SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are the type of rock that is formed by the accumulation and compaction of
sediments overtime. These sediments are mainly minerals, organic materials, or fragments of
rocks that have been broken down by the processes like erosion and weathering. These rocks
made about 5 percent of earth’s crust. As these are formed on the surface of earth, they cover
about 75 percent of continents.

FORMATION
The formation of sedimentary rocks contain different processes. These processes got following
steps:

 Weathering and Erosion: Breaking down of rocks into smaller particles.

 Transportation: Movement of sediments by wind, air, water etc.
 Deposition: Settlement of sediments to a new location.
 Compaction and Cementation: As the time passes, layers of sediment are pressed
together and bound by minerals to form solid rocks.

TYPES
Types of Sedimentary rocks are:
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Organic Sedimentary Rocks
 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
 Bioclastic Sedimentary Rocks

CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic sedimentary rocks consist of grains and particles that were eroded from weathered
rocks and then were transported and deposit at earth surface.

CHARACTERISTICS
 Composition: Made of rock fragments, minerals grains or clay
 Grain Size: Varies from coarse (gravel-sized) to fine (clay-sized)
 Sorting: Reflects the uniformity of grain size; well sorted rocks have similar-sized grains
while poorly sorted rocks have a mix of sizes.
 Texture: It can vary depending on the size and shape of the clasts.
TRANSPORT OF CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
After weathering creates clastic sediments, flowing water, wind, glaciers and gravity erode it
and carry it downslope.

AGENTS
Followings are the main agents for transportation
 Water: Water carries sediments in following ways
1. Suspension: Fine particles like silt and clay are carried within the water columns.
2. Bed Load: Larger particles like sand, gravel and pebbles rolls, slide or bounce along the
bottom.
3. Solution: Dissolved minerals are transported as ions in water

 Wind: Wind transport fine sediments like sand silt, especially in arid and desert. The
mechanism is
1. Suspension: Tiny particles are carried high into the atmosphere.
2. Saltation: Sand grains bounce along the surface.
3. Creep: Larger particles roll or slide along the surface.

 Ice: Glacier transport sediments ranging from silt to boulders. Sediments are picked up
and embedded in ice, then carried as the glacier moves.
 Gravity: Sediments can move downslope under the force of gravity without the aid of a
fluid medium. Landslide, rockfalls and soil creep transport material downhill.

LITHIFICATION

Lithification refers to processes that convert loose sediments into hard rocks. Key
Processes:

 Compaction:

Weight of accumulated sediment compresses buried layers.

1.
Reduces pore space, forcing out water.
2.
Effective for clay-rich mud as platy grains interlock like a puzzle.
3.
 Cementation:
1. Water circulates through pore spaces in compacted sediment.
2. Dissolved minerals (e.g., calcium carbonate, silica, iron) precipitate and bind
grains together.
3. Example: Red sandstone gets its color from red iron oxide cement.
Types of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Followings are the types of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Coarse-Grained Clastic Rocks

1. Conglomerate:
o Composed of rounded clasts (lithified gravel).
o Found farther from the weathering site due to transport.
o Large pores between clasts are filled with finer sediments (e.g., sand or silt).

2. Breccia:
o Composed of angular clasts (lithified rubble).
o Found near the weathering site as clasts do not travel far.
o Clasts retain characteristics of the parent rock, helping trace their origin.
o Example: Granite clast in breccia likely came from nearby granite bedrock.

Medium-Grained Clastic Rocks

1. Sandstone:
o Composed of sand-sized grains, primarily quartz.
o Quartz resists weathering; clay from feldspar is deposited elsewhere.
o Types of sandstone:
 Quartz Sandstone: Contains >90% quartz.
 Arkose: Contains ≥25% feldspar, with the rest being quartz.
 Graywacke: Poorly sorted; contains silt, clay, quartz, feldspar, and rock
fragments. Dark-colored due to clay coating grains.
o Cement: Often red iron oxide, giving a reddish color.

Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks

1. Claystone:
o Composed of clay minerals (platy like mica) and small quartz.
o Non-layered; clay minerals stack randomly.

2. Shale:
o Composed of clay and shows fissility (splits into thin layers).
o Gray to black due to organic material.
o Source of most oil and natural gas.

3. Mudstone:
o Non-fissile; composed of clay and silt.
o Layering disrupted by burrowing animals.

4. Siltstone:
o Composed of silt, mostly quartz with some clay.
 o Shows layering but lacks fissility due to lower clay content.

ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Organic sedimentary rocks form through the lithification of plant and animal remains.

Types

1. Chert:
o Composition: Pure silica.
o Forms:
 Bedded Chert: Made from the remains of tiny marine organisms with silica
skeletons.
 Nodular Chert: Precipitates from silica-rich groundwater, often in
limestone.
o Varieties:
 Flint: Dark gray to black; historically used for tools like arrowheads and scrapers.

2. Coal:
o Formation Process:

1. Dead plants accumulate rapidly in oxygen-poor environments (e.g.,

swamps).
2. Partially decayed plant material forms peat.
3. Burial and compaction convert peat into coal.
o Characteristics: Hard, black, combustible rock.

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved minerals precipitate from solution or are left behind
after the evaporation of water. These rocks typically form in environments where water is present, such
as lakes, seas, or caves.

Dissolved Elements and Chemical Weathering

 Common elements like calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium dissolve during chemical
weathering.
 These dissolved elements are carried by groundwater and streams to oceans or lakes.

Evaporites
 1. Formation:
o Form when evaporation concentrates dissolved ions until they precipitate from
solution.
o Interlocking crystals create a solid rock without the need for compaction or
cementation.

2. Common Evaporite Minerals:

o Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O): Used in plaster and wallboard.
o Halite (NaCl): Common salt.

3. Examples of Evaporite Environments:

o Landlocked Lakes:
 Example: Great Salt Lake, Utah.
 Streams flow in, but water escapes only through evaporation, leaving salts
behind.
o Coastal or Inland Basins: Trapped ocean water can also lead to evaporite formation.

4. Proportion: Evaporites make up a small proportion of all sedimentary rocks but are
economically important.

Calcium Carbonate Precipitation

1. Process:
o Seawater is nearly saturated with calcium carbonate.
o Under proper conditions, calcium carbonate minerals precipitate.

2. Example:
o Bahama Banks, south of Bimini in the Caribbean Sea:
 Tiny shell fragments are rolled by waves and currents.
 Calcium carbonate layers precipitate around the fragments, forming oöliths
(perfect spheres).

3. Oölitic Limestone:
o Oöliths become cemented to form oölitic limestone (a chemical sedimentary rock).
o Most limestone, however, is bioclastic (formed from biological remains).

BIOCLASTIC ROCKS

 Carbonate rocks are composed mainly of carbonate minerals containing the carbonate ion
(CO₃)²⁻.

Types of Carbonate Rocks

1. Limestone:
 o Rich in calcite (CaCO₃).
o Formed by biological and clastic processes (e.g., shells of marine organisms).

2. Dolostone:
o Rich in dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂).
o The rock is often called dolomite, but the term dolostone distinguishes it from the
mineral.

Formation Processes

1. Limestone Formation:
o Marine organisms (e.g., clams, oysters, corals, algae) convert dissolved calcium
carbonate into shells and hard body parts.
o After death, waves break the shells into fragments (bioclastic sediment).
o Lithification of bioclastic sediment forms bioclastic limestone.
o Fossils of shells are common in limestone.

2. Environmental Conditions for Limestone Formation:

o Warm, shallow seas with direct sunlight on the ocean floor.
o Shallow water along coastlines or on continents flooded by rising sea levels.

3. Dolostone Formation:
o Formed by magnesium-rich solutions from seawater percolating through limestone.
o Magnesium replaces half of the calcium in calcite, converting limestone to dolostone.
o Dolomite Problem: Despite its abundance in ancient carbonate rocks, dolomite is not
forming in large amounts today.

Varieties of Carbonate Rocks

1. Coquina:
o Bioclastic limestone made entirely of coarse shell fragments cemented together.

2. Chalk:
o Fine-grained, soft, white bioclastic limestone.
o Composed of microscopic shells and skeletons of marine organisms.
o Examples:
 Pale-yellow chalks (Kansas).
 Off-white chalks (Texas).
 Gray chalks (Alabama).
o Remnants of ancient shallow seas on continents.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
 Sedimentary structures: Features formed during or shortly after sediment deposition.
 Help understand transportation and deposition processes.
Types of Sedimentary Structures

1. Bedding (Stratification)

 Definition: Layering of sediment as it accumulates.

 Formation: Sediment is deposited layer by layer.
 Most beds are originally horizontal (accumulation on level surfaces).

2. Cross-Bedding

 Definition: Small beds at an angle to the main layering.

 Formation: Wind or water moves sediment, creating dunes or sand waves.
o Sand grains tumble down the steep downstream face of dunes.
 Found in sands deposited by wind, streams, ocean currents, or waves.

3. Ripple Marks

 Definition: Small, parallel ridges and troughs formed by moving water or wind.
 Types:
o Asymmetrical ripple marks: Formed by one-directional flow (e.g., streams).
o Symmetrical ripple marks: Formed by oscillating waves (e.g., shallow water).
 Preserved in sandy sedimentary rocks.

4. Graded Bedding

 Definition: Layering where grain size decreases from bottom to top.

 Formation:
o Caused by violent events like floods or submarine landslides.
o Larger grains settle first, followed by smaller particles.

5. Mud Cracks

 Definition: Polygonal cracks formed when wet mud dries and shrinks.
 Formation:
o Found in shallow water that dries periodically (e.g., intertidal mudflats).
o Cracks often fill with sediment, preserving them in rocks.

6. Delicate Structures

 Examples:
o Raindrop imprints: Formed by rain on muddy surfaces.
o Salt crystal imprints: Formed as saltwater puddles evaporate.
 Indicate shallow water that occasionally dried up.

7. Fossils

 Definition: Preserved remains or traces of plants and animals in rocks.

 Types:
o Shells, bones, teeth, whole bodies in amber/ice, tracks, burrows, and chemical remains.
 Provide evidence of past life.