EHB 465E

Fiber Optic Communication System

Asst. Prof. Onur Kurt

Ray Optics

Fundamentals of Photonics by B.E.A. Saleh and M.C Teich

Introduction
• How do we define light?
❑ Simply defined as electromagnetic wave radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation (EMR): radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light
(visible), ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
• Electromagnetic radiation propagates in the form of two mutually coupled vector
waves
❑ Electric-field wave and Magnetic-field wave
• Many optical phenomena can be described using a simplified scalar wave theory
in which the light is described as a single scalar wavefunction.
• This approximate method of treating light is called scalar wave optics or simply
wave optics.
Introduction
• When light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are
much greater than wavelength of the light, the behavior of the light can be
described by rays.
• Theory of quantum optics provides an explanation for all optical phenomena.
• Electromagnetic optics encompasses wave optics and wave optics encompasses
ray optics.
• Wave optics is an approximation of electromagnetic optics, while ray optics is
limit of wave optics when the wavelength is very short.
Postulates of Ray Optics
• What is ray optics (aka Geometric Optics)?
❑ Simplest theory of light
❑ Describes light propagation in terms of rays
• Ray optics is concerned with the locations and directions of light rays. Thus, it is
useful in studying image formation.
• The rays are emitted by the light sources and can be observed when they reach
an optical detector.
• An optical medium is characterized by a quantity 𝑛 ≥ 1, where 𝑛: refractive index

𝑛 = 𝑐0 /𝑐
𝑐0 : speed of light in free space 𝑛 = 𝑐/𝑣
𝑐: speed of light in the medium
𝑐: speed of light
in free space
𝑑 𝑛𝑑
𝑑 𝑛𝑑 𝑡: time taken by light to travel 𝑡= =
𝑡= = distance 𝑑 𝑣 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐0
Postulates of Ray Optics
• Inhomogeneous medium, the refractive index 𝑛(𝑟) is function of the position 𝑟 =
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Thus, optical pathlength for a given path between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is
given by
𝐵

𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = න 𝑛 𝑟 𝑑𝑠
𝐴

• Fermat’s Principle: Optical rays travel between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 along the path
that requires the least time as compared to neighboring paths. In other words,
light rays travel along the path of least time.
𝐵
𝛿 (variation of) signifies that the optical
𝛿 න 𝑛 𝑟 𝑑𝑠 = 0 pathlength is minimized.
𝐴

• Sometimes the minimum time is shared by more than one path, which are then
all followed simultaneously by the rays.
Propagation in Homogeneous Medium
• In homogeneous medium, refractive index and the speed of light is same
everywhere
• The path of min time is also the path of min distance. The path of min distance is
known as Hero’s principle.
• Light travels in a straight lines between two points of the path of min distance in
homogeneous medium.
Law of Reflection−Reflection from a Mirror
• What is a mirror?
❑ Metal (Al or Ag) coating deposited on a substrate such as glass.
• Light reflects from mirror in accordance with the law of reflection: the angle of
reflection equals to the angle of incidence.

• Prove the law of reflection:

• light travels from point A to C after reflection
from a mirror (infinitesimal thickness)
• According to Hero’s principle, 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 must be
minimum.
• If 𝐶 ′ is a mirror image of C, then 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 ′
• 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 ′ must be minimum.
• Therefore, 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ′ is a straight line.
Reflection and Refraction Between Two Media
• At the boundary between two media of refractive index 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 , an incident
ray is split into two rays: one is called reflected ray and the other is called
refracted (transmitted) ray.
• Reflected ray obeys the law of reflection
• Refractive ray obeys the law of refraction
• The angle of refraction 𝜃2 is related to the angle of incidence 𝜃1 by Snell’s law:

Snell’s Law
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
Proof of Snell’s Law
• Proof of Snell’s law: application of Fermat’s principle.
• Minimize the optical pathlength 𝑛1 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑛2 𝐵𝐶 between points A and C.
• Recall Fermat’s principle: light rays travel along the path of least time.
Simple Optical Components

Planar mirrors Paraboloidal mirrors Elliptical mirrors

Reflection of light from a Parallel rays will converge at All rays emitted from one of its
planar mirror. 𝑃2 is a the focal point F. It can be focal point will converge at its
mirror image of 𝑃1 . used as light collecting other focal point. According to
elements in telescope. Or it Hero’s principle, light travels
can be used to collimate light. between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 along any
paths are equal.
Simple Optical Components
• Spherical Mirrors:
❑ easier to fabricate than paraboloidal mirror or elliptical mirror.
❑ No focusing and imaging property.
❑ Parallel rays meet the principle axis at different points
❑ Parallel rays close to the principle axis are approximately focused onto a single point F at a
distance (−𝑅)/2 from the mirror center 𝐶.
❑ By convention, The radius 𝑅 is negative for concave mirrors and positive for convex mirrors.
❑ Paraxial rays: rays parallel and close to the principle axis
❑ In the paraxial approximation, spherical mirror has a focusing and imaging property.
Simple Optical Components
• Spherical Mirror:
❑ Radius 𝑅 acts like paraboloidal mirror for paraxial rays and focal length 𝑓 = 𝑅/2.
❑ All paraxial rays emitted from each point on the principle axis are reflected and focused onto
a single point on the principle axis.
❑ Ray emitted at an angle 𝜃1 from a point 𝑃1 at a distance 𝑧1 away from a concave mirror of
radius 𝑅 and reflecting at an angle (−𝜃2 ) to meet the axis at a point 𝑃2 at a distance 𝑧2 away
from the mirror. Angle 𝜃2 is negative due to downward traveling ray.
❑ From the geometry, angles of triangle add to 180°:
𝜃1 = 𝜃0 − 𝜃 and −𝜃2 = 𝜃0 + 𝜃
❑ If 𝜃0 is sufficiently small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃0 ≈ 𝜃0 .
𝜃0 ≈ 𝑦/(−𝑅)
2𝑦
𝜃1 −𝜃2 = 2𝜃0 ⇒ 𝜃1 −𝜃2 ≈
(−𝑅)
❑ If 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are small, 𝜃1 ≈ 𝑦/𝑧1 and −𝜃2 ≈ y/𝑧2
𝑦 y 2𝑦 1 1 2
+ ≈ ⇒ + ≈
𝑧1 𝑧2 −𝑅 𝑧1 𝑧2 −𝑅
−𝑅
❑ Rays emitted from very far away (𝑧1 = ∞), 𝑧2 =
2
1 1 1
❑ Therefore, focal length of spherical mirror: 𝑓 = (−𝑅)/2 . Thus, image equation: + ≈
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑓
 Planar Boundaries
• Relation between 𝜃1 (incidence) and 𝜃2 (refraction) at a planar surface between
two media with refractive index of 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 is governed by Snells’ law.
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

• External Refraction: when 𝑛1 < 𝑛2 ,

𝜃1 > 𝜃2 and the refracted ray bends
away from the boundary.

• Internal Refraction: when 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 ,

𝜃1 < 𝜃2 and the refracted ray bends
toward the boundary.
• When the angles are small (paraxial rays), the relation between 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are
approximately linear:
𝑛1 𝜃1 ≈ 𝑛2 𝜃2 ⇒ 𝜃2 ≈ (𝑛1 Τ𝑛2 )𝜃1
Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection
• When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction is also increases.
• When the angle of refraction becomes 90° (𝜃2 = 90°), the angle of incidence is
called critical angle (𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑐 ). The critical angle (𝜃𝑐 ) can be calculated as:

𝑛2
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋Τ2 ⇒ 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1
𝑛1

• When 𝜃1 > 𝜃𝑐 , Snell’s law cannot be

satisfied and refraction does not occur.
As a result of this, the incident ray is
totally reflected. This phenomenon is
called total internal reflection (TIR).
• TIR is the basis of many optical devices
and systems such as reflecting prisms
and optical fibers.
Prisms
• A prism with apex angle 𝛼 and a refractive index 𝑛 deflects an incident ray at an
angle 𝜃 by an angle:

𝜃𝑑 = 𝜃 − 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

• This equation is obtained by using Snell’s law twice at the two refracting surfaces
of the prism.
• When 𝛼 is very small (very thin prism), 𝜃 is very small (paraxial approximation),
The above equation can be approximated as:

Approximately
𝜃𝑑 ≈ (𝑛 − 1)𝛼
independent of 𝜃
Beamsplitters
• What is beamsplitter?
❑ An optical component that splits an incident ray into two rays: a reflected ray and a
transmitted ray. (a & b)
❑ It can also be used to combine two light rays into one (c)
Beam Directors
• Optical components used to direct the rays in a certain direction.
• Three types of beam directors:
❑ Biprism: juxtaposition of a prism and identical inverted prism.
❑ Frensnel biprism: form from rows of adjacently placed tiny prims. Thinner and lighter
compared to biprism.
❑ Plano-convex axion: converts incident rays into circular symmetric rays directed toward its
central axis in the form of a cone.

Biprism Frensnel Biprism Plano-Convex Axion

Spherical Boundaries
• Spherical boundary between two media with refractive indices 𝑛1 and 𝑛2
• Applying Snell’s law at the spherical boundary
• Angles 𝜃1 & 𝜃2 are defined relative to the z axis
• Consider paraxial rays making small angle with the principle axis:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑦
𝜃2 ≈ 𝜃1 −
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑅

𝑦 𝑦 Substitute them
𝜃1 = & −𝜃2 = in above equation
𝑧1 𝑧2

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 Refraction equation
+ ≈ for spherical surface
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑅
Spherical Boundaries
• Magnification of image equation is given by
𝑛1 𝑧2
𝑦2 = − 𝑦1 Negative magnification: image is inverted
𝑛2 𝑧1

• Note that above equations obtained for the spherical surfaces are approximated
based on paraxial rays. Rays of large angles do not obey these paraxial laws.
Spherical Lenses
• What is spherical lens?
❑ Transparent object bounded by two spherical surfaces that bend the rays
❑ Defined by the radii of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 of its two surfaces, thickness ∆, and refractive index n of
the material.
• Glass lens: combination of two spherical boundaries, air-to-glass and glass-to-air

Biconvex spherical lens

Recall:
Convex boundary: radius R is positive
Concave boundary: radius R is negative
Spherical Lenses
𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑦
• Applying obtained equation twice at both boundaries 𝜃2 ≈ 𝜃1 −
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑅
• If the lens is thick, the relation of 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 is complex.
• However, if the lens is thin, height of incident and refracted ray is assumed to be same
• Under this assumption, the refracted and incident ray are related by the following
equation
𝑦
𝜃2 = 𝜃1 −
𝑓
1 1 1 𝑓: focal length
= 𝑛−1 − 𝑛: refractive index of lens
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 + = Imaging equation
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑓
𝑧2
𝑦2 = − 𝑦1 Magnification
𝑧1
Aberrations
• Lens equations obtained in previous slide is for paraxial rays.
• The presence of nonparaxial rays results in aberrations.
• Nonparaxial rays do not meet at the paraxial focus or focal point of the principle
axis.
Lenses
• Different types of lenses:
(a) Biconvex lens (spherical lens): Convergence of rays and useful for image formation
(b) Plano-convex lens: Convergence of rays and useful for image formation
(c) Biconcave lens: divergence of rays and useful for focal length expansion. Used in flashlights.
(d) Plano-concave lens: divergence of rays and useful for focal length expansion.
(e) Fresnel-lens: Equivalent of a plano-convex lens. Its design allows for construction of thin,
light, and inexpensive lenses.
Light Guides
• Light may be guided from one location to another using sets of lenses or mirrors.
• The larger the guiding elements (lenses or mirrors), the larger the optical loss due
to partially reflective of lenses and partially absorptive of mirrors.
• Total internal reflection: Ideal mechanism for guiding light. Rays are reflected
without undergoing refraction. Glass fiber are used to guide light tens of
kilometers with relatively low loss of optical power.

Lenses

Mirrors

Total internal
reflection
Optical Fibers
• What is optical fiber?
❑ Cylindrical dielectric waveguide transmitting light by the process of total internal reflection
❑ Consists of core (inner part) with refractive index of 𝑛1 and cladding (outer part) with
reflective index of 𝑛2 , 𝑛2 < 𝑛1
❑ Flexible and diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.
𝑛2
❑ If the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle 𝜃ҧ > 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 , light rays
𝑛1
traveling in the core are totally reflected from the cladding.
❑ Optical fibers use in optical communication systems.
Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle
An optical fiber is illuminated by a light source (e.g., LED) as shown in the figure. The
refractive indices of the core and cladding of the fiber are 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 , respectively, and the
refractive index of air is 1. Show (proof) that acceptance angle 𝜃𝑎 accepted by the fiber is
given by:

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

Matrix Optics
• Matrix optics: method for tracing paraxial rays
• A ray is characterized by its position and angle with respect to the optical axis.
• The position and angle of the ray are varied as it propagates through the system.
• In the paraxial approximation, position and angle of an optical system are related by two linear
equations.
• Thus, optical system is expressed by a 2 × 2 matrix called the ray-transfer matrix.

• Under the paraxial approximation (small angle),

the relation between 𝑦2 , 𝜃2 and 𝑦1 , 𝜃1 is
linear and expressed by the following equations:
𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑦1 + 𝐵𝜃1 𝑦2 𝐴 𝐵 𝑦1
𝜃2 =
𝜃2 = 𝐶𝑦1 + 𝐷𝜃1 𝐶 𝐷 𝜃1
M: Ray-transfer matrix

• The ray-transfer matrix (M) is also known as ABCD matrix where A, B, C, and D are real numbers.
• The optical system is characterized by matrix M, which is known as the ray-transfer matrix.
 Matrix Optics−Ray Transfer Matrices

Free-Space Propagation Refraction at a Refraction at a

(Propagation over distance d) Planar Boundary Spherical Boundary

1
0 1 0
1 𝑑
𝑀= 𝑀 = 0 𝑛1 𝑀=
−
(𝑛2 −𝑛1 ) 𝑛1
0 1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑅 𝑛2
 Matrix Optics−Ray Transfer Matrices

Transmission Through a Thin Reflection from a Planar Reflection from a Spherical

Lens Mirror (identity matrix) Mirror

1 0 1 0
1 0
𝑀 = −1 1
𝑀= 𝑀= 2
0 1 1
𝑓 𝑅
Matrix Optics
• Matrices of Cascaded Optical Components:
• Assume a cascade of N optical components or systems

Note the order of matrix

multiplication (Matrix multiplication
is not cumulative, i.e., 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴)

• Where 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , 𝑀3 , … , 𝑀𝑁 are ray-transfer matrices for each optical component in

the system
• Ray-transfer matrices of a cascade of N optical components are equivalent to a
single ray-transfer matrix of the optical system.
Example−A set of parallel transparent plates
• Consider a set of N parallel transparent plates of refractive indices 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , … , 𝑛𝑁
and thicknesses 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , … , 𝑑𝑁 , placed in air 𝑛 = 1 normal to the z-axis. Show
that the ray-transfer matrix is given by
𝑁 𝑑𝑖
𝑀= 1 ෍
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖
0 1