a region between two rivers

•
• BIST doab- between Beas and Sutlej rivers. It is only in India.
• BARI doab- Between Beas and Ravi rivers
• RECHNA doab- Between Ravi and Chenab
• CHAJ doab- Between Chenab and Jhelum
• Sind Sagar Doab- Between Sind and Chenab
Ganga plains [Link]
• It covers UP, Bihar, and West Bengal
 • It extends from Delhi to Kolkata
• Parts of the Ganga plains
• Doab- Ganga- Yamuna Doab
• Rohilkhand plains
• Awadh plains
• Lower Ganga plains
Brahmaputra Plains [Link]
• It is also called the Assam plains
• Extent- From Sadiya in the east to Dhubri in west
• It is surrounded by Hills
Types of Northern Plains [Link]
• Bhabhar-
• It is a region of Porous gravel and boulders deposited by rivers entering the plains
from the Mountains
• In this region the smaller rivers disappear and start flowing underground
• Terai-
• It is a marshy region after Bhabhar where rivers start to re-appear. It is very fertile
and widely used for the agriculture of rice and sugarcane
• They are waterlogged regions and are prone to water-borne diseases/ Mosquito-
borne diseases
• Northern parts of UP, Bihar border, Nepal, Muzaffarnagar area.

•
• Khadar
• It is the alluvial plain just next to River valley.
• It is made up of fresh alluvial soil which gets replenished every year
• It is more fertile
• Bangar
• It is the older alluvial plain located away from the river valley
• It is less fertile than Khadar
• It is more settled.
Duars formation [Link]
• These are unconsolidated sediments deposited by rivers from mountains along the
foothills of the North-east region i.e. West Bengal and Assam
• They are best suited for tea cultivation
Coastal Plains [Link]
• They are formed by the sediments deposited by the rivers coming from the
peninsular region
• There are two coastal plains- The eastern coastal plains and The western coastal
Plains
•
 Western coastal Eastern Coastal
plain Plain
From Kutch to From Sundarbans to
Kanyakumari Kanyakumari
Narrow Wider
[* The length [* Rivers flow for
covered by rivers is long distances and
less thus fewer carry large
sediments] sediments]
The maximum Maximum extent is
extent is 65 Km 150-200 Km
Dominated by Dominated by
Estuaries Deltas
The western coast is
called a submerged
The entire Eastern
coast. However, the
coast is emergent
Malabar coast is
emergent one
The deposition
The erosion process process is active- So
is more active more beaches,
sandbars
The western coast is The eastern coast is
a broken coast or an smooth. The
Indented coast coastline is smooth
Natural harbours Few of them are
and ports because of Natural harbours but
the broken coast and most are artificial/
erosion. man-made port
Wider continental Narrow continental
shelves around the shelves around the
western coast eastern coast
Kathiawad coast, Utkal plain,
Konkan coast, Northern circar,
Malabar coast Coromanadal coast

The topic for the next class:- Drainage systems and Islands
Geography Class 38
DISCUSSION ON THE UPSC 2023 PRELIMS PAPER (5:16 PM)
DISCUSSION ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:44 PM)
DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA (5:49 PM)
• The drainage system of India is mainly divided into Himalayan rivers and Peninsular
rivers.
• Evolution of Himalayan Drainage System(5:55 PM)
• Widely accepted theory regarding the evolution of Himalayan drainage proposes
the existence of a single river all along the entire stretch of Himalayas to the south
of Shivaliks flowing from East to West called Indobrahma or Shivalik River.
• It drained into the Gulf of Sindh.
• The earlier drainage system was disturbed by three main events:
• (a) Higher upliftment of the western Himalayas.
• (b) Rising of Potwar plateau and Delhi ridge.
• (c) Downthursting of Malda gap or Garo-Rajmahal gap.
• This divided the entire river into Indus and its tributaries, Ganga and its tributaries,
and the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
• Peninsular Drainage System (6:08 PM)
• The peninsular drainage system is influenced by three major events:
• (a) Submergence of the western side of the western ghats which disturbed the
earlier symmetrical pattern of peninsular drainage and shortened the west-flowing
rivers.
• (b) Upliftment of the Himalayas which caused the northern part of the Vindhyas to
tilt more towards the north and also the deepening of the rift valley of Narmada
and Tapi.
• (c) Slight tilting of the peninsular block from northwest to southeast direction,
causing the slope towards the Bay of Bengal drainage.
• Difference between Himalayan and Peninsular Drainage (6:26 PM)
•
Himalayan
Peninsular Drainage
Drainage
The source of the The source of the
drainage is glaciers. drainage is rainfall.
The Himalayan The Peninsular
drainage is perennial. Rivers are seasonal.
The Peninsular rivers
The Himalayan rivers
are dominated by
are dominated by the
mature and old
youth stage.
stages.
They form V-shaped They formed U-
valleys. shaped valleys.
They have high These have low
meandering. (High meandering. (Low
meandering due to meandering due to
high sediments and lower sediments and
flowing through plain flowing through
regions.) plateau region.)
 These have larger These have smaller
river basins and a river basins and a
catchment area. catchment area.
The deltas of the The deltas present are
Himalayan rivers are small. Some rivers
very large. just have estuaries.
Himalayan rivers are
These are less
more navigable in the
navigable.
plains.
In Peninsular
The Himalayan
drainage, there are
drainage has many
only consequent
antecedent rivers.
rivers.
The drainage pattern
The drainage pattern
is mainly rectangular
is mainly dendritic.
or trellis.
• Examples of antecedent rivers are Indus, Brahmaputra, Sutlej, Ghagra, Gandak, and
Kosi. Ganga and Yamuna are the consequent rivers.
DRAINAGE PATTERNS (7:06 PM)
• The flow characteristic of a river is called a drainage pattern.
• (a) Dendritic Pattern
• It appears like the branches of a tree or a leaf.
• This is characterized by the lack of structural control.
• This is found in the Himalayan rivers. For example, the Ganga drainage pattern.
• (b) Rectangular Pattern
• The river takes sharp turns.
• It is found in the plateau regions with high structural control.
• This is found in the case of the peninsular rivers. For example, the River Mahanadi,
Godavari, Cauvery, etc. follows this drainage pattern.
• (c) Trellis pattern
• The main river flows in the rift valley and tributaries join at the right angle.
• This is possible when the river flows in the rift valley. For example, the Narmada
and Tapi Rivers follow this drainage pattern.
• (d) Radial Pattern
• In this, the different rivers originate from the raised platform or mountain and flow
in various directions.
• For example, from Amarkantak we have the Narmada, Son, and Hasdeo rivers
originate.
• (e) Parallel Drainage
• The rivers flow parallel to each other and drain directly into the sea.
• For example, West flowing rivers of the western ghats.
MAPPING OF THE RIVERS (7:28 PM)
• (a) Indus River System
• Indus flows through three countries namely China, Pakistan, and India.
• It originates near Mansarovar Lake.
• The right bank tributaries are Shyok, Gilgit, and Kabul.
 • The left bank tributaries are Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, Ravi, and Beas.
• Nubra is the tributary of River Shyok. It comes from the Siachen glacier.
• (b) Jhelum
• Jhelum originates from Verinag.
• It flows through the Jhelum River valley called Kashmir Valley.
• It passes through Wular Lake. It is the largest freshwater lake in India.
• Jhelum River meanders while it is flowing through Kashmir. It is the only river that
meanders in the youth stage.
• In Pakistan, Jhelum merges with Chenab.
• (c) Chenab
• It originates near Bara Lacha La.
• Chenab formed after the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers.
• Chandra originates from the Chandra tal.
• Bhaga originates from the Suraj tal.
• Barashigri glacier feeds the Chander tal.
• (d) Ravi
• It originates from the Kullu Hills.
• In ancient times it was called the Parushni River.
• It forms the natural boundary between India and Pakistan along the northern part
of Punjab.
• (e) Beas
• It originates from the Rohtang.
• It lies completely inside India.
• It merges with Sutlej in Punjab.
• (f) Sutlej
• It originates from Lake Rakas. Its water is salty.
• Sutlej and Beas merge in Harikke.
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA (CONTINUED)
Geography Class 39
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE CLASS (05:08 PM)
DRAINAGE SYSTEM (05:15 PM)
• River Basins - River channels and tributaries. How much water is available
• Watershed is the land part of the basin. Here quality of the land is checked. Land
degradation is happening or not?. The watershed is the unit in which we try to
conserve water. Watershed is referring to smaller parts.
• Water divide- The higher elevated part where river basins or watersheds of two
rivers are differentiated
GANGA RIVER SYSTEM (05:26 PM)
• Bhagirathee and Alakananda merge together at Devprayag and the name given is
Ganga
• It flows through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
• Left bank tributary of Ganga
• a) Ramganga- It comes from Uttarakhand. In UP it merges with Ganga. It flows
through Jim Corbett national park.
• b) Gomti- Lucknow is situated near the Gomti River. It originates in UP and ends in
UP. It joins Ganga in UP.
 •c) Ghagra- It is an Antecedent River. It originates from the same place where the
Indu, Sutlej originates i.e. Near to Mansarovar. Ghagra Merges with Ganga in Bihar.
Ghagra has two tributaries i.e. Rapti and Sarda (Also known as Kali). Sarda flows
between the border of India and Nepal. Ghagra is also known as the Saryu River in
Ayodhya
• d) Gandak- It is also an Antecedent river. Gandak is also called as Narayani River.
• e) Burhi Gandak-
• f) Kosi or Sapta Kosi- It is also known as Sorrow of Bihar
• g) Mahananda- It comes from Bengal and joins Ganga.
• Mnemonic- Ram jane Gomti ka Ghagra Ganda Kaise
• Right bank tributary
• 1) Yamuna- It originates from Yamunotri. The glacier is Banderpunch. Yamuna flows
through Uttarakhand, Himachal, Haryana, UP, and Delhi NCR. Yamuna merges with
Ganga at Prayagraj. Yamuna only has the Right bank tributaries such as Chambal,
Sindh, Betwa, and Ken
• Chambal has a tributary called Banas. Banas comes from Aravali, Rajasthan.
• Betwa and Ken are going to be interlinked under the Ken-Betwa River Interlinkage
program. Surplus water from Ken River will be diverted to the Deficit Betwa River. It
will submerge areas of the Panna Biosphere Reserve.
• 2) From Amarkantak, another river originates named Son River which flows parallel
to Vindhya and Kaimur hills. Ganga and Son merges at Patliputra or Patna.
• Farraka Barrage is constructed over the Ganga before it enters Bangladesh. From
this Barrage, one branch gets separated and flows to West Bengal. This is called the
Distributary of Ganga. The name of the river is Hooghly.
• Hooghly flows through Kolkata and it has two tributaries named Ajay and Damodar
Rivers. Damodar was earlier called the sorrow of Bengal. Through Damodar Valley
Project (DVC) the water was controlled
BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM (06:00 PM)
• It originates from Chemyangdung and Angsi Glacier.
• It has multiple names-
• In Tibet it is calle Yarlung Tsangpo,
• In India it has three names- When it is flowing through the Himalayas of Arunachal
it is called Siang, In lower parts it is called Dihang, In Assam it is called
Brahmaputra.
• Once it enters Bangladesh it becomes Jamuna
• After merging with Ganga its name changes to Padma.
• Padma combines with a few other rivers to become Meghna.
• Rightbank Tributary
• a) Subansiri- From Arunachal, It has one smaller tributary called as Ranganadi. It is
famous because it has India's largest riverine island called Majuli Island.
• b) Kameng or Jia Bhoreli- In Arunachal, it is called as Kameng and once it enters
Assam it becomes Jia Bhoreli. Pakhui and Orang Tiger reserves are on either side of
the Kameng river
• c) Manas- It surrounds Manas Tiger Reserve. It is also Biosphere Reserve and
UNESCO heritage site. It comes from Tibet and enters Bhutan and passes Assam.
• d) Sankosh- Sankosh merges with Brahmaputra in Bangladesh
• e) Teesta- It comes from Sikkim. From Sikkim, it enters West Bengal and then goes
to Bangladesh and merges with Jamuna (Brahmaputra)
 • Left Bank tributaries
• 1) Dibang-
• 2) Lohit- At Sadiya Lohit merges with Brahamaputra. At this point, India's longest
Bridge is constructed which is named Bhupen-Hazarika Bridge.
• 3) Dhansiri-
• 4) Koppili-
• 5) Barak- It originates from Manipur. Barak River is called the Surma River in
Bangladesh.
PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM (06:21 PM)
• Subarnrekha River- here gold placer deposits are found
• Baitarni and Brahmani- There are huge mangrove areas located at Baitarni and
Brahmani river delta called Bitharkanika Mangrove. It has a national park and it has
a rich biodiversity. Near this, there is a beach called Gahirmatha Beach where olive
ridley turtles are found. This is the largest turtle nesting site.

•
• Mahanadi river system
• It was earlier called as Sorrow of Orissa. Hirakud is the largest earthen dam
constructed on the Mahanadi river
• It originates from Dandkaranya.
• Tributaries are- Ib, Mand, Hasdeo, Ong, Jonk, Telen.
• Vamsdhara river
• It is a disputed river between Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
• KRISHNA AND GODAVARI RIVER SYSTEM (06:53 PM)
• It originates from Triembakeswar and Mahabaleshwar is the origin of the Krishna
river
• Godavari flows from Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana
• Krishna River flows from Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
• Tributaries of Godavari
• Left bank tributaries
• Three River merges together i.e. Penganga, Wenganga, and Wardha and
become Pranhita, and then it merges into Godavari.
• One from Orissa i.e. Indrawati River joins the Godavari. It has a waterfall
named Chitrakoot waterfall. It is also called the "Niagra of India"
• One other river coming from Orissa i.e. Sabri and joins the Godavari in Andhra
Pradesh
• Right bank tributary
• Manjira flows through the northernmost portion of Karnataka
• Tributaries of Krishna
 • Left Bank tributary
• Bhima- Bhima basin is known for Uranium deposits
• Musi- Hyderabad is situated near this river
• Right bank tributaries
• Koyna- It is known for river-induced seismicity
• Ghataprabha
• Malaprabha
• Tungabhadra- It is made up of two rivers i.e Tunga and Bhadra. Hampi is located
near this river.
• Note- Between Krishna and Tungabhadra there is a doab named Raichur doab.
• Note- Kolleru Lake is situated between Krishna and Godavari Lakes.
• RIVERS BETWEEN KRISHNA AND KAVERI (07:12 PM)
• Pennuru and Palar- Both originates from Nandi Hills
• Gandikota canyon is on Pennuru river
• KAVERI RIVER SYSTEM
• The river flows through Karnataka and Tamilnadu and one UT i.e. Puducherry.
However, Kerala also has some portions of tributaries
• Origin is Talkaveri which is part of Brahamagiri Hills (Coorg).
• In Karnataka it flows through the plateau region. A dam was constructed i.e.
Krishnaraj Sagar dam on the Kaveri river which was planned by M Visevesawaraya.
This dam is the heart of the Kaveri dispute.
• Its water is completely utilized.
• Kaveri makes the most fertile region in Tamilnadu, here Chola Empire flourished.
• Tributaries of kaveri
• Left Bank tributary- Harangi, Hemawati, Shimsa, Arkawati
• Right Bank tributaries- Kabini, Bhawani, Amrawati
• Kabini- It comes from Kerala and joins Kaveri in Karnataka. There is a rich thick
forest. Black leopards are found in these areas.
• VAIGAI RIVER
• Madurai is situated near the Vaigai River.
• Vaigai drains into Palk strait.
WEST FLOWING RIVERS (07:27 PM)
• LUNI RIVER
• It is called the inland- drainage river. It
• It crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.
• It drains into the Gulf of Khambat
• SABARMATI
• It comes from Aravali. It drains into the Gulf of Khambat
• NARMADA
• It is an example of a trellis drainage pattern
• It drains into the Gulf of Khambat
• TAPI
• It originates from the Betul region of Madhya Pradesh.
• It drains into the Gulf of Khambat
• MANDOVI/ MAHADEYI RIVER
• In Goa it is called Mandovi River and in Karnataka, it is called Mahadeyi River.
• SHARAVATI RIVER
• Here highest waterfall is located i.e. Jog waterfall.
 • PERIYAR RIVER
• It is famous for the Mulla-Periyar dam. It is a dam disputed between Kerala and
Tamilnadu
• PAMBA RIVER
• It is associated with the Sabarimala temple. It flows nearby Sabarimala temple
CLIMATE OF INDIA (07:39 PM)
• Factors affecting the Climate of India
• a) Latitudinal Extent- The difference between the Southernmost and Northernmost
latitudes which is 30 degrees. The overall climatic condition of tropical monsoons
varies at the local levels due to the large latitudinal extent.
• b) Location- At the north of the Indian Ocean with a major part of the peninsular
region surrounded by ocean resulting moderating effect.
• c) Presence of the Himalayas- It protects India from the cold and dry winds of
Central Asia during winters. It also influences monsoons in India.
• d) Other topographical features- Such as the Western Ghats being perpendicular to
Monsoon winds receiving high precipitation on the western side and rainshadow
along the eastern side. The orientation of Aravali parallel to Monsoon winds
resulting very low precipitation in Rajasthan
• e) Monsoon winds- The most dominant factor of Indian climate due to which it is
called as Monsoon climate.
• f) Jet stream- Subtropical westerly jetstreams, Tropical easterly jetstreams, and
Somali Jetstreams influence winter and summer conditions over India.
• g) Cyclones- The coastal regions of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and West
Bengal are largely affected by Tropical cyclones.
• h) El-Nino, La-Nina, Maden-Julian oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole, etc influence
rainfall over India.
MONSOON (07:53 PM)
• The word Monsoon is derived from the Arabic word "Mausim" which means a
seasonal reversal of wind.
• Classical theory of the origin
• This explains the phenomenon of Monsoons as large-scale Sea breezes and Land
breezes due to the reversal of temperature and pressure conditions from summer
to winter in the Northern Plains.
• During summers, high temperatures and low pressure attract winds from the
Arabian Sea.
• During winters, Low temperatures and high pressures cause winds to blow away
from the plains towards the sea.
The topic for the next class:- The Modern Theory of Monsoon
Geography Class 40
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE CLASS (05:12 PM)
MODERN THEORY OF MONSOON (05:24 PM)
• Winter season (November- February)
• Low temperature and high-pressure conditions are prevailing over the northern
plains.
• It causes Anti-cyclonic circulations causing winds to blow outward from the land
over which air is subsiding.
• The sky is clear and dry.
• The subtropical westerly Jetstream is strong and well-established. It is bifurcated
into two branches i.e. towards the north and south of the Tibetan plateau. This
southern branch is stronger and is well-established over the northern Ganga
plains.
• This intensifies surface Anti-cyclones and causes winds to blow from land to sea in
a North-east direction.
• North-east winds after crossing the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture and causes
precipitation along the Coromandel coast.
• Spring season (March-May)
• The temperature has started to rise and pressure is falling
• The weather is extremely hot and dry
• The subtropical westerly Jet stream begins to weaken and the southern Branch
eventually moves entirely to the North of the Tibetan Plateau
• This triggers convection and precipitation in some regions. They are called Pre-
monsoon showers.
• Mango showers in Kerala- It helps in the ripening of mangoes
• Blossom showers in Karnataka- It helps in coffee flowering
• Norwesters or Kal Baishaki. In Assam, it is called as Bardoli Chheerha. It helps in
Jute and rice cultivation
• Loo in northern plains from Punjab to Bihar.
• Summer season (May-August) (06:26 PM)
• The weather is extremely hot and dry. High temperature causes the complete
development of low-pressure cells over deserts and the Northern Plains
• ITCZ gradually shifts toward the North and attracts the southern trade winds
toward the north of the equator.
• These southern Trade winds after crossing the equator turn right under the
influence of Coriolis force and starts to blow as southwest Monsoon winds.
• Temperature stratification in the air will not allow large-scale convection
preventing major storms.
• The tropical easterly jetstreams and depressions in the Bay of Bengal help in
disturbing the stratified air and triggers large-scale precipitation.
• The tropical easterly Jet stream is a low-level Jet stream existing over South Asia
and Africa in Summer. It causes a change of divergence to convergence on the
surface.
• The sudden onset of moisture-laden winds associated with violent Thunder and
lightning is called as Bursting of the Monsoon.
• The Somali jetstream is a local jetstream off the coast of East Africa. It strengthens
High pressure near Madagascar. The High-pressure cell causes a faster flow of
winds toward India.
• In some regions due to local stability conditions, temperature stratification
reappears or the wind starts blowing parallel to the Topography resulting in Break
in the Monsoon.
 •
• Autumn season (September- October)
• ITCZ or Monsoon trough starts to move back gradually towards the south.
• This also brings back the maximum extent up to which southwest winds blow
which is called the retreat of Monsoon.
• The southwest winds slowly get replaced by North-east winds.
• The high temperature with dry conditions existing over the Northern plains during
October is called October Heat.
• The subtropical westerly Jet streams reappear to the south of the Tibetan Plateau
creating dry conditions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN MONSOON (07:08 PM)
• The onset of monsoon is gradual and withdrawal is more gradual.
• As the wind moves from sea to land, the amount of precipitation gradually
decreases.
• The duration of the monsoon also decreases from sea to land.
• Temporal variation- Variation of rainfall with time.
• Spatial variation- Variation of rainfall from one location to another.
• Distribution of Monsoon rainfall
• The monsoon winds get divided into two branches- The Arabian Sea branch and
the Bay of Bengal branch
• Bay of Bengal Branch
• It moves parallel to the Coromandel coast and causes no precipitation. From the K-
G delta, rainfall starts to increase towards West Bengal.
• Along the Ganga delta, the Bay of Bengal branch is divided into eastern and
western by Himalayan Foothills.
• The Eastern branch hits Meghalaya Plateau perpendicularly causing very heavy
precipitation.
• The Western Branch moves across the Ganga plains.
• The precipitation decreases from east to west along the Ganga plains
• Precipitation increases towards the Himalayas from South to North.
 •
• Arabian Sea Branch
• It hits the Western Ghat at the right angle causing heavy precipitation along the
western side.
• Along the Eastern side, the descending winds result in a rainshadow effect creating
dry conditions in Maharashtra and Karnataka.
• The Arabian Sea Branch advances towards Gujarat and blows parallel to Aravallis
resulting in very less precipitation in Rajasthan.
• The Arabian Sea Branch meets the Bay of Bengal Branch near Agra and the
combined branch causes precipitation in the regions to the North.
WESTERN DISTURBANCES (07:46 PM)
• Western Disturbance is active between November to April.
• During winters Northern India experiences cold and dry conditions along with
strong westerly Jet streams.
• Mediterranean region receives rainfall due to onshore westerlies and temperate
cyclones.

•
• The subtropical westerly Jetstreams along the Mediterranean region pick up the
moisture content and low-pressure disturbance and are brought to India.
• When these winds accumulate near North-western Himalayas it causes
precipitation.
• The precipitation due to western disturbance decreases from west to east along the
Ganga plains
• Significance of Western disturbances
• It causes an abrupt decrease in temperature and snowfall along the northern hills
• It may result in cloudbursts and flash floods. example- 2010 Leh Cloudburst
• It is good for winter crops of wheat and mustard.
• Impact of El-Nino, La-Nina, Indian Ocean Dipole, and Maden Julian Oscillation
on Indian Monsoon.
• Refer to oceanography.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA (08:04 PM)
 • Refer to PPT in the class

•
The topic for the next class:- Soils.
Geography Class 41
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q&A SESSION (05:09 PM)
SOILS OF INDIA (05:23 PM)
• Some common characteristics of Indian soils
• Nitrogen- All Indian soils are poor in Nitrogen.
• Laterite soil and Red soil are rich in Iron.
• Humus content is rich in Black soil, Mountain & forest soil, Peaty soil
• Salts- In Arid soil
• Black soil is black because the titaniferous magnetite compound
• RED SOIL
• Weather conditions- Moderate precipitation and Moderate to high temperature
• Parent rock- Granite and Gneiss
• It is rich in Iron, magnesium, and Aluminum and Poor in nitrogen, phosphorous,
and Humus content.
• Regions- North-east, Southern Karnataka, Southern Andhra Pradesh, Eastern
Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Parts of Tamilnadu.
• LATERITE SOIL
• Weather conditions- High temperature and high precipitation.
• Heavy leaching causes Laterization
• It is rich in Iron, Aluminium, and Potash but deficient in Silica, Bases, humus, etc
• It is slightly acidic in nature.
 • It is well suitable for plantation crops of coffee, tea, rubber, spices, etc
• Regions- The western side of western Ghat, parts of Orissa, Meghalaya, Southern
Part of Aravallis.
• BLACK SOIL
• It is black in colour due to the presence of the titaniferous magnetite compound
• Parent rock material- Basaltic magma of Deccan trap.
• It is rich in humus, but deficient in nitrogen and Phosphorous.
• It is also called self-ploughing soil because It is sticky when wet and form cracks
when dry.
• Regions- Southern Gujarat, western Madhyapradesh, the whole of Maharashtra,
Northern Karnataka, and parts of Telangana.

•
•ALLUVIAL SOIL
•It is due to the deposition of sediments by the rivers
•They are characterized by the absence of Nitrogen and Humus.
•There are no marked differences in layers
•Regions- The northern plains and coastal plains
•ARID & DESERT SOIL
•They are majorly saline and alkaline in nature due to high evaporation and low
moisture content
• It is deficient in nitrogen and humus.
• Majorly found in Western Rajasthan and Northern Gujarat.
• MOUNTAIN & FOREST SOIL
• Mountain soils are thin-layered. Forest soils are rich in Organic content.
• They are acidic in nature due to slow decomposition.
• Region- Himalayas, Parts of Vindhyas, Satpuras, and part of Western Ghats
• PEATY SOIL
• They are found in regions of Submerged or Waterlogged conditions.
• It contains higher organic matter
• Regions- Deltas and Estuaries along the coasts.
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY (06:08 PM)
• Framework
• Resources
 • Natural vegetation
• Agriculture
• Mineral and energy resources
• Industries and transportation
• Human geography
WATER RESOURCES (06:17 PM)
• Oceanic resources
• Resource- Which has economic value or utility.
• Types of oceanic resources
• 1) Mineral resources-
• 1.1) Dissolved form- It is dissolved in water. Example- Salts (Sodium salt, chlorine
salt, Bromine salt, Potassium salt, etc)
• 1.2) Deposited form- It was earlier mixed in water but gradually it settled down a
continental shelf or at the coast or in deep oceans.
• 1.2.1) @Continental shelf- Sand is a minor mineral, gravels, silt, Magnetite (Iron
ore), corals, pearls, Gold placers, and Monazite sand (Kearala coast and the entire
eastern coast. It is rich in Thorium and rare earth elements) [* Rare earth elements-
These are used in high-end technology]
• 1.2.2) @Deep ocean- Polymetallic nodules or Manganeese nodules. They are
deposited at the oceanic floor. This is made up of multiple metals and is rich in
Manganese. Along with Manganese, Iron, cobalt, etc are found. Polymettalic
sulfites are found near the hydrothermal vents (i.e. from where the magma comes
out).
• 2) Energy resource
• 2.1) Petroleum and Natural Gas.

•
• North Sea- Wherever the continental shelf is larger and shallow the quality of
petroleum is the best. In the North Sea, the best quality is found called Brent crude.
Also, the regions with the best petroleum reserves are found in the Persian Gulf and
the Caspian Sea.
• 2.2) Coal
• 2.3) Tidal energy- Gujarat coast has the highest potential
• 2.4) Wave energy- Wave motion is Up and down, and this linear motion can be
utilized.

•
• 2.5) Ocean thermal energy conversion-
 •
• 2.6) Wind energy-

•
• 2.7) Solar energy- By using floating solar panel
• 2.8) Thorium- Can be used in Nuclear energy
• 2.9) Heavy water- Moderator and cooling
• 2.10) Green Hydrogen
• 3) Food resource
• 3.1) Fish, and other sea foods such as prawns, lobsters, etc
• 3.2) Seaweeds- With the increase in global warming we may lose agricultural area
then seaweeds can be a major alternative
• 4) Water resource
• We can extract fresh water from the ocean through desalinization methods such as
Reverse osmosis, Electrodialysis.
• [Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) through its autonomous Institute National
Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has developed Low-Temperature Thermal
Desalination (LTTD) technology for the conversion of seawater to potable water
which has been successfully demonstrated in Lakshadweep islands.]
ISSUES IN EXTRACTION OF OCEANIC RESOURCES (07:21 PM)
• Technological hurdles
• a) OTEC- technology is limited, no efficient technology
• b) PMN- We lack the technology to extract at a deeper level
• c) Desalinization- The technology present is not sustainable as it releases heat
which increases global warming
• d) Thorium- we lack the technology to utilize thorium
• Cost
• Example- Polymetallic nodules, Freshwater extraction
 •
• Distribution
• PMNs are only concentrated in very few regions such as the west coast of Mexico
in the Pacific, the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB), and in the Peru basin
• Petroleum is found in West Asia, South East Asia, the Persian Gulf, etc
• Concerns raised because of this limited distribution- Weak governance structure/
Governance Deficit, The Resource curse and Dutch disease (Example- Venezuela),
Wars, Internal conflicts, Regional conflicts etc.
• Physical barriers in the ocean-
• Oceans are too deep, too dark, and too cold. It has very very high pressure and we
need special equipment. Along with this, we have mid-oceanic ridges and the
Volcanic eruptions
• Environmental/ ecological impact
• It has a huge impact on the continental shelf- For example- Oil spill affects the coral
ecosystem (Oil spills at the coast of Mexico), wetlands, estuaries, etc
• Unsustainable fishing- Bottom Trawling

•
FISHING RESOURCES (07:36 PM)
• Conditions favorable for the fishing sector
• a) Merging of warm and cold ocean currents which supports large-scale fishing
banks.
• Example- Merging of Labrador Current with Gulf Stream- New Found land
• Merging of Oyoshio and Kuroshio's current
• b) Cold water upwelling zones- Peru current/ Humboldt current.
• c) Shallow and wide continental shelf- Abundant sunlight and abundant growth of
plankton. Example- West European coast
• d) Continuous circulation of ocean current ensures the distribution of nutrients
controlling the growth of plankton.
• e) Coral reefs- it harbors the fish. Example- South Asia and South East Asia
• Conditions favorable for the fishing industry
• Temperature
 • Moderate temperature of temperate regions- It Helps in Fish preservation. [* In
tropical areas, Fish will decompose faster so it needs additional infrastructure such
as cold storage facilities, etc ].
• High temperatures do not support Phytoplankton growth. However, high
temperatures in tropical areas result in a higher diversity of fish which is a
disadvantage for the industry. Industry requires uniformity.
• Geography
• Coast- Broken coast or submergent coast supports the development of natural
harbours.
• Land- Where the agricultural activity is not well developed, and the land is rugged.
Example- Japan
• Economy
• The state of the economy is also less developed such as lesser investment, lesser
infrastructure
DISTRIBUTION OF FISHING INDUSTRY (07:51 PM)
• North-western Atlantic region- Around new Found land, Eastern USA (Grand Bank,
George Bank)
• North-east Atlantic Ocean- From Spain to Norway- Wide continental shelf and
merging of Warm North Atlantic drift with cold waters of Arctic ocean
• North-west Pacific region- Around Japan, Korea where Kuroshio current mixes with
Oyoshio current.
• Northeast Pacific- Western coast of Canada and USA- Advantage is cold Californian
current, Broken coast
• Central and eastern Pacific of the coasts of Peru ad Chile due to Humboldt's current

•
• Indian fishing sector's potential
• Long coastline- 7500 Km coastline
• Wider continental shelf along the western coast
• Huge potential for freshwater fishing/ inland fishing
• Broken coast along the West Coast
• India is the second largest contributor to fishing after the china
• Issues in the Indian fishing sector
• Demand is lesser due to cultural reasons- Vegetarianism
• Preservation of fish requires infrastructure such as cold storage. This is less
because of lesser investment in the fishing sector.
• Fishing activity is totally unorganized and also it is a caste-based economic
activity.
• Traditional methods of extraction- manual boats, manual nets, etc
 • High-value fish is not targeted which makes it less competitive in the international
market
• Climatic conditions- Harsh conditions during Monsoon, cyclones
• The fish-food processing industry is not well developed.
• International disputes and Territorial disputes- Example- Sir Creek dispute,
Srilanka fisherman's dispute.
• Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing exacerbates overfishing and
undermines the sustainability of the sector.
• Rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and changing currents have a
profound impact on marine ecosystems and fish populations.
The Topic for the next class:- Freshwater resources and problems dealing with freshwater
resources.
Geography Class 42
Initiatives for the fishing sector in India: (5:17 PM)
Blue Revolution:
• It was launched during the Fifth and Sixth Plans.
Phase I:
• 1980 to 1991.
• During which FFDA (Fishing Farming Development Agency) was established as the
nodal agency for fishing activity in India.
• FSDP: Fish Seed Development Program was also initiated.
Phase II:
• 1991 to 2005.
• Both inland and marine were targeted.
• FFDA centers were opened.
• Coastal regions were given special emphasis.
• In 2005, National Fisheries Development Board.
• National Marine Fisheries Policy: introduced in 2016.
• Mission Neel Kranti:
• Integrated Development and Management of Fisheries. To increase inland and
marine fisheries production.
• To triple the production.
• To double the income, exports will be tripled.
Distribution of Water: (5:36 PM)
• Uneven distribution of water between Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.
• Uneven precipitation: 90% of rain during monsoon season.
• Rainshadow regions of Deccan regions.
• Pollution in the rivers.
• Water-intensive agriculture: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, etc.
• Government policies such as subsidies.
• Excessive extraction of groundwater without recharging.
• Encroachment of wetlands.
• Deforestation, etc.
The Extent of Water Stress in India: (6:03 PM)
• Falcon Mark Index: The level of water scarcity by calculating the per capita water
availability.
• Water stress: If the availability drops to 1700 m3/person/year.
 • Water scarce: If availability drops below 1000 m3/person/year
North Region:
• Very high water stress, reasons:
• Water-intensive agriculture,
• High population,
• Pollution, industries,
• Deforestation,
• Higher groundwater extraction.
Western Region:
• The region is arid and semi-arid.
• Water-intensive agriculture.
• Soil erosion.
Eastern Region:
• Higher population density.
• Higher extraction of groundwater.
• Mining, e.g. Jharkhand, etc.
• Pollution, UP, Bihar, etc.
Southern Region:
• Rainshadow effect.
• Coromandel Coast.
• Water-intensive agriculture.
• Hard plateau rocks.
• Large urban centers.
• North East:
• Not water stressed.
How to deal with water stress?: (6:20 PM)
• Water efficient agriculture, thus less water-intensive crops.
• Usage of indigenous varieties.
• Micro irrigation methods, eg. drip and sprinkler irrigation.
• Reforestation and afforestation.
• 3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.
• Better urban planning, and reclamation of degraded water bodies and wetlands.
Rainwater harvesting: (6:36 PM)
• It is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater in natural reservoirs or
tanks or infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers.
• The methods involve rooftop collection, in situ recharge (recharge pits), surface
water collection, and recharge through check dams, lakes, and ponds.
Watershed Management: (6:41 PM)
• Watershed:
• Is an area of land where all the water, i.e. under it or drains of it, collects into one
waterbody.
• Watershed development involves the rational utilization of land and water
resources for optimum and sustained production with minimum hazard to natural
resources.
• It involves the conservation and management of both surface and groundwater
using watersheds as a single unit.
Interlinking of Rivers:
 • Link from the surplus Himalayan basin to the deficit peninsular basin using 30 river
links connecting 37 rivers.
• Advantages of river-linking:
• Drought and flood control.
• Fishing activities.
• Supply of water to cities.
Issues with river-linking:
• To decide the definition of surplus itself.
• Biodiversity loss through submergence of forests.
• Reservoir-induced earthquakes.
• Ecological loss for rivers.
• Loss of green cover.
• Release of methane.
• Too expensive to construct, too expensive to maintain.
• Social issues of displacement of people.
• Land acquisition, rehabilitation, etc.
Natural Vegetation: (6:54 PM)
Tropical Evergreen Rainforests:
• An abundance of rainfall.
• High temperature and high precipitation.
• Vegetation is evergreen.
• No specific period of shedding leaves.
• Very high diversity of life.
• Multilayered vegetation.
• Presence of climbers and epiphytes.
• Low undergrowth.
• Regions: Amazon, Congo Basin, Parts of Western Africa, Ecuador, Venezuela,
Indonesia, Malaysia, etc.
• Fragile soil.
Tropical Deciduous Forests: (7:30 PM)
• Monsoon Forests.
• Shed leaves in a particular season.
• Less biodiversity compared to Evergreen.
• Regions:
• India, South Asia, Eastern Africa, Northern Australia, Indo-China, South East Brazil.
Mediterranian Type of Forest: (7:33 PM)
• Wet winter and dry summer.
• Known for citrus fruits.
• Oranges, grapes, viticulture (growing grapes and making wine).
• Region:
• All countries around the Mediterranean, California,
Mixed Forest:
• A mixture of broad leave and coniferous forests.
• Found in the cool temperate regions.
• British and Laurantial types.
• Moderate temperatures and uniform rainfall.
Taiga Forest: (7:40 PM)
• Also called the Boreal forest or the Coniferous forest.
 • It accounts for ⅓ of all the vegetation in the world.
• The proportion of coniferous trees is very high.
• Higher economic utility.
• Very low biodiversity.
• They are evergreen in nature.
• Needle-like leaves, reduce loss.
Lumbering activity:
• Cutting trees and making wooden logs.
• Regions behind better development of lumbering activities in temperate regions
than tropical regions:
• Difference between hardwood and softwood:
• Tropical woods are hardwoods, and temperate woods are softwood.
• Softwood: Easy to use, transport, make furniture, etc.
• Easy to cut single tree species.
• Temperate regions: cutting in winter seasons.
• Harsh climatic conditions in equatorial and tropical regions like high temperatures,
high rainfall, etc. make it difficult to practice lumbering.
• Shifting cultivation in warmer regions.
Natural Vegetation of India: (7:52 PM)
• Champion and Seth model of classification. We have a total of 16 types of
vegetation.
• Five prominent are:
• Tropical Evergreen Vegetation:
• Tropical Wet Evergreen:
• It is found in regions with more than 250 cm of rainfall per annum.
• Western Ghats, Meghalaya, North East, parts of West Bengal, Odisha, Andaman
Nicobar.
• Tropical Semi-Evergreen:
• Rainfall between 250 to 200 cm.
• Mahogany,
• Ebony,
• Rosewood,
• Laurel, also called as water tree.
• Jackfruit.
• Jamun tree.
• Rubber tree.
• Tropical Dry-Evergreen.
• Tropical Deciduous:
• Tropical Moist Deciduous.
• Tropical Dry Deciduous.
Topic for the next class: Tropical Deciduous examples, onwards.
Geography Class 43
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:15 PM)
TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN (05:19 PM)
• Conditions
• Dry summer, wet Winter- In India it can be seen in the Coromandel coast
 •
• Trees- Neem, Tamarind, Jamun, Toddy palm
TROPICAL DECIDUOUS (05:23 PM)
• Characteristics- Capacity to shed the leaves
• Tropical Moist Deciduous
• Precipitation- 100-200 cm
• Characteristics- Thick forest- Dense growth, Multilayered also these are very similar
to evergreen forests in terms of diversity
• Region- Wetter parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Chattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Odisha
• Trees- Teak (Shagwan), Sal, Almond, Jamun, Seesham (Rosewood of North India),
Sandalwood (Shade-loving plant, it takes 30-40 years to mature, Mostly found in
Karnataka).
• [* Teak does not survive cold conditions and in Northern plains it is replaced by sal,
In central India teaks are mostly found]
• Tropical Dry deciduous
• Precipitation- 70-100 cm
• Characteristics- Low density, low diversity

•
• A wide area covering north to south from the Himalayas to Kanyakumari except the
regions of Moist deciduous and Tropical thorn
• Trees- Bamboo (* For the purpose of the Indian Forest Act, it is classified as a Tree,
Bamboo which grows outside of a forest area can be cut.), Sandalwood, Red
Sandalwood (Red Sanders) (* It is one of the most smuggled goods in the world. It
has huge demand in China, South Korea, etc)
 •
• Conditions for red sanders- Low precipitation (70-100), sloppy mountains.
• Red sanders are used in Furniture
TROPICAL THORN (05:44 PM)
• Precipitation- less than 70 cm.
• They adapt to lesser water availability
• Regions- Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Punjab- Haryana, Rain Shadow region of
Deccan plateau.
• Trees- Khair tree, Acacia Katechu, Axlewood, Babool, Neem, Date, Sandalwood
trees
• [* Prosopis Juliflora is an invasive species and not a tropical thorn forest]
MONTANE VEGETATION (05:49 PM)
• It is grown in High altitude areas
• Types of Montane Vegetation
• a) Ganga plain- Dry Deciduous
• b) Upto 1500 meters- Mixed forest.
• c) 1500-3500 meters- Coniferous forest
• d) Beyond 3500- Alpine vegetation. (Short bushes, Grass etc. A special type of Alpine
vegetation/ grassland is found called BUGYALS in Uttarakhand)

•
• Bugyals are very nutritious for cattle. People move from the valley to Bugyals in
summer along with their cattle and move towards the valley in winter. This is
called Transhumance.
• This is practised by Gaddis, Bhotiyas, Bakarwals, and Gujjars tribes in India.
• Areas of Montane forest- Vindhyas, Satpuras, High elevated regions of Western
Ghats
 • Nilgiri- The grassland is throughout the year. [* Because of low temperature so
stronger vegetation is not found therefore grassland is found. In valleys, trees are
found]. Shola Forest is found in these areas. These are the Montane grassland.
• Trees of Montane vegetation- Deodar tree, Chir Pine tree (softwood, These are in
higher demand in the Lumbering industry. In hot weather the needle-like leaves
became too dry and they catch the fire very easily. ), Oaktree, Maplewood, Juniper
tree, Rhododendron (Known for its very beautiful flowers, used in Tibetan
Monastery).
LITTORAL AND SWAMP FOREST (06:04 PM)
• These are commonly referred to as Mangroves. These are the only vegetation that
can grow in coastal regions.
• Characteristics-

•
• Aerial roots- called as Pnematophores
• Stilt Root system- It accommodates the varying level of water also, It provides
higher strength
• Impermeable roots
• Buoyant seeds- Seeds are floating. It has easy dispersal of seeds.
• Controlled opening of stomata
• Examples of trees- Sundari Tree, Brugeira, Sonneratia, Agar Agar
• Characteristics- These are evergreen species, Short growing, majorly found in
Deltas.
• Regions- Sundarbans, Kaveri Delta, Coringa Delta, Picchavaram Mangroves,
Bhitarkanika mangroves, Mutupet mangroves, Coondapur mangroves.
 •
•Significance of Mangroves
•It is the only type of vegetation that survives in the coastal region
•It provides habitat to various species. [* Species found- Tigers of Sundarban are
capable of swimming and hunting, Fishing cat, Saltwater crocodile]
• It prevents coastal erosion.
• It also reduces the impact of tsunamis and cyclones.
• Ecological role- Water Filtration, settling the sediments, nutrient recycling, initiator
of the food chain (Mangrove leaves- when falls and decomposes becomes food for
insects and starts the food chain).
• Economic value (Source of timber), Tourism.
• It helps in Carbon sequestration- Storage of carbon.
• Reasons for Mangrove Depletion in India
• Overharvesting
• Coastal Encroachment
• Change in River course- Natural or Artificial
• Pollution- Water Pollution, Thermal pollution
• Oil spill- destroys the ecosystem.
• Government scheme- MISHTI scheme
AGRICULTURE (06:23 PM)
• World Agriculture types
• 10 major types- 4 types in Tropical regions and 6 types in Temperate regions
•
Temperate Region
Tropical Region
o Mediterranean
o Nomadic
o Extensive
Herding
commercial
o Shifting
grain
cultivation
o Commercial
o Intensive
Ranching
subsistence
o Mixed farming
o Plantation
o Dairy farming
Agriculture
o Truck Farming

Reasons Reasons
 o Higher o Low
population population
o Land o Large tracts of
fragmentation land
o Low o High
investment investment
o Dominated o Dominated by
by manual Machines
labour o Scientific
o Traditional methods of
methods of agriculture
agriculture

•
NOMADIC HERDING (06:31 PM)
• It is one of the most primitive modes of agriculture.
• It is the simplest form of Pastrolism (taking care of animals)
• They are dependent on animals rather than crops. They are dependent on Milk,
meat, hair, silk
• Animals- Camel in North Africa, and West Asia; Horses in Central Asia; Yak & Lama in
Mongolia, China, and Tibet; Ships & Goats in semi Arid and dry regions (They
practice transhumance)
SHIFTING CULTIVATION (06:35 PM)
• They are practised by Tribes living in the forest.
• Forest is owned by the community. Forest is divided into multiple patches. At first
individual patch is selected and it is burnt down (They think that the burning of
trees adds nutrients to the soil), Wild grain is cultivated then, and Soon soil will lose
fertility.
• This will be followed by shifting to a second patch.
• Regions- North East (Jhuming cultivation), Some patches of western Ghats and
Srilanka, South East Asia, Congo basin, Amazon Basin, Parts of Venezuela and
Mexico.
INTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE (06:41 PM)
• A most common type of agriculture practised in Developing and Less developed
countries
 • Characteristics
• Small and highly fragmented land holdings
• The high density of population
• Dominant manual labour.
• Multiple crops per year.
• Very high agricultural productivity but low per capita production.
• Regions- Entire South Asia including the Deltas of Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus;
Parts of eastern China.
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE (06:45 PM)
• It is characterized by large estates established by colonial rulers.
• It is highly capital-intensive and highly centralized. They brought Scientific varieties
of plants and seeds.
• The intention was export-oriented
• It was dependent on manual labour.
• Regions-
• In India- Coffee, Tea, and Rubber plantation
• In Malaysia- Rubber plantation
• In Indonesia- Sugarcane plantation
• In the Pacific- Fiji- Sugarcane plantation
• In South Africa- Sugarcane plantation
• In West Africa- Cocoa and coffee plantation
• In West Indies- Banana and Sugarcane plantation
MEDITERRANEAN TYPE OF AGRICULTURE (07:17 PM)
• These are short bushes, Drought resistant, Deep root system
• Examples- Grapes, Oranges, Olives, and other citrus fruits

•
EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN FARMING (07:20 PM)
• It is a steppe type of climate.
• It is found in temperate grasslands- Pampas, velds, downs, Prairies, Steppes, etc.
• Precipitation- Moderate precipitation but throughout the year i.e. both in summer
and winter.
• Soil- Black earth (Chernozem) (* High amount of calcium carbonate )
• Characteristics- Extensive means a very large area of the farm, very low population
density, dominated by wheat monoculture, High mechanization, and a
Scientifically managed variety of crops, High Per capita output but low per hectare
output.
 •
•It is not found in central Asian country's grasslands. They do Horse rearing.
COMMERCIAL LIVESTOCK RANCHING (07:29 PM)
• It is the opposite of Nomadic herding.
• A large area is available.
• Commercial raising livestock over extensive areas.
• Animals- Sheep, Goats, Cattle, Horses.
• Scientific methods of breeding of animals.
• Ranches are very large with continuous vegetative cover. They maintain the large
no. of sheep with the highly trained dogs

•
• Characteristics- Only meat
MIXED FARMING (07:36 PM)
• Both Agriculture and Animal rearing/ livestock.
• Crops are useful for both human as well as livestock consumption. Example- Maize.
• It involves high expenditure on machines and farm buildings.
• It gives high returns
• Regions- East of prairies, Western Europe (Germany, France), Northeast Argentina,
Southeast Australia.
COMMERCIAL DAIRY FARMING (07:40 PM)
• Milk and milk products
• It requires high capital. It is highly labour-intensive.
• Productivity is very high
• Regions- Northeast USA, Northwest Europe (Netherland, Denmark, Sweden),
Southeast Australia and Newzealand, Eastern Argentina
TRUCK FARMING (07:44 PM)
• Growing perishable fruits and vegetables at a distance that can be covered in one
night.
 • It is also called Market gardening. It is also called factory Farming.
• Regions- Northeast USA, Northwest Europe, etc.
INDIAN AGRICULTURE (07:47 PM)
LAND USE CATEGORIES IN INDIA
• 1) Forest- Cannot be used for settlement, Agriculture, etc
• 2) Area under non-agricultural use- It includes all the settlements, places of
working, place of settlement, infrastructures such as buildings & road
• 3) Barren and wasteland- It can not be used for agriculture with presently available
technology. example- deserts, Chambal ravens
• 4) Permanent pasture and tree crops.
• 5) Net sown area- The area which is under cultivation in the current year is the net
sown area. The total area under cultivation where the area which is sown multiple
times is accounted for multiple times is called gross crop area.
• Cropping intensity, CI= GCA/ NSA * 100
• 6) Current fallow- The land which is left uncultivated in the last year is called as
current fallow.
• 7) Fallow other than current fallow- Which is left uncultivated for more than one
year but less than 5 years.
• 8) Culturable wasteland- The land which is left uncultivated for more than 5 years.

•
• Trends
• 1) Net sown area- There is a slight increase since independence due to the
expansion of agriculture
• 2) Forest Area- There is a slight increase due to efforts of the forest department
• 3) Non-agricultural use- There is an increase due to urbanization.
• 4) Barren and wasteland
• The current fallow has also increased.
• Fallow other than the current fallow and culturable wasteland has decreased
The topic for the next class- Indian cropping conditions, cropping patterns, Green
Revolution, etc.
Geography Class 44
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:04 PM)
GREEN REVOLUTION (05:26 PM)
• The Green Revolution had a significant impact on India's agricultural sector.
• In the 1960s, India was facing a severe food shortage due to a rapidly growing
population and a lack of agricultural productivity.
• The Indian government, with the help of international aid agencies and agricultural
scientists, launched a series of programs to boost agricultural productivity and
reduce poverty.
• One of the most significant initiatives was the introduction of high-yielding
varieties (HYV) of wheat and rice, developed by Indian scientists and researchers
with support from international organizations.
• These HYV crops were more resistant to disease, had higher yields, and required
more intensive use of fertilizers and irrigation.
• The Indian government also invested heavily in rural infrastructure, including
irrigation projects, rural electrification, and the construction of roads and
transportation networks. These initiatives helped to increase the accessibility of
inputs and technology to farmers and facilitated the transportation of agricultural
produce to markets.
• The Green Revolution in India was successful in increasing agricultural productivity
and reducing poverty, especially in the northern states of Punjab, Haryana, and
Uttar Pradesh, where the HYV varieties of wheat and rice were most widely
adopted.
• Inputs used for the Green Revolution:
• a) HYV Seeds (Fast growing, short and densely growing, early maturing, higher
productivity)
• b) Irrigation (As HYV seeds are water intensive)
• c) Chemical fertilizers (To replenish the nutrient levels in the soil)
• d) Chemical pesticides (As the HYV Seeds are less resistant to pests and insects)
• e) Capital (for buying HYV seeds, mechanization, and other infrastructure)
• f) Government Support (In terms of finance, subsidy, and MSP)
• Phase I (1961-68):
• It is called a premature phase.
• Implemented in 8 districts of Punjab and Haryana through an Integrated
Agricultural development program.
• Phase II (1968-81):
• It is called as mature phase, implemented in the whole of Punjab, Haryana, and
western UP.
• By the end of the second phase, foodgrain production in India increased from 66
million tonnes to 150 Million tonnes.
• Phase III (1981-1992)
• We started implementation in rice-producing regions in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
and Tamil Nadu.
• By the end of this phase, rice production was more than doubled.
• Implications of the Green Revolution:
• Positive:
• Self-sufficiency in food grain production.
• Increase in income level
• Control of epidemics and famine.
• Commercialisation of agriculture.
• Increase in exports of food grains and products.
• Increase in employment opportunities.
 • Negative:
• a) Environmental impacts:
• Neglect of indigenous varieties led to the loss of biodiversity.
• Land degradation due to the use of fertilizers.
• Deforestation due to the expansion of agricultural land
• Soil salinization due to flood irrigation practice.
• Increased soil erosion.
• Depletion of groundwater.
• b) Economical impacts:
• Neglect of indigenous varieties and less focus on pulses.
• Increase in income inequality.
• The cost of agriculture has increased.
• Subsidy and MSP, farm loan waiver have increased the burden on the government.
• c) Social Impacts:
• Migration
• Excessive dependency on migrant labour.
• Inter and intra-regional inequality
• Health issues due to chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
CROPPING SEASONS OF INDIA (06:06 PM)
• The cropping seasons are majorly applies to Northern India.
•

KHARIF RABBI ZAID

SEASON SEASON SEASON
August-
September
SOWING October- ( Zaid
June-July
SEASON November Kharif)
Feb- March
(Zaid Rabi)
Dec- Jan
(Zaid
HARVESTING September- March-
Kharif)
SEASON October April
April- May
(Zaid Rabi)
oilseeds,
Rice,
Wheat, Jowar,
sugarcane,
Mustard, Maize,
CROPS cotton, Jute,
and Gram, Summer
Jowar,
linseed. fruits, and
Bajara, Ragi
vegetables
CROPPING CONDITIONS (06:15 PM)
• It is the conditions in which the crop grows.
• The conditions are temperature, precipitation, and soil types.
• The Crops grown In Temperature Conditions:
•
 Temperature
Crops
(Degree celsius)
Rice, Jute,
25-35 Sunflower,
Coffee, Rubber
Pulses, other oil
seeds, sugarcane,
20-25
cotton, Maize,
Tobacco, Tea.

15-20 Mustard

<15 Wheat
• The Crops grown In Precipitation Conditions:
•

Precipitation (cm) Crops

Rice, Jute, Coffee,
>120 cm Rubber, Tea,
Sugarcane.
75-120 Wheat, Maize
Oilseeds, Pulses,
<75
cotton, tobacco
• The Crops grown In various soil types:
•

Soil Type Crops

Rice, Wheat,
Alluvial Soil Cotton, Jute,
Sugarcane
Cotton, oilseeds,
Black Soil citrus fruit,
Sugarcane
Rice, Ragi,
Tobacco,
Red Soil
Groundnut, fruits
and vegetables.
Tapioca,
Laterite Soil Cashewnuts,
rubber, coffee.
RICE AND WHEAT CULTIVATION IN NORTH INDIA (7:03 PM)
• Cultivated in Northern Ganga plains, Punjab, Haryana region, etc.
• Reasons:
• Maching of seasons.
 • Alluvial soil.
• Support system due to Green Revolution
• Extensive irrigation facility
• High population density
• Good demand for both rice and wheat because the staple diet is Rice and Roti.
• High profit due to higher MSP.
• Issues due to this (Rice+Wheat) combination:
• Neglect of other crops like oilseeds, and millet.
• Increased groundwater extraction.
• Rice was not grown earlier in Punjab and along the region, however, the Rice
started cultivating which led to high water consumption.
• The use of High fertilizers and pesticides the agriculture became capital intensive.
• Both are energy and labour-intensive crops.
• The problem of stubble burning became a prominent issue because the time gap
between Rice harvesting and wheat sowing was reduced.
COFFEE AND TEA (07:10 PM)
• Conditions:
• High temperature and precipitation are required.
• Places:
• In India, tea is primarily grown in the northeastern states and the foothills of the
Himalayas.
• Some of the major tea-growing regions in India include Assam, Darjeeling, Dooars,
Terai, and Nilgiris.
• Coffee is primarily produced in the southern region of India, specifically in the
states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. These states have
suitable climatic conditions and geographical features that support coffee
cultivation.
MILLETS (7:20 PM)
• The prominent millets are as follows:
• Bajara(Pearl Millet), Jowar(Sorgum) and Ragi(Finger Millet)
• Few other important Millets are as follows:
• Amaranth, Barnyard, Buckwheat, Kodu, Little Millet.
• The Temperature requirements are from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius.
• Precipitation required is from 50cm to 100cm.
• Advantages:
• Fewer Carbohydrates.
• More nutritious.
PULSES (7:29 PM)
• Temperature:
• 20 to 25 degrees
• Rainfall:
• Less rainfall is required around 75cm.
• These are used for crop rotation.
• India produces 25% of the world's pulses yet we are the largest importer of pulses
in the world.
• Major states:
 • Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, UP, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
• Reasons behind low Pulse production are as follows:
• The total area under the pulse production has reduced.
• Shift in production towards dryland areas.
• Lower support in research and development.
• Reduced cultivation of pulses in the northern belt due to the green revolution.
• Higher MSP prices for rice and wheat and less focus on pulses.
• Absence of high-yielding varieties and pest-resistant varieties.
• Long market supply chain and lack of reforms in the market for pulses.
• Measures needed:
• Increase MSP support.
• Increase the coverage of MSP.
• Increase the land area under the pulses cultivation.
• Provide better quality seeds.
• Examples of the Pulses:
• Pigeon Pea, Gram, Chickpea, Brown Chickpea, Blackgram (Urad), Lentils, Kidney
beans, Black-eyed peas, Horsegram, etc.
OILSEEDS (7:51 PM)
• India is the fourth largest oilseed-producing country, however, More than 60% of
the oilseed production is met through imports.
• Conditions:
• less Precipitation.
• They thrive in moderate to warm temperatures.
• Oilseed crops generally require a good amount of sunlight for their growth and
development.
• Areas:
• Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, etc.
• Madhya Pradesh has the highest oilseeds production.
• The import is Plam oil is prominent, imported from Southeast Asia.
• Soya is imported from Brazil.
• Problems/Issues:
• Very low price support.
• Inconsistent import and export policy.
• Green Revolution majorly focused on rice and wheat production.
• Suggestions/ Strategies to increase the oilseeds production:
• Better quality seeds and increase the area of production.
• High-yielding seeds.
• Increased awareness among the farmers.
• Improved market supply chain and reduced middlemen.
• Encourage the farmers for setting up oilseeds processing units.
• Encourage the private sector and contract farming.
• Government started an Integrated scheme for oilseeds, oil palm, pulses, and maize
development program.
• Establishment of processing plants in rural areas through FPOs.
• Extracting untapped potential in oilseeds (For Example, Ricebran Oil, Cotton seed
oil)
 • Major oilseeds:
• Groundnut, Soyabean, Sunflower and Safflower, Mustard/Rapeseed, Toria,
Sesamum, Nigerseed, etc.
• Issues in palm oil cultivation:
• Deforestation
• Long gestation period.
• Highly water-intensive crop.
• Loss of biodiversity.
TOPICS FOR THE NEXT CLASS: MINERAL RESOURCES, INDUSTRIES, ETC.
Geography Class 45
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS TOPICS (05:04 PM)
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES (05:12 PM)
• Minerals are usually classified as Metalic and non-metallic minerals.
• 1) Metalic minerals:
• a) Ferrous Minerals ( Example: Iron ore)
• b) Non-ferrous Minerals. (Example: Copper and Bauxite)
• 2) Non-Metallic Minerals:
• a) Organic or Energy minerals.
• A) Iron Ore:
• a) Magnetite:
• Black in colour
• Associated with Igneous rocks
• b) Haematite:
• Red in colour
• Associated with Sedimentary rocks
• c) Limonite:
• Brown in Colour.
• Associated with Sedimentary rocks.
• d) Siderite:
• Grey in colour.
• Associated with Sedimentary rocks.
• Global Distribution:
• USA and Russia have huge amounts of Iron ore.
• North America: Lake Superior region, NE USA, Labrador, Newfoundland
• South America: Itabira (Brazil), Cerro Bolivar (Venezuela)
• Europe: Kiruna & Gallivare (Sweden), Bilbao (Spain)
• Africa: Bomi Hills (Liberia), Postmasberg & Transvaal (South Africa)
• Asia: Krivoy Rog, Kerch (Ukraine), Kuzbas, Magnetogorsk (Siberia), Manchuria
(China)
• Australia: Iron knob, [Link]
• B) Manganese:
• Ore of Maganese is called Pyrolusite.
• Global distribution:
• South America: Macapa, Minas Geraise (Brazil), Western Mato Grasso.
• Africa: Zaire, Postmasberg (South Africa)
• Asia: Nikopol and Tokmak (Ukraine), Chiatura (Georgia), Urals.
 • C) Copper:
• The ore of Copper is called chalcopyrite.
• Global distribution:
• North America: Sudbury, Lynn Lake (Canada)
• South America: Casapalco (Peru), Chuquicamata & San Jose (Chile).
• Africa: Katanga.
• Asia: Lake Balkash (Russia), Ulan Bator (Mongolia).
• D) Aluminum:
• The ore of aluminum is known as bauxite
• Global Distribution:
• North America: Alabama, Arkansas (USA)
• South America: Jamaica, Guyana, Surinam
• Europe: France, Hungary
• Africa: Guinea
• Asia: Urals, Krasnaya (Russia)
• Australia: Weipa, Cape York, Darling Range
• E) Gold:
• Global Distribution:
• North America: Nevada, Alaska, and California.
• Canada: Canada has substantial gold resources, primarily located in the provinces
of Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia.
• South Africa: Witwatersrand Basin
• Australia: Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie region.
• F) Tin:
• Global Distribution:
• Most of the South East Asian countries (Malaysia, Indonesia, etc)
• Nigeria.
ENERGY RESOURCES (05:44 PM)
• 1) Coal:
• Coal is generated from the remains of dead animals and plants deep beneath the
Earth's surface.
• Varieties of coal:
• a) Anthracite:
• Contains 95% of Carbon.
• b) Bituminous
• Contains around 45 to 85% of Carbon.
• c) Lignite:
• 38-45% of Carbon.
• d) Peat
• Less than 38% Carbon
• Global Distribution:
• North America: Gulf Coast, Appalachian, California, Alaska (USA), Prairies,
Edmonton, Calgary (Canada)
• South America: Maracaibo, Orinoco basin (Venezuela), Magdalena (Columbia),
Punta Arenas (Chile), Falkland
• Europe: North Sea, Norway
• Africa: Algeria, Libya, Nigeria – Niger Delta
 • Asia: Dhaharan, Quatif (Saudi Arabia), Mosul, Kirkuk, Zubair (Iraq), Masjid Sulaiman
(Iran), Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Abudabhi (UAE); Baku (Azerbaijan), Urals, Caucasus,
Caspian sea, NW Siberia, Sakhalin (Russia); Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia); Brunei;
Sarawak, Sabah (Malaysia), China.
• 2) Oilfields and Natural Gas:
• Global Distribution:
• California region.
• Appalachian region.
• Maracaibo.
• Persian Gulf region.
• Europe: North Sea (Brent oil is the best quality)
• Regions in India:
• Assam region: Digboi, Naharkatiya, Hagriyan-Moran, and Surma river valley.
• Natural gas is also found in the Bagrijan-Moran area.
• Gujarat region: Khambakt and Ankleshwar where oil regions are extended up to
Navgaon, Kosamba, Olpad, Dholka, Mehsana, Kalal, etc.
• Mumbai High region, a little away from the Mumbai coast
• Region off-shore in Krishna - Godavari river valley.
• 3) Shale Gas:
• It is similar to natural gas.
• USA developed the Fracking technology for the extraction of shale gas.
• Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a technique used in the extraction of
natural gas from shale formations.
• Lead Countries with technically recoverable Shale gas are:
• 1) China
• 2) Argentina
• 3) Algeria
• 4) U.S.A
• 5) Canada
ROCK FORMATIONS IN INDIA (6:15 PM)
• 1) Archean Rock Formations:
• They are the deepest and oldest rock formations.
• Most of them are metamorphic in nature.
• No fossil evidence is found in this rock.
• No Economic minerals are found.
• Bundelkhand and Nilgiri are the regions where archean rocks are found.
• 2) Dharwar rock Formations:
• Found near the Dharwad region in Karnataka
• Chota Nagpur Platue of East and Aravalis.
• They are rich in metalliferous minerals most important being Iron and Manganese.
• 3) Cuddahpah Rock Formations:
• Erosion and deposition of Dharwar rocks near Cuddapah
• Rich in sandstone, limestone, and Dolemite.
• It is associated with Uranium.
• 4) Vindhyan Rock Formations:
• They are majorly associated with rifting activities.
• Good amount of sandstone and limestone is found.
• Diamond is found (Panna, Golkonda, etc)
• 5) Gondwana Rock Formations:
• They have majorly coal.
• Formed in the Carboniferous period.
• Mostly found in Cauvery, Son, and Mahanadi river basins.
• 6) Deccan Trap Formations:
• The large-scale Deccan magma eruption led to the formation of the Deccan trap.
• Natural resource potential of Deccan Trap:
• Black soil
• Potential for Wind energy.
• Good groundwater storage potential.
• Potential for Hydro energy.
• 7) Tertiary Rock Formations:
• It resulted due to the Himalaya formation process.
• They are all sedimentary in nature.
• Limestone is found in Pir Panjal, Dun Valley and Shivaliks, etc.
• 8) Quarternary Rock Formations:
• They do not have metallic and non-metallic minerals.
• In some areas Shale gas and Oil(Assam Region)
• They contain Alluvial Soil.
• Lithium is discovered recently in these rock formations.
• Iron ore in India:
• Odisha: Gurumahisani, Sulepat, and Badam Pahar in Mayurbhanj district;
Baramjader group extended in Keonjhar and Sundargarh districts.
• Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
• Bailadilla of Bastar district in Chhattisgarh;
• Sandoor Hills at Bellary - Hospet region and Bababudan Hills at Chikmanglur
district in Karnataka;
• Bauxite in India:
• Ranchi and Palamau in Jharkhand
• Sarguja, Shah dole, Durg, and Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh;
• Kolaba, Thane, and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra;
• Belgaon and Bababudan Hills in Karnataka;
• Palni, Javdi and Shevaroy hills regions in Tamil Nadu
• Copper Ores in India:
• Singhbhum in Jharkhand;
• Jhunjhunu, Bhilwara, Alwar, and Udaipur in Rajasthan; Khetri Mine in Rajasthan
has been a major copper extracting region since the age of Indus Valley civilization.
• Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh;
• Guntur and Nellore districts in Andhra Pradesh.
• Mica ore in India:
• Muscovite and Biotite types of mica are extracted from Hazaribagh, Singhbhum,
and Palamu districts.
• Other major mica-producing regions are Gaya and Munger in Bihar
• Nellore and Khammam in Andhra Pradesh
• Udaipur and Bhilwara districts in Rajasthan.
• Shale gas Basins:
• a) Cambay Basin
• b) Ganga Basin
• c) Assam-Arrakan Basin
• d) Damodar Valley in Gondavana Basin.
• e) Krishna- Godavari Basin
• f) Cauvery Basin.
• Uranium occurrences in India:
• Cuddapah Basin
• Bhima Basin
• Tummalapalle
• Chattisgarh Basin
• Aravalli Region.
• Shillong region.
• Singhbhum province
• Thorium :
• Global Distribution:
• India
• USA
• Australia
• Canada
• In India:
• Found in the beach Monazite sand.
• Rare earth minerals and Titanium is also found.
• Some prominent states are Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, etc.
• Other important minerals in India:
•
Major Minerals: Minor Minerals:
o They come
under the
direct
control of
the Central
o The
government.
regulation
o For
of minor
Example
minerals is
Coal,
done by the
Lignite,
state
o Asbestos
government.
o Calcite
o Bentonite
o Diamond
o Boulders
o Dolomite
o Building
o Gypsum
Stones
o Kaolin
o Gravel
o Jasper
o Lime Stone
o Kyanite
o Marble
o Limestone
o Slate, etc.
o Pyrite
o Quartz
o Silica Sands
o Shale
o Ilmenite
 o Rutite
ISSUES DUE TO MINING (07:16 PM)
• Unplanned and haphazard mining causes a lot of issues.
• Environmental Issues:
• Air pollution due to open-cast mining.
• Water pollution due to disturbance of groundwater channels, and seepage of
chemicals into the groundwater.
• Soil pollution due to increased soil pollution.
• Deforestation.
• Land degradation.
• Economical Issues:
• Inefficient methods of extraction reduces profit.
• Improper management of coal auction.
• Administrative Issues:
• Illegal mining, i.e. Mining beyond the sanctioned area and limit, transportation
beyond the limit.
• Exploitation of labour.
• Damage to infrastructure like roads, bridges due to overload.
• Land acquisition for mining is a big issue.
• Social Issues:
• Displacement of tribals, labours.
• Migration of people for employment.
• Serious health and social issues due to mining activity.
• Technology issues:
• Mining is done through old and absolute methods.
• For Example, in Rat hole mining, the coal available in Meghalaya is thin, and
difficult to extract it.
• The small holes are dug and a small amount of extraction is took place through this
method.
• This method is risky and illegal.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY (07:38 PM)
• The production of identical goods on a large scale using raw materials, machinery,
power, and specialized labour in a factory setting is called the manufacturing
industry.
• It produces standardized commodities.
• Locational Factors:
• Factors affecting the location of the industry are called locational factors.
• 1) Raw Material:
• Easy availability, cost of raw material, easy to transport, weight losing or non-
weight losing, perishable and non-perishable like the Sugar industry.
• 2) Market:
• Bigger the market more the demand and can generate more profit.
• 3) Labour:
• Labour availability
• Skilled and unskilled
• Cheaper availability
• 4) Energy/Power:
 • Availability
• Cheaper supply of power.
• Regular supply of power.
• 5) Infrastructure:
• Transportation methods.
• Land and other infrastructure
• 6) Capital:
• The availability of capital is an important factor.
• 7) Government policies:
• The policies like tax incentives, Labour laws, import-export policy, etc.
• Foot Loose industry:
• The industries which are not dependent upon specific raw materials or raw
materials that can be obtained from anywhere are called footloose industries.
• For Example IT Industry.
COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY (07:59 PM)
• Significance:
• It is the largest agro-based industry.
• It is labour intensive and culturally, historically we are closer to this industry.
• Three types of cotton Industries:
• a) Handlooms:
• Made out of hands/manpower like Khadi.
• b) Power looms:
• The production took place
• c) Cotton Spinning Mills
• Locational factor:
• Raw material:
• The cotton is grown in the black soil region.
• Cotton is a non-weight-losing industry.
• Market:
• It is the most dominant factor
• It requires a good transportation network.
• Regular power supply, labour is also required.
• Bombay Spinning and weaving company was established in 1854.
• The initial cotton mills were located in the Bombay presidency region.
• The initial areas where industries set up were:
• Ahmedabad- Manchester of India.
• Gandhinagar, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Solapur, etc.
• Distribution:
• The first shift away from the core region happened in the south.
• Coimbatore is called Manchester of south India, and Tirupur is a specific region
where the cotton and textile industry is set up.
• Reasons for the southward shift:
• Availability of port.
• Cheap labour.
• Availability of cheap power.
• Eastern region:
• Alluvial soil for cotton.
• Kanpur, Varanasi, Agra, Mathura, Bhopal, etc.
 • Problems of the Cotton Textile Industry:
• Raw material supply is irregular.
• Quality of cotton supply is poor.
• Higher dependence on BT Cotton.
• The cheap alternatives like technical textiles.
• Old technology is not cost-effective.
• Major Producers:
• USA, Uzbekistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam, etc.
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: MAJOR INDUSTRIES (To be Continued)
Geography Class 46
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:11 PM)
JUTE TEXTILE INDUSTRY (05:19 PM)
• Jute is called golden fiber.
• Locational factors:
• 1) Raw material: Non-weight-losing raw material.
• Grows in alluvial soil
• The growing condition requires high temperatures and high precipitation
• Jute processing requires a large quantity of water.
• 2) Labour - Cheap labor is required which is easily available in West Bengal, Bihar,
and Odisha regions.
• 3) Power- Require constant power supply
• 4) Government policy- Jute packaging is regulated by the Jute Packaging Material
Act of 1987.
• Distribution:
• The First Jute Mill was established in Rishra in 1855.
• 90% of jute production is in West Bengal.
• A large amount of area in Bangladesh is under jute cultivation.
• The Jute production is distributed in the following regions:
• Andhra Pradesh- used for rice packaging,
• Madhya Pradesh- for cement packaging,
• Uttar Pradesh and Bihar- Sugar packaging.
• Problems:
• Technology- Old and obsolete technology.
• Competition from Bangladesh in the jute sector
• Competition due to the cheap availability of substitutes like plastic bags.
• Production is majorly from West Bengal and Assam.
• Strong labour unionism, frequent strikes, and lockouts.
• Less demand for jute products.
• Irregular supply of power and costly power.
• Significance:
• It is environmentally friendly and is biodegradable
• If produced on a mass scale it is cheaper too.
• It is also used in soil conservation and the reduction of soil erosion. etc.
• Govt. is supporting the industry through the Jute Packaging Material Act, of 1987.
SILK TEXTILE INDUSTRY (05:40 PM)
• India is a major exporter of silk.
• All five varieties of silk are available in India.
 • Mulberry silk is available in large proportions.
• Locational factors:
• 1) Raw material -
• Silk is produced from silkworms, Sericulture is practiced in the major part of India.
• Karnataka is the largest producer.
• Mulberry Silk is majorly produced in south India.
• In West Bengal, Erie silk is produced while in Assam Muga silk is produced.
• UP- Bihar- Oak Tussar,
• Odisha region - Tropical Tussar,
• Erie silk is called "Ahimsa silk".
• 2) Labour - Majorly women are involved in production activities.
• Distribution:
• Kanchi, Tanjavore, Dharmavaram, Banglore, Mysore, Pochampalli, Andhra Pradesh,
Anandpur, and Hyderabad are major centers.
• Assam- Areas around Guwahati
• UP-Bihar- Varanasi and Bhagalpur
• Bengal- Dakshin pargana
• Problems:
• Sericulture is practiced as a subsidiary activity, so there is irregular production and
supply in the market
• There are many market hurdles.
• Huge competition from artificial silk, china silk, Japanese silk, and Italy silk.
• Competition from artificial silk.
• Lack of government support for the sericulture activity.
• Significance:
• Silk has huge potential.
• It can be considered as an alternative source of income.
• Sericulture doesn't require fertile land.
• The capital investment requirement in sericulture is low.
• It can create huge employment opportunities for women.
SUGAR INDUSTRY (5:53 PM)
• It is the second largest agro-based industry after cotton.
• Locational factors:
• 1) The raw material is weight-losing and the final product weighs just 1/10 of the
raw material.
• Soil condition- Alluvial soil
• It is grown in high-precipitation areas.
• Raw material is perishable goods, Sugarcane crushing should be done within 24
hours.
• It is too bulky to transport, so sugar mills need to be established in the vicinity of
the production area.
• 2) A constant supply of power is required.
• 3) Huge capital investment is required.
• 4) FRP price is declared for the sugarcane which is market-distorting in nature.
• Distribution:
• UP- Bihar and the Terai region are most suitable for sugarcane production.
 •In North India, important centers are Bulandshahar, Saharanpur, Mirzapur,
Champaran, Eastern UP, Sitapur, Faizabad, and in Haryana- Ambala, Hissar, Karnal,
etc.
• However, the sugarcane-producing region gradually shifted toward south India.
• Reasons for a southward shift in the sugar industry:
• Black soil, availability of groundwater, and other irrigation facilities like canals, etc.
• Sugarcane grown in the south has higher sucrose content.
• The good moisture, longer crushing period, and marine effect are reasons for
higher sucrose content.
• The sugar mills are run effectively by co-operatives.
• Regions in South:
• Ahmednagar, Solapur, Mysore, Mandya, Belgaum.
• Tamilnadu- Trichy, Coimbatore, Salem.
• Andhra Pradesh: Krishna-Godavari delta and coastal Andhra and Godavari region
• It has good port connectivity.
• Problems:
• In the northern region old technology is being used.
• Compared to the global average the per-hectare production is much less.
• Market support is controlled, and the price is determined by the Government.
• Competition from the Jaggery.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY (06:10 PM)
• The growth of the country is measured in terms of the level of iron and steel
production.
• Locational factors:
• 1) Raw material- Iron ore is the most important but an equal amount of coal is also
required.
• Limestone is also used in processing.
• Pig iron is extracted from this process (100 % iron)
• (Pig iron+ Manganese = Steel), In this process, a huge amount of water is required.
• 2) Market- Available in major parts of India.
• 3) Labour - Skilled labour required
• 4) Power- consumes power in huge quantities, It should be regular and cheap.
• 5) Infrastructure- Transportation facilities are required, The most prominent mode
is railways.
• Iron and coal have a bidirectional relationship.
• Distribution:
• TISCO- Jamshedpur is one of the earliest plants.
• 10 Integrated steel plants:
• Jharkhand- Jamshedpur, Bokaro
• West Benagal- Bumpur and Durgapur,
• Odisha - Rourkela
• Chattisgarh- Bhillari
• Karnataka- Bhadravati and Vijaynagar,
• Andhra Pradesh- Vishakhapatnam
• Tamilnadu- Salem
• These are major steel plants in India.
• At world-level distribution:
 • Near the Great Lake region, the Pitsburg region is called the Iron and Steel Capital
of the world.
• However, the production presently happens in the southern region of the USA.
• In Russia- Near to Ukraine region, the Urals region, the Donbas regions, etc.
• Germany- Rurh valley.
• China- Import iron mainly from India.
• Problems:
• Availability and supply of the coal.
• Long gestation period.
• Huge Investment.
• Regular power supply.
• Mini steel plants:
• Mini-steel plants are located near the market and are smaller in size.
• They are dependent on scrap iron.
• They have a shorter gestation period.
• But they are not much successful, because scrap iron is less available.
• These plants are dependent on imported scrap iron.
• Power shortage is an issue.
CEMENT INDUSTRY (06:33 PM)
• Importance - This industry supports the construction sector. It is the backbone of
economic growth.
• Locational factors:
• 1) Raw Materials- Limestone, Coal, and Gypsum.
• Limestone- found along Cuddapah, Shivalik region.
• Coal- Gondwana coal
• Gypsum - Rajasthan mines but not sufficient.
• Seashells along coastal regions are important sources.
• Sludge from the fertilizer industry and slag from the iron and steel industry are the
important raw materials for gypsum.
• 2) Power- huge power demand.
• 3) Capital- The cement industry is capital-intensive.
• Distribution:
• Earlier the cement industry was established in the Vindyan region as well as some
parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra, the Cuddapah region, and some parts of the
Pirpanjal-Shivalik belt.
• Gradually the cement industry spread in various regions with help of the
government policies.
• Problems:
• Pollution of air and water
• Availability of raw materials is an issue.
• Cartelization in the cement industry is a big issue.
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY (06:40 PM)
• Significance:
• India is not self-sufficient.
• We import large quantities of fertilizers.
• Nitrogenous, Phosporpous, and sulfur fertilizers are prominently produced in India
• Locational factors:
 •1) Raw material- for nitrogenous fertilizers- Naptha is extracted from natural gas in
refineries that are used in the fertilizer industry,
• They are located near the refineries or coastal regions to import the raw material.
• Ammonium sulfate is available in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, etc.
• Phosphatic fertilizers have rock phosphate as raw material.
• In India, it is found in Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Sulfurous fertilizers- sulphuric acid- extracted from refineries.
• 2) Power- a cheaper and more regular supply of energy is required.
• 3) Government policy- fertilizers majorly depend upon govt. subsidy
• Distribution- Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, etc.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION (07:07 PM)
• A) Roadways
• Advantages:
• End-to-end connectivity
• Faster mode for commutation
• It connects difficult terrain like hilly regions
• Disadvantages:
• High cost of maintenance
• Causes pollution due to lower efficiency.
• Urban congestion and traffic.
• B) Railways
• Advantages:
• Cheap for industry
• Bulky goods transportation is possible
• It is comfortable for long-distance movement.
• Disadvantages:
• High maintenance
• No door-to-door connectivity.
• Due to cross-subsidy and limited infrastructure, the freight movement is delayed
and becomes costly.
• Difficult to connect tough terrains
• Land acquisition is difficult.
• Inland Waterways
• Advantages:
• Cheapest of all transports
• Low energy requirement and eco-friendly too.
• It is well suited for bulky and nonperishable goods.
• Low maintenance.
• It is labour intensive too and provides employment.
• Disadvantages:
• Can not carry perishables
• No door-to-door connectivity.
• Water levels are not consistent, and rainfed rivers are not navigable throughout the
year.
• Various hydro projects reduce water availability
• Regular dredging and de-siltation are required.
• Many times the terrain is difficult.
• Situations like floods and the shifting course of rivers are prominent issues.
 • Slow movement
• Airways:
• Advantages:
• Fastest and can be used in emergencies.
• Perishable goods can be transported easily.
• It boosts the tourism sector
• Disadvantages:
• Costly and has safety issues.
• Bulk transportation is difficult
• High initial setup cost.
• Highly polluting mode.
POPULATION (07:21 PM)
• Population is the number of individuals of the species.
• Population density- Number of individuals of a specie per unit area.
• Terms related to population density:
• Crude density is also called Arithmetic density = Population/ Area
• Nutritional density = total population/total cultivable area.
• Agricultural density= The agricultural population/total cultivable area.
• Population growth is measured using different terms as follows:
• Natural Growth Rate i.e. NGR =1000* (Number of live births - Number of deaths) /
Mid-year population.
• Crude Birth Rate = 1000* Number of live births / total population
• Fertility Ratio= 1000* (Population of children between 0-4 years) / (Total
population of females between 15 to 44 years)
• Replacement Level Fertility:
• It is the fertility rate required for the generation to replace itself.
• It is the average number of children a woman would need to have to reproduce
herself by bearing a daughter who survives to childbearing age so that each
generation will exactly replace itself without considering migration.
• It is generally considered to be 2.1
• Deaths:
• Crude death rate (CDR) is 1000* Number of deaths in a given period / total
population
• Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of infant deaths for every 1,000 live
births.
• Maternal mortality rate (MMR) is the number of maternal deaths during a given
period per 1,00,000 live births.
MIGRATION (07:33 PM)
• Migration is a change in residency for a substantial period of time.
• Reasons behind migration are push and pull factors
• Push factors- The disturbance at the source is called a push factor, for example,
Drought, flood, etc
• Pull factors- There is something more attractive at the destination like better
employment, facilities, etc.
• Types of Migration:
• 1) International- Immigration and emigration
• 2) Domestic migration is within the country.
• Domestic migration is classified into 4 types as follows:
 • a) Rural -> Urban - the movement of children for education.
• b) Rural -> Rural - majorly due to marriage etc.
• c) Urban -> Urban - small cities to metropolitan cities, majorly for better
opportunities
• d) Urban -> Rural - Due to congestion, high living costs, etc
POPULATION PYRAMID (07:50 PM)
• The male population is counted at the left half of the pyramid while the female
population is at the right half of the pyramid.
• Population pyramid shapes are as follows:
• Type-1:Progressive with very wide base and rapidly declining. For Example, Sub-
saharan countries
• Type-2: Gradual decling death rate but high birth rate. For Example, India between
1960-2010.
• Type-3: Low birth rate, low death rate. For example, USA.
• Type-4: Contracting very low death and birth rates. for example, Sweden and
Japan.
• Demographic transition theory and its five phases are as follows:
• Stage 1 - High birth and high death rate
• Stage 2 - High birth and declining death rate
• Stage 3 - Falling Birth rate and death rate fall more slowly.
• Stage 4 - Low Birth and Low Death rate
• Stage 5 - Birth rate rising again and Stable or slow increase in death rate.
THE SYLLABUS FOR GEOGRAPHY IS COMPLETED.