Detailed Notes of EVS by Prakhar Gupta.

Aaj to baache baache ke zuban pe bas mera hi naam

hai baaki raate to gf ke sahare kat gyi aaj ki raat inn
notes ka hi kaam hai. Feeling sad for single boys

NOTE(IMPORTANT): There are many images and

value tables present in the ppt’s. Refer to them as
they can be asked.
Lecture 1: Introduction to Environmental Studies
 Environment: Definition
o Environment refers to the sum of all conditions which surrounds man at a
given point in space and time. - C.C. Park
o It describes, in aggregate, all the external forces, influences and conditions,
which affect the life, nature, behavior, growth, development and maturity of
living organisms - Douglas and Holland
o The word environment is derived from the French word "environ" meaning
"encompass", "encircle", etc.
o Jacob Van Erkul introduced it to the subject in the early 1900
 Constituents of Environment
o Physical: Land, Air, Water
o Biological: Plants, Animals, Humans, Microbes
o Cultural: Economical, Social, Political
 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
o Environmental studies require a systematic understanding and are highly
interdisciplinary and holistic.
o Life Science: Biology, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Biotechnology
o Physical Science: Physics, Chemistry; Earth Science, Geography
o Technology: Civil, Chemical, Nanotechnology, Mechanical
o Management / Law: Economics, Sociology, Law, Mass Communication
o Modelling: Mathematics, Computer Science, Statistics
 Engineering in Environmental Studies
o Information Technology: Remote sensing and GIS Database, Computational
Toxicology, ENVIS
o Chemical Engineering: Comprehensive Solutions, Wastewater treatment,
Curbing Air Pollution
o Electrical Engineering: Efficient transformers, Efficient motors/Engines, LED
o Civil Engineering: Green Buildings, Geotechnical engineers, Environmental
engineers
 Major Environmental Problems
o Global Warming
o Ozone Layer Depletion
o Acid Rain
 o Deforestation
o Loss of Biodiversity
o Water Pollution
o Desertification
o Waste Disposal
o Rapid Population Growth
o Depletions of Non-Renewable Energy Resources
o Food and Water Shortage
 Importance of Environmental Studies
o Enlightens - Protection & Conservation
o Environmental issues are of international importance
o Explosive increase in population
o Need for alternative solutions
o Need for wise planning of development
o Need to save humanity from extinction
 Need for Public Awareness
o To understand natural and man-made environments are interdependent
o To understand the consequences of Environmental Degradation
o Every individual's duty to protect the environment
o Environmental consciousness to be propagated
o Importance of reformative measures to be taken
o Mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public
opinion
o Can join as a Member:
 Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology (ANERT)
 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
 Delhi Greens (NGO)
 Environmentalist Foundation of India
 Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
 Discussions with friends and relatives - saving paper, water, etc.
 Practice - 3Rs principle of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
 Join local movements that support environmental activities
 Practice and promote good civic sense
 Take part in events organized on World Environment Day, Wildlife
Week, etc.
 Spend time with Nature
 Objectives of Environmental Education
o International Conference, Tbilisi, USSR (1977)
 Awareness: Environment & its allied problems
 Knowledge: Basic understanding and associated problems
 Attitude: Concern and motivation to protect
 Evaluation: Environmental measure & educational program
 Skill: Identifying & Solving
 Participation: Sense of responsibility
 Environmental Education: GOALS
o To promote exchange of ideas and information
o To develop teaching materials for the formal education sector
o To encourage NGOs for promoting awareness
o To promote environmental education through educational and research
institutes
 o To ensure training and manpower development in environmental education
o To mobilize people's awareness for the preservation and conservation of the
environment
 Formal Environmental Education in India
o In Schools: Through text books, audio-visual and field visits
o In Colleges & University: [Link]., Ph.D. in Environmental Science, M.E. and
[Link]. in Environmental Engineering, PG diploma in Environmental
Management
o Environmental Appreciation Course: IGNOU & MOEF - 3 months awareness
course
o In Management and Business Schools: Managers can introduce
environmentally sound practices
 Non-Formal Environmental Education
o National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC): Introduced in 1986,
multi-media campaign, Financial assistance to NGO's / Schools / Institutions
to conduct an awareness program, Activities - Seminars, workshops, camps,
rallies, exhibitions, debates, planting of trees, etc.
o Eco Clubs of National Green Corps: To sensitize school students, Eco-clubs -
100 schools in every district, Training to teachers
 Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE)
o India joined in 2000
o Students of GLOBE collect data about environmental parameters to explain
various hypotheses
o Students interact with GLOBE scientists
o Students participate in workshops
 Mass Awareness
o Focused on rural areas
o Doordarshan telecast environmental based programs / documentaries /
commercials
 Other awareness program
o Green Olympiad by TERI - 8000 students for Russia, UAE and India
o Awareness activities on Environment Day (June 5) - ATREE
o Quiz programs
o Tribal get educated
 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
o A branch of applied ethics that deals with the ethical relationship between
human beings and the natural environment.
o A systematic and critical study of practices, beliefs, and rules applied to the
environment that are considered moral, i.e., good/bad, right/wrong, and
virtuous/vicious.
o THREE ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES
 Biocentrism: All living things also have value; All life has ethical
standing; Development is opposed if it destroys life, even if it creates
jobs.
 Ecocentrism: Whole ecological systems have value; Values the well-
being of species, communities, or ecosystems; Holistic perspective.
 Anthropocentrism: "This is our planet: planet Earth. It contains an
astonishing variety of landscapes and climates. Since life began,
around 4,000 million years ago, it has gone through extraordinary
changes in its climate and in the species that live on it. But now it
 seems that our planet is being transformed – not by natural events, but
by the actions of one species: mankind." – David Attenborough’s
opening narration in The Truth about Climate Change (2006)
 Ecological Footprint
o Measures how fast we consume resources and generate waste compared to
how fast nature can absorb our waste and generate new resources.
o The USA has the highest ecological footprint at 5.0, while India has the lowest
at 0.7. The world average is 1.7.
 Carbon Footprint
o China has the largest carbon footprint, followed by the USA, India, and the
Russian Federation.
 Water Footprint
o Shows the amount of water needed to produce different food items. For
example, it takes 1,700 liters of water to produce 1 kg of wheat, and 2,500
liters of water to produce 1 kg of rice.
 Sustainable development
o UN: Development that "meets the needs of the present without sacrificing the
ability of future generations to meet theirs".
o Using resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future
availability of resources.
o Sustainability involves:
 Renewable energy sources
 Soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, organic agriculture
 Pollution reduction
 Habitat and species protection
 Recycling
 Fighting global climate change
 People in Environment
o Charles Darwin - 'Origin of Species'
o Ralph Emerson - dangers of commerce to our environment
o Henry Thoreau - Wilderness
o John Muir - Sequoia trees
o Rachel Carson - Pesticide effects
o E.O Wilson - Diversity of Life
o Salim Ali's - SACON - Fall of Sparrow
o Indira Gandhi - The Wildlife Protection Act
o S P Godrej - Wildlife Conservation
o M S Swaminathan - Agriculture
o Madhav Gadgil - Ecologist
o M C Mehta - Leading Environmental Lawyer - protecting the Taj Mahal,
cleaning up the Ganges River, initiating Government to implement
environmental education
o Medha Patkar - Tribal people welfare
o Sunderlal Bahuguna - Chipko Movement
 Environmental Calendar
o World Wetland Day: February 2
o World Forest Day: March 21
o World Day for Water: March 22
o Earth Day: April 24
o International Biodiversity Day: May 31
 o World Environment Day: June 5
o World Ocean Day: June 8
o World Population Day: July 11
o World Ozone Day: September 16
o World Conservation Day: October 24
o International Day for Biological Diversity: December 29

Lecture 2: Environment and Its Components

 Components of Environment
o As per British Literature
1. Biotic components - producers, consumers and decomposers.
2. Abiotic components - climatic (water, air) and edaphic (land).
o As per American Literature
1. Atmosphere (Air)
2. Lithosphere (Land)
3. Hydrosphere (Water)
4. Biosphere (Flora/Fauna/Microbes/ Humans)
5. Anthroposphere (Man-made)
 Solar System
o Shows the planets in our solar system and their relative sizes.
 Uniqueness of Planet Earth
o Earth is the only planet with liquid water on its surface.
o Earth's atmosphere is the only one having a significant (21%) proportion of
molecular oxygen.
o Earth is the only planet in the solar system having living organisms.
o Earth is the only terrestrial planet having a moderately strong magnetic field.
o Earth is the only terrestrial planet having a large satellite.
 The Structure of the Earth: LAYERS
o Inner Core
o Outer Core
o Lower Mantle
o Upper Mantle
o Crust
o Troposphere
o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere
o Thermosphere
o Exosphere
 Atmosphere
o Atmosphere includes the thick gaseous mantle surrounding the planet Earth.
o It spreads up to 500 km above the earth's surface.
o Apart from gases there are water vapor, dust, subatomic particles, and smoke
particles in a suspended state, etc.
o Protects life on Earth by absorbing UV radiation, warming the surface through
heat retention, and reducing temperature extremes between day and night.
 Gas composition in atmosphere
o Major components: Nitrogen (78.09%), Oxygen (20.94%), Water vapour
(0.1%)
o Minor Components: Argon (0.9%), Carbon dioxide (0.032%)
 o Trace components: Neon (0.0018%), Helium (0.0005%), Methane (0.0002%)
 Layers of Atmosphere
o Troposphere
o Ozone
o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere
o Karman Line
o Thermosphere
o Exosphere
 Troposphere
o Lowest layer - extends up to 10 km; contains 99 % of the water vapor and
atmospheric gases.
o The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains most clouds
and half of the Earth's atmosphere.
o Weather occurs in this layer.
o Most of the layer's heat is from Earth.
o Temperature cools about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer of altitude.
 Stratosphere
o Directly above the troposphere, extending from 10 km to about 50 km above
Earth's surface.
o Has the Ozone Layer (20-30 km).
o Many jet aircrafts fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable.
 Mesosphere
o Extends from the top of the stratosphere to about 85 km above Earth.
o Coldest layer with little ozone.
o Ionosphere here - layer of charged particles.
o Need oxygen to live in this region.
o Air quite Cold - 90° C (-130°F) near the top of the mesosphere.
 Thermosphere
o Thickest atmospheric layer found between 85 km and 500 km above Earth's
surface.
o The thermosphere is a layer with auroras, known for its high temperatures.
o Warms as it filters out X-rays and gamma rays from the Sun.
 Solid Earth (Lithosphere)
o Shows the layers of the Earth's crust and mantle.
 The word lithosphere originated from a Greek word meaning "rocky" + "layer"
 The Earth's layers:
o 1. The Core: - approx 3500 kms in radius - located at the center
o 2. The Mantle: - surrounds the core - thickness of 2900 kms.
o 3. The Crust: - floats on top of the mantle. Composed of basalt rich oceanic
and granitic rich continental crust.
 The Earth's composition:
1. Most abundant elements - Fe, O, Si, Mg
2. Most common minerals consist of silica ($SiO_2$) mixed in varying
proportions with other elements such as Fe, Mg, Al, Ca, K, Na
3. Felsic = more silica (less Fe/Mg) & less dense Eg, Granite
4. Mafic = less silica (more Fe/Mg) & more dense Eg, Basalt
 Crust
o Ranges from 5-70 km in depth and is the outermost layer.
 o The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlies the ocean basins (5-10
km) and is composed of dense iron, magnesium, silicate igneous rocks, like
basalt. ($SiMa$)
o The thicker crust is continental crust (20-70 km), which is less dense and
composed of sodium potassium aluminum silicate rocks, like granite.
($SiAl$)
 Mantle
o Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of
Earth.
o The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium.
 Upper mantle - 670 km radius ($CrFeSiMa$)
 Lower mantle - 2230 km in radius ($NiFeSiMa$)
o Asthenosphere: (a,without; sthenos:strength) is the weak that acts as a
"lubricant" for the tectonic plates to slide over. The asthenosphere extends
from 100 km depth to 660 km beneath the Earth's surface.
 Core
o Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts:
 Solid inner core with a radius of ~1,200 km.
 Liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~2,250 km.
o Rich in iron & nickel.
 Hydrosphere
o Includes all water (71%) on Earth.
o Water exists in all three states:
 Solid (ice)
 Liquid (water)
 Gas (water vapor)
 Total water on Earth
o Oceans: 97%
o Freshwater: 3% (Ice-caps and glaciers: 70%, Groundwater: 29%, Accessible
freshwater: 1%)
 Anthroposphere (Man-made)
o Shows the impact of human activities on the environment.

Lecture 3: Ecosystems
 Introduction to Ecology
o The meaning of the word ecology was given by German Biologist Hackle in
1869.
o The word ecology is derived from Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning house,
habitat or place of living and ‘Logos’ meaning to study.
o Ecology is defined as the study of interrelationship of different organisms with
each other and with their environment. It is concerned with the general
principles that apply to both animals and plants.
 Ecological Organization Levels
o Individual
o Population
o Community
o Ecosystem
o Biome
o Biosphere
 Ecosystem
o Defined area in which a community of plants and animals live with
interactions taking place among the organisms between the community and its
non-living physical environment.
o The nature of the ecosystem is based on its geographical features such as hills,
mountains, plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands.
o It is also controlled by climatic conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the
temperature and the rainfall in the region.
 Ecosystems: Fundamental Characteristics
o Structure:
 Living (biotic)
 Nonliving (abiotic)
o Process:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter (chemicals)
o Change:
 Dynamic (not static)
 Succession, etc.
 Ecosystem Services
o What nature provides us for free.
o Supporting: Photosynthesis, Biodiversity, Habitat, Stewardship, Aesthetic
o Provisioning: Food, Clean Water, Fish, Wood, Pollination
o Regulating: Cool temperatures, Control Flooding, Purify Water, Store Carbon
o Cultural: Recreation, Education
 Components of Ecosystem
o I. Abiotic
 a) Consists of Non-living chemical & physical components such as
water, air, nutrients in the soil or water & Solar Energy.
 b) Physical & chemical factors that influence living organisms in land
(terrestrial) ecosystem & aquatic life zones.
 c) Abiotic factors can act as limiting factors that keep a population at
a certain level.
 Abiotic Components are mainly of two types:

1. Climatic Factors: includes rain, temperature, humidity,
light, wind, moisture, etc.


2. Edaphic Factors: includes soil, pH, Topography,

Minerals, etc.
o II. Biotic factors
 All the living things that directly or indirectly interact with other living
organisms and the physical environment can also be limiting factors
ex. bacteria, animals, plants.
 The Major Biological Components of Ecosystem:
 A. Autotrophs (Producers)

 Make their own food by Photosynthesis

 Sunlight: $6CO_2 + 6H_2O \longrightarrow
C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$
  Source of food in an ecosystem
 On land most producers are green plants
 In aquatic ecosystems - algae, phytoplankton
 B. Heterotrophs (Consumers)
 Get their energy and nutrients by feeding on other
organisms or their remains.
 I. Primary Consumers or herbivores: Are those that
eat producers (plants) as a source of food.
 II. Secondary Consumers or carnivores: Eat
herbivores.
 III. Tertiary Consumers: Large Carnivores which feed
on secondary consumers.
 IV. Quaternary consumers: Largest Carnivores that
feed on tertiary consumers. Not eaten by any animals.
 V. Omnivores: Have mixed diet that include both
plants and animals.
 Decomposers / Saprophytes
o Dead bodies of producers / consumers (Organic matter) are eaten and broken
down into inorganic compounds by bacteria and fungi.
o Inorganic compounds go back to producers as fertilizers.
o Play a vital role in maintaining a continuous cycle of materials.
 Classification of Ecology
o 1. Autecology : It deals with the study of an individual species of organisms
and it’s population. The ecologists study the behavior and adaptations of
particular species to the environmental condition at every stage of that
individual’s life cycle. It is also called the Species Ecology / Population
Ecology.
o 2. Synecology : It deals with the study of communities, their composition,
their behavior and relation with the environment. It is also called Community
Ecology.
 Classification of Ecosystem
o Based on Environment or habitat
 1. Aquatic Ecosystem : The study of interaction of organisms in the
water
 A. Marine water ecosystem - Ocean, Deep Sea
 B. Freshwater ecosystem
 i) Lotic (Running water) - River, Stream, Spring
 ii) Lentic (Standing Water) - Pond, Lake
 2. Terrestrial Ecosystem : The study of interaction of organisms on
land :
 a. Grassland Ecosystem
 b. Forest Ecosystem
 c. Desert Ecosystem
 3. Artificial Ecosystem
 1. Aquatic Ecosystem
o Marine Ecosystem: The study of interaction of organisms in the ocean or
deep sea.
o Estuaries: An area in which fresh water from a river mixes with salt water
from the ocean; a transition area from the land to the ocean.
o Freshwater Ecosystem:
  Lentic (still water): Lake ecosystem
 Lotic (flowing water): River ecosystem
 2. Terrestrial Ecosystem
o a. Grassland Ecosystem
 32% of Earth’s surface is covered with grasslands
 Grasslands occur in regions that are too dry for forests but that have
sufficient soil water to support a closed herbaceous plant canopy that is
lacking in deserts.
 Highly fertile
 Classification is based on -
 dominant vegetation
 dominant species
 climate conditions
 1. Temperate grasslands
 2. Tropical grasslands
 3. Polar grasslands
o Temperate grasslands
 Located in the temperate latitude
 Green vegetation
 Soil is very fertile
 Very short, soft and nutritive
o Tropical grasslands
 Located in the tropical latitude
 Dry and brown colour vegetation
 Soil is not very fertile
 Tall (3m), coarse and spiky
o Polar grasslands
 Located on the northern hemisphere.
 Cold temperatures.
 Average winter temperature is -34° Celsius
o b. Forest Ecosystem
 Predominance of trees that are interspersed with large number of
species of herbs, shrubs, climbers, lichens algae & a variety of wild
animals & birds.
 Depending upon the climatic condition forests can be of different
types:
 Tropical Rain Forest
 Tropical Deciduous forests
 Tropical Scrub Forests
 Temperate Rain Forests
 Temperate Deciduous Forests
 Evergreen Coniferous Forests
o c. Desert Ecosystem
 They occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation
 Two kinds of deserts:
 Hot deserts
 Temperatures are very warm all year round
 The summers are very hot
 Cold deserts
 Short, warm summers
  Long, cold winters
 Found in north and south poles
 Food Chain
o Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants
get energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other
animals.
o A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an
ecosystem) to obtain nutrition.
 Trophic Levels
o Producers - Trophic level 1
o Herbivores - Trophic level 2
o Small Carnivores - Trophic level 3
o Big Carnivores - Trophic level 4
 Food chain helps to maintain:
o Biodiversity; Feeding relationship; Energy flow; Nutrients passage
o Only disadvantage is "Biomagnification"
 Keystone Species: A keystone species is a plant or animal that plays a unique and
crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions. Without keystone species, the
ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether.
 Food Web
o A food web (or food cycle) depicts feeding connections (what-eats-what) in an
ecological community and hence is also referred to as a consumer-resource
system.
o The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that
links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange.
o Various food chains are often interlinked at different trophic levels to form a
complex interaction between different species from the point of view of food.
o Food Web provides more than one alternatives of food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem and thus increases their chances of survival.
 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
o 1. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another. Energy for the
functioning of an ecosystem comes from the Sun. Solar energy is absorbed by
plants where it is converted to stored chemical energy.
o 2. The second law of thermodynamics states that whenever energy is
transformed, there is a loss energy through the release of heat. This occurs
when energy is transferred between trophic levels as illustrated in a food web.
When one animal feeds off another, there is a loss of heat (energy) in the
process.
 Ecological Pyramids
o Charles Elton (1927)
o Eltonian Pyramids
o Graphical representation of the trophic structure and function at successive
trophic levels
 Pyramid of Numbers
o
1. Graphical representation of the numbers of individuals in each
population in a food chain.
o
  Can be used to examine how the population of a certain species affects
another.
o

3. Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger

than any of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon
ascending the pyramid.
 Pyramid of Biomass
o Illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic level.
o Biomass weight is determined after dehydration.
o Shows the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
o Measured in Kg, grams or pounds.
 Pyramid of Energy
o Shows the energy available at each trophic level.
o The size of the blocks represents the proportion of productivity.
o Measured in Joules or Calories.
 Biogeochemical Cycles
o Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves
through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. A cycle is a series of change which
comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated.
o The term "biogeochemical" tells us that biological, geological and chemical
factors are all involved. The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water etc. through the biological
and physical world are known as biogeochemical cycles.
 Hydrological Cycle
o 1. Water can be in the atmosphere, on the land, in the ocean, and even
underground. It is recycled over and over through the water cycle. In this,
water changes state between liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapor).
o 2. Most water vapor gets into the atmosphere by a process called
evaporation. This process turns the water that is at the top of the ocean,
rivers, and lakes into water vapor in the atmosphere using energy from the
Sun. Water vapor can also form from snow and ice through the process of
sublimation and can evaporate from plants by a process called
transpiration.
o 3. The water vapor rises in the atmosphere and cools, forming tiny water
droplets by a process called condensation. Those water droplets make up
clouds. If those tiny water droplets combine with each other they grow larger
and eventually become too heavy to stay in the air. Then they fall to the
ground as rain, snow, and other types of precipitation.
o 4. Most of the precipitation that falls becomes a part of the ocean or part
of rivers, lakes, and streams that eventually lead to the ocean. Some of the
snow and ice that falls as precipitation stays at the Earth surface in glaciers
and other types of ice. Some of the precipitation seeps into the ground and
becomes a part of the groundwater.
 Carbon Cycle
o 1. In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas called carbon
dioxide ($CO_2$). Through the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is
pulled from the air to make plant food from carbon.
 o 2. Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to the animals
that eat them. Animals that eat other animals get the carbon from their food
too.
o 3. When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decay
bringing the carbon into the ground. Some become buried miles
underground and will become fossil fuels in millions and millions of years.
o 4. Each time you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxide gas ($CO_2$)
into the atmosphere. Animals and plants get rid of carbon dioxide gas
through a process called respiration.
o 5. When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars
and trucks, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide gas.
o **6. Of the huge amount of carbon that is released from fuels, 3.3 billion tons
enters the atmosphere and most of the rest becomes dissolved in seawater. **
o 7. The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from the
atmosphere.
 Nitrogen Cycle
o 1. Nitrogen fixation: The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into
nitrogenous compounds by bacteria (Rhizobia) found in the root nodules of
legumes and certain other plants, and in the soil.
o 2. Assimilation: Plants take nitrogen from the soil, by absorption through
their roots in the form of their nitrate ions or ammonium ions. All nitrogen
obtained by animals can be traced back to the eating of plants.
o 3. Ammonification: When a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste,
the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria, or fungi in some cases, convert
the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium ($NH_4^+$).
o 4. Nitrification: The oxidation of the ammonium compounds in dead organic
material into nitrites and nitrates by soil nitrobacteria, making nitrogen
available to plants.

 Nitrosomonas species converts ammonia to nitrites ($NO_2^-$).

 Nitrobacter species are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites
into nitrates ($NO_3^-$).
o 5. Denitrification: Process occurs when nitrates ($NO_3^-$) reduced to
gaseous nitrogen ($N_2$) as by bacterial action on soil.
 The Phosphorus Cycle
o 1. Phosphate Mining: Phosphate rock is found from 15-50ft below the
ground in a phosphate matrix. After the phosphate is collected it is use for
common human products, such as fertilizer.
o 2. Ingestion: Animals eat plants and other organic materials containing
phosphates.
o 3. Excretion: Animals are a key element in the phosphorus cycle. They
consume plants containing phosphorus and then excrete. The excrement is
then turned into run-off in water and decomposed in either the ground or
nearby water bodies by decomposers.
o 4. Decomposition: Organic material breaks down, returning organic
phosphorus to the soil as inorganic phosphorus. The inorganic phosphorus
then enters the oceans through runoff and erosion of rocks containing
phosphorus.
 o 5. Burial and Compaction: After decomposition organisms are compacted
into sediments to form rock. This then allows phosphorus to become trapped
inside rocks until geologic uplift occurs.
o 6. Geologic Uplift: Uplift exposing underground rocks to the surface allows
phosphorus to be made available to undergo the phosphorus cycle.
o 7. Erosion: Rocks or soil are broken down, transporting phosphorus across
land or into water.
o 8. Absorption: Plants absorb phosphates through their roots.
 Sulfur Cycle
o 1. Hydrogen sulfide gas ($H_2S$) is released into the atmosphere by
volcanic eruptions, hot springs, and the anaerobic decay of sulfur-
containing biological material in swamps, and tidal flats.
o 2. Certain marine algae produce dimethyl sulfide, ($CH_3)_2S$, a volatile
compound that enters the atmosphere as tiny droplets.
o **3. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil releases sulfur dioxide
into the atmosphere. **
o **4. Sulfur dioxide reacts with atmospheric oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide
($SO_3$). **
o 5. Some sulfur trioxide reacts with tiny water droplets to form sulfuric
acid ($H_2SO_4$).
o **6. Sulfur oxides also react with ammonia to produce tiny particles of
ammonium salts. **
o 7. The winds carry droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of sulfate salts,
which then fall to the earth in acid deposition.
o **8. By adding sulfur compounds to the air, the use of fossil fuels increases
the rate of acid deposition. **
o **9. All living things require sulfur to make proteins. **
o 10. Plants get sulfur by taking up ions of sulfate salts ($SO_4^{-2}$) from
the soil.
o 11. Animals get sulfur by eating plants, and all living things release sulfur
compounds when they decay.
o **12. Decomposition releases sulfate salts ($SO_4^{-2}$), which can be
taken up by plants, as well as gaseous hydrogen sulfide. **
o **13. Some hydrogen sulfide enters the atmosphere. **
o **14. But when decay occurs in an oxygen-free environment, anaerobic
bacteria break down hydrogen sulfide and release sulfur gas ($S_2$). **
o 15. Oxygen-requiring bacteria can incorporate sulfur into sulfate salts,
which can be taken up by plants and enter the food chain once again.

Lecture 4: Ecological Succession

 Definition: Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change
and develop over time. It's a series of changes in an ecosystem when one community
is replaced by another due to changes in biotic and abiotic factors.
 Functions: It can regenerate a damaged community and create a community in a
previously uninhabited area. It occurs in all types of ecosystems. The changes are
progressive or directional.
 Stages: Succession involves a pioneer stage, a series of changes known as seral
stages, and finally, a climax stage.
  Primary Succession: This occurs on an entirely new habitat never before colonized,
such as a newly quarried rock face, lava flows, exposed land from a melting glacier,
or sand dunes. Examples include succession after a volcanic eruption and after a
glacier retreats. The sequence typically progresses from lichens and mosses to annual
weeds and grasses, then shrubs, and finally a climax forest. Pioneer species (lichens
and mosses) extract nutrients from dust and bare rock. Then, bacteria, fungi, insects,
and small worms add organics to the soil. Early successional plants are grasses and
herbs, followed by mid-successional plants (grass and low scrubs) and late
successional plants (trees). The climax community depends on climate and edaphic
factors.
 Secondary Succession: This happens in a previously colonized but disturbed or
damaged habitat, such as after felling trees in a forest, a fire, floods, hurricanes,
landslides, or agriculture. Examples include forest fire succession (nutrient release to
soil, regrowth by remnant roots and seeds, invasions from neighboring ecosystems,
and rapid restoration of energy flow and nutrient cycling) and succession after
farming.
 Factors in Succession:
o Facilitation: One species makes an area suitable for another in a different
niche (e.g., legumes add nitrogen so other plants thrive).
o Inhibition: Early species hinder the establishment and growth of later species;
more disturbance is needed to continue.
o Tolerance: Late successors are not affected by earlier ones; this explains the
mixture of species in climax communities.
o Climatic Factors: Precipitation, temperature, and insolation (incoming solar
radiation).
o Edaphic Factors: Alkalinity of soil, extreme acidity, iron toxicity, zinc
deficiency, and low nutrients in soil.
 Hydroseres: A wetland example of succession, progressing from open freshwater to
submerged plants, swamps, marshes, and finally climax woodland.
 Succession Types Based on Habitat: Lithosere (soil), hydro sere (water), halosere
(salty/saline land), and xerosere (desert).

Lecture 5: Biodiversity
 Definition: Biodiversity refers to the number, variety, and variability of life forms
found within a specified geographic region; it includes terrestrial and aquatic life and
is the product of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary history. It covers
diversity within species, between species, and variations among ecosystems.
 Importance: Biodiversity provides ecosystem services, including provisioning (food,
water, wood), regulating (pollination, climate control), supporting (soil formation,
photosynthesis), and cultural (education, recreation) services. There are also
ecological, economic, and cultural/social/aesthetic roles.
 Ecological Role: All species provide at least one function in an ecosystem; these
functions regulate species balance, diversity, and health. Examples include biomass
production, atmospheric oxygen, soil formation, water purification, flood control, and
climate regulation.
 Economic Role: Biodiversity provides food (crop biodiversity or agro-biodiversity),
various goods (timber, paper, medicines), and genetic resources (used in
biotechnology and genetic engineering).
 Cultural, Social, Aesthetic Role: It contributes to education, recreation, exploration,
and tourism.
 World Biodiversity Day Themes: The provided source lists themes for World
Biodiversity Day from 2002 to 2023.
 Megadiverse Countries: These countries have at least 5,000 species of endemic
plants and border marine ecosystems. The list of megadiverse countries is provided in
the source.
 Factors Determining Diversity: Habitat stress, geographical isolation, dominance by
one species, availability of ecological niches, geological history, and edge effect.
 Classification of Biodiversity:
o Species Diversity: Refers to the number of plant and animal species in a
community/ecosystem; it varies between ecosystems. Tropical rainforests and
coral reefs have high species diversity, while isolated islands have low
diversity. The estimated total number of species on Earth is 8.7 million.
o Species Richness: The total number of species.
o Species Evenness: The relative abundance of species.
o Species Dominance: The most abundant species.
o Ecosystem Diversity: Deals with variations in ecosystems within a
geographical location and their impact on human existence and the
environment. Examples of ecosystems are provided in the source.
 Keystone Species: Determines the survival of a larger number of other species;
mostly top-level predators.
 Sentinel/Indicator Species: Act as indicators of potent danger to human life by
providing advance warning. Examples of sentinel species are included in the source.
 Species Extinction:
o Biological Extinction: Complete disappearance of a species, irreversible.
o Local Extinction: Ecological extinction.
o Background Extinction: Gradual disappearance of species.
o Mass Extinction: More than 65% of all species become extinct (millions of
years). Examples of mass extinction events are given in the source.
 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (1964): Uses criteria to evaluate the
extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. The goals of the Red List are
to provide scientifically-based information on species status, draw attention to
threatened biodiversity, influence national and international policy, and provide
information to guide conservation actions. More than 26,000 species are threatened
with extinction.
 Threatened Species: Facing threats to their survival and may be at risk of extinction.
The sources define vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered species based
on population decline percentages. Examples of each type of threatened species are
provided.
 Biodiversity Hotspots: Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants found
nowhere else on Earth (endemic species) and have lost at least 70% of their primary
native vegetation. Hotspots in India include the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-
Burma region, and Sundaland (including the Nicobar group of islands).
 India's Biodiversity: India has approximately 45,000 plant species and 81,000
animal species; 18% of India's plants are endemic.
 Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation due to volcanic
eruptions, wildfires, droughts, severe storms, conversion of forests to agricultural
lands and industries, dam construction, and human settlements. The effects include
species divided into smaller populations, increased vulnerability to predators and
 competitors, limitations on species dispersal and colonization, and loss of migratory
bird habitats. An example of habitat fragmentation is shown in the source, which
depicts the proposed highway through the Serengeti National Park.
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Entered into force on December 29,
1993, with three main objectives: conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use
of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resource
utilization.
 Conservation Measures:
o In-situ Conservation: Protecting species in their natural habitat (e.g., national
parks, biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries).
o Ex-situ Conservation: Off-site protection away from natural habitat (e.g.,
seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, aquariums). Specific conservation
measures include prevention and control of forest fires, eliminating excessive
cutting of trees, using erosion-resisting grasses, wise management of tree
insects and diseases, conservation of endangered and endemic species,
minimizing pollution, stopping improper land degradation, curbing poaching,
restoration of species, and implementing educational programs.

Lecture 6: Energy Resources

 Natural Resources: Any part of the natural environment (land, water, air, minerals,
forest, grassland, wildlife, fish, or even human population) that can be utilized to
promote human welfare.
 Classification of Natural Resources:
o Based on Origin: Biotic (from the biosphere, e.g., animals, birds, fish) and
abiotic (non-living things, e.g., land, water, air, minerals).
o Based on Stage of Development: Potential (exist in a region but may be used
in the future) and actual (surveyed, quantity and quality determined, and
currently used).
o Based on Renewability: Renewable (easily replenished or reproduced) and
non-renewable (formed over long geological periods, cannot be replenished).
 Non-renewable Resources: Fossil fuels (hydrocarbons found in the top layer of the
Earth's crust; coal, crude oil, and natural gas are examples).
 Coal Formation: Forms when wetland plants die, become buried, and undergo
physical and chemical changes over millions of years. The stages of coal formation
are peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
 Thermal Power Plants: Use heat energy from burning fossil fuels to heat water,
produce steam, rotate turbines, and generate electricity. A diagram illustrates the
process.
 Crude Oil: A thick, greenish-brown flammable liquid found underground; it consists
of hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements. It's formed
from the remains of marine plant and animal life. Fractional distillation is used to
separate components like gasoline, naphtha, paraffin, fuel oil, diesel, lubricating oil,
and bitumen.
 Natural Gas: A mixture of gases (methane, ethane, propane, and butane). Propane
and butane are removed to make liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). It is highly
flammable and odorless and is used for heating, cooking, and powering vehicles.
 Ores: Mineral deposits from which valuable metals and nonmetals can be recovered
at a profit; they don't replace themselves quickly. Examples of metallic and non-
metallic ores are provided.
  Nuclear Energy: A form of energy released from the nucleus of atoms. It can be
produced by fission (nuclei split) or fusion (nuclei fuse).
 Renewable Resources:
o Solar Power: Provides heat and light; it's the technology of obtaining usable
energy from sunlight. It is widely used where other power supplies are absent.
It can provide energy for 5 billion years. Applications include electricity
generation using photovoltaic cells and concentrated solar power, heating
buildings, heating foodstuffs, heating water or air, and heating and cooling air.
Parabolic troughs and solar power towers are two types of concentrating solar
power systems.
o Solar Cells: Convert solar energy to electrical energy; they're made from
semiconductors like silicon, germanium, and gallium. A single cell produces a
low voltage and wattage, so multiple cells are arranged in panels.
o Wind Energy: The conversion of wind energy into more useful forms, usually
electricity using wind turbines. It's used in large-scale wind farms and small
turbines.
o Hydroelectric Power: Energy of moving water; it's used for irrigation and
operating various machines.
o Tidal Energy: From the rise and fall of tides; France was the first country to
use it. Examples of locations using tidal energy are provided in the source.
o Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Uses warm surface water to
boil ammonia, the vapor rotates turbines to produce electricity, and cold
bottom water cools the vapor back to liquid.
o Biomass Fuels: Plant products (wood, algae, aquatic plants, trees, crops,
straw, sawdust) and animal wastes (cow dung). They are commonly used
renewable energy. Animal wastes undergo anaerobic fermentation to form
biogas (55% methane and 45% CO2). The residue can be used as manure.
o Geothermal Energy: Geothermal power plants use steam from reservoirs of
hot water to produce electricity.

Lecture 7: Forest Resources

 Forest: The term “forest” is derived from the Latin word “foris,” meaning outside.
Originally, it referred to un-cultivated and uninhabited land. Allen and Sharpe define
a forest as a community of trees and associated organisms covering a considerable
area, using water and minerals to mature and reproduce, and furnishing mankind with
indispensable products and services. Forest resources play an important role in the
economy. Living things in forests include trees, shrubs, and wildlife; non-living things
include water, nutrients, rocks, and sunlight. Forests have aesthetic, recreational,
economic, historical, cultural, and religious values. Forests provide fuel, wood,
timber, wildlife habitat, industrial forest products, climate regulation, and medicinal
resources.
 Ecological Role of Forests: Provide an environment for plants and animals,
protective canopy, reduced soil erosion, air pollution prevention, noise muffling,
strong wind buffering, nutrient provision from decomposing plants, carbon
sequestration, ground water recharge, and soil formation through weathering. Plants
and trees have medicinal value.
 Economic Role of Forests: Provide timber, paper, fuel wood, bamboo, cane, food,
fibers, essential oils, medicinal plants, spices, insecticides, fodder for cattle and other
grazing animals, relaxation and recreation, and aesthetic value.
  Deforestation: Removal or cutting down of forests and transformation of natural
vegetation into clear land. India's forest cover has fallen below the minimum
recommended level.
 Causes of Deforestation: Agriculture, commercial logging, mining, increasing
population, urbanization, industrialization, construction of dam reservoirs, forest fires,
and overgrazing.
 Effects of Deforestation: Habitat destruction, increased soil erosion, reduced oxygen,
increased pollution, decreased availability of forest products, loss of biodiversity,
scarcity of fuel wood, lowered water table, and global warming.
 Conservation of Forests:
o Government Initiatives: India's first Forest Policy (1952) aimed to increase
forest and tree cover to 33%. Other government aims include sustainable
development and conservation of forests, afforestation of wastelands,
conservation of wildlife and biodiversity, joint forest management (JFM), eco-
tourism, and reduced use of timber and other forest products.
o Individual and Private Body Roles: Report deforestation, connect with
NGOs, create awareness about national parks and sanctuaries, pressure
authorities to implement forest policies, use ecologically sensitive public
transport, avoid littering, participate in preserving greenery, and look for
alternatives (e.g., recycling, reuse).

Lecture 8: Water Resources

 Water: Basic to human and animal life; indispensable for plants. Sources of water are
described. Uses include agriculture, industry, households, recreation, and
environmental activities. Abundantly distributed in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere. Total water available is 1386 million km³.
 Importance of Water: All living things need water; it composes the majority of the
body of organisms and serves as habitat. It helps regulate climate, shapes the Earth’s
surface, and dilutes and degrades wastes.
 Hydrosphere: 97% of Earth's water is salt water; 2% is frozen; the remaining 1% is
mainly groundwater, with a small fraction above ground or in the air. Surface water
contains organic matter and mineral nutrients; groundwater contains dissolved
minerals. A world map shows projected water stress levels in 2040.
 Water Wars: Conflicts between countries, states, or groups over access to water
resources. Many countries in the Middle East face water shortages. Most water in this
region comes from the Nile, Jordan, or Tigris rivers. There are no cooperative
agreements for the use of 158 of the world's 263 shared water basins.
 Causes for Water Stress: Increased population, increased demand for goods, water
evaporation from large hydropower reservoirs, domestic use, agricultural use, and
industrial use.
 Water Pollution: Runoff from agricultural fields, untreated industrial wastes,
chemicals, smoke from vehicle exhausts, untreated municipal sewage, which all
contribute to acid rain, cause increasing pollution of freshwater sources (surface and
groundwater).
 Additional Stress in Urban Areas: Lakes, tanks, and ponds are destroyed;
groundwater extraction affects quality; sewage exceeds treatment plant capacity; solid
and liquid waste disposal is problematic.
 Sustainable Water Management: Building small reservoirs instead of mega-
projects, developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands, treating and
 recycling wastewater, preventing leakages from dams and canals, controlling
intensive technologies in industries, recycling wastewater, preventing loss in
municipal pipes, effective rainwater harvesting, landscaping with low-water plants,
and purifying and reusing water.
 Sandra Postel Quote: Highlights unsustainable water use and the false message of
abundance due to government subsidies.
 Water Withdrawals: A chart showing water withdrawals per capita worldwide in
2020 by select country.
 Dams: 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams; hydropower provides 9%
of the world's total electric power supply. Benefits include year-round water supply,
extra water for agriculture and industry, and hydropower generation. Problems in
mega-dam projects include ecosystem impacts, river course changes, displacement of
people and animals, impacts on lives, cultures, and spiritual existence, water logging
and salination, disruption of fish movement and navigation, emission of greenhouse
gases, and conflicts over equitable distribution. A diagram outlines advantages and
disadvantages of dams.
 Benefits of Harvesting Rainwater: Conserves water, decreases bills, lowers demand
on freshwater resources, slows erosion, and reduces flooding.

Lecture 9: Mineral and Land Resources

 Mineral Resources: Exhaustible, non-renewable resources. Essential for industries;
consumption increased due to rapid industrialization. Short supply for some minerals
(copper, mercury, silver); some are at risk of exhaustion. A table lists minerals and
their uses.
 Mining: Process of taking out minerals or ores from Earth. It involves prospecting,
exploration, development, exploitation, and reclamation. Professionals involved
include engineers, geophysicists, geologists, and geochemists. A flow chart depicts
the mining process.
 Surface Mining: Open-pit mining (making pits, for example for copper, iron, marble,
granite), dredging (underwater deposits), strip mining (top soil removed and mined),
contour strip mining (mountainous terrains), mountain top mining (blasting by using
explosives).
 Sub-surface Mining: Deep beneath Earth’s surface; deep holes are dug out and ores
extracted. Risks include collapse, toxic gas explosion, and underground water
pollution. An example of deep mining is provided.
 Disadvantages of Mining: Damages topsoil, affects vegetation, causes cracks in
buildings and roads, gas leakage, transportation problems, wind erosion, pollutes
ground and surface water, soil pollution, air pollution, and respiratory illnesses for
miners.
 Conservation of Minerals: Recycling (used items collected, remelted, and
reprocessed), reuse (e.g., glass bottles), substitution (rare minerals replaced by
abundant ones, for example steel, tin, copper being substituted by plastics, ceramics,
glass), decreased consumption (durable and repairable products), and use of waste
(waste material as raw materials for another industry).
 Land Resources: One-fifth of Earth’s surface is covered with forests, grasslands,
wetlands, agricultural lands, and urban settlements. It’s a source of materials essential
to humans. Fertile soil supports life; plants obtain water and minerals; dead plants and
animals provide nutrients. Pedology is the study of soil science.
 Soil Formation:
 o Weathering: Breakdown of rocks into smaller particles.
 Physical Weathering: Caused by temperature, frost, drying/wetting.
 Chemical Weathering: Caused by carbonation, oxidation, reduction,
hydration, hydrolysis, acidification.
 Biological Weathering: Microbial activity, plant roots, burrowing
animals.
o Pedogenesis: Maturation of soil through humus.
 Land Degradation: Soil erosion (removal of topsoil by water, wind, snow), water
logging, salinity, shifting agriculture, and desertification. Over-grazing, tilling, and
over-cropping increase soil erosion. Depletion of soil fertility is caused by clearing
natural vegetation for residential areas and industrialization.
 Methods to Prevent Loss of Soil: Conservation tillage (incorporating residues from
previous cropping), organic farming (biofertilizers replacing synthetic chemicals),
crop rotation, contour ploughing, mulching, strip cropping, terrace farming,
agrostological methods (growing grasses), afforestation, and windbreaks. Images
illustrate contour ploughing, strip cropping, terrace farming, and windbreaks.

Lecture 10&11: Air pollution and control

Air pollution is defined as the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological
materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living
organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment.

There are two types of air pollutants:

 Gaseous Pollutants: Examples include hydrocarbons, CO2, CO, SO2, H2S, NO2,
N2O, NO, NH3, Ozone, chlorinated hydrocarbons, bromine, mercury, and lead.
 Particulate Pollutants: These pollutants occur as solid or liquid and are further
classified as:
o Settleable: Larger than 10 micron. Examples include sand and water drops.
o Suspended: Remains suspended in air. Examples include dust, smoke,
pollens, and aerosols. Suspended particulate pollutants are categorized by size:
 Particles < 100 µm (PM100) - "Inhalable"
 Particles < 10 µm (PM10) - "Thoracic"
 Particles < 4 µm (PM4) - "Respirable"
 Particles < 2.5 µm (PM2.5) - "Fine"
 Particles < 0.1 µm (PM0.1) - "Ultrafine"

Particulate matter (PM) can be classified as primary or secondary pollutants:

 Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere from sources. Examples
include:
o Carbon compounds - CO, CO2, CH4, and VOCs
o Nitrogen compounds - NO, N2O, and NH3
o Sulfur compounds - H2S and SO2
o Halogen compounds - chlorides, fluorides, and bromides
o Particulate Matter (PM or "aerosols")
  Secondary pollutants are formed in the atmosphere from primary pollutants.
Examples include:
o NO2 and HNO3 formed from NO
o Ozone (O3) formed from photochemical reactions of nitrogen oxides and
VOCs
o H2SO4 and HNO3 droplets formed from SO2 and NO2 respectively
o Sulfates and nitrates aerosols formed from reactions of H2SO4 and HNO3
droplets with NH3
o Organic aerosols formed from VOCs in gas-to-particle reactions

Smog

The word smog is derived from smoke and fog and occurs in many cities throughout the
world. There are two types of smog:

 Classical smog: Occurs in cool, humid climates and is a mixture of smoke, fog, and
sulfur dioxide. Also called reducing smog or London smog.
 Photochemical smog: Occurs in warm, dry, and sunny climates. The main
components result from the action of sunlight (UV) on unsaturated hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides produced by automobiles and factories. This smog is a mixture of
Ozone, Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), and NOx.

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution has several detrimental effects:

 Human health:
o Dust, soot, smog: cause respiratory illnesses like bronchitis, asthma, and lung
cancer.
o Diseases like asbestosis, silicosis, siderosis, and pneumonia.
o Fly ash: causes headaches, dizziness, anemia, and insomnia.
o Sulfur dioxide: causes sore throat, eye irritation, and skin cancer.
o Carbon monoxide: mixes with hemoglobin in blood and reduces oxygen
carrying capacity.
o Ozone: causes coughing, eye irritation, respiratory problems, and allows
harmful UV rays to reach Earth's surface.
 Vegetation:
o Dust, smoke, particulate matters: reduce photosynthesis.
o Sulfur dioxide: causes chlorosis and membrane damage.
o Ozone: causes necrosis and damages leaves.
o Hydrocarbons: cause early leaf fall, fruit drop, and discoloration.
o Acid rain: affects vegetation and damages soil nutrition.
 Animals: Damages livestock populations.
 Deterioration of materials:
o NOx, SOx: harmful for buildings, metals, marbles, and textiles.
o Acid rain: causes corrosion of metals and buildings.
o Hydrogen sulfide: causes discoloration of paints.
o Ozone: affects rubber materials.
 Aesthetic loss:
o Smoke/Haze: reduces vision.
 o Foul odor: makes urban life unpleasant.
o Dust from industries: creates a dirty appearance where it settles.
 Climate:
o Heat discharged from industries: causes a rise in temperature.
o Increased greenhouse effect: causes global warming.
o Depletion of Ozone layer by CFCs: causes harmful UV ray penetration.

Methods to Control Air Pollution

There are several methods to control air pollution, which can be broadly categorized as
follows:

1. Source Correction Methods: These methods focus on modifying the source of

pollution to reduce emissions. Examples include:
o Substitution of raw materials: Using low sulfur fuel, LPG/LNG.
o Process Modification:
 Washing coal before pulverization reduces fly ash.
 Modifying air intake of furnace at power plants to reduce fly-ash
emissions.
o Modification of Existing Equipment:
 Replacing open hearth furnaces with controlled oxygen furnaces or
electric furnaces.
 Using storage tanks with floating roof covers or pressurizing storage
tanks to prevent hydrocarbon vapor loss.
o Maintenance of Equipment:
 Washing coal
 Open hearth furnace
2. Pollution Control Equipment: This category encompasses various devices and
technologies designed to remove or reduce pollutants from exhaust gases. Examples
include:
o Particulate Contaminants:
 Cyclone Separators: Use centrifugal force generated by a spinning
gas stream to separate particulates.
 Fabric Filters (Baghouse Filters): Remove dust from a gas stream by
passing it through a porous fabric. They are efficient at removing fine
particles and can exceed 99% efficiency.
 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs): Use electrical forces to remove
particles from the gas stream. They place electrical charges on the
particles, causing them to be attracted to oppositely charged metal
plates.
 Gravitational Settling Chambers: Use gravity to remove solid
particles by reducing the gas stream velocity.
 Scrubbers: Introduce water spray to capture particulates and settle
them at the bottom.
o Gaseous contaminants:
 Absorption: Dissolves gaseous pollutants in a liquid, commonly
water.
 Adsorption: Uses solid materials like activated carbon, silica gel, and
alumina to capture gaseous pollutants on their surface.
  Incineration/Combustion: Rapid oxidation of pollutants through
combustion, converting them to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
 Direct Combustor: Air and combustible waste gases react
directly at the burner for instantaneous combustion.
 Catalytic Incinerators: Gases pass over a catalyst bed after the
flame area, promoting oxidation at lower temperatures.
3. Diffusion of pollutants in air: Utilizing the natural dispersion of pollutants in the
atmosphere through wind, turbulent velocity fluctuations, and diffusion due to
concentration gradients.
4. Vegetation: Planting trees and other vegetation to absorb pollutants.
5. Zoning: Separating industrial and urban zones to minimize pollution exposure to
residential areas.

Lecture 12: Water Pollution

What is Water Pollution?

 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (lakes, rivers, oceans,

groundwater) due to pollutants entering directly or indirectly.
 This contamination is often caused by human activities.
 Water pollution occurs when chemical, physical, and biological changes in water
harm living organisms and the environment.

Importance of Water

 Covers 70% of Earth's surface.

 Essential for life, comprising 60-95% of living cells.
 Despite its abundance, only 0.00192% of Earth's water is drinkable.
 Water pollution impacts drinking water sources and aquatic ecosystems worldwide.
 Polluted water is a leading cause of death in developing countries.

Sources of Water Pollution

Based on origin:

1. Point Source Pollution:

o Contaminants enter water from a single, identifiable source (pipe, ditch).
o Examples: sewage treatment plants, factories, mines, power plants, storm
drains.
o Easy to identify and control.
2. Non-Point Source Pollution:
o Contamination doesn't come from a single source.
o Cumulative effect of small contaminants over a large area.
o Examples: nitrogen runoff from agricultural land, stormwater runoff.
o Harder to define and control.

Types of Water Pollution:

 1. Surface Water Pollution:
o Affects rivers, lakes, oceans, streams.
o Runoff carrying pollutants (from factories, homes, sewage, agriculture)
contaminates surface water.
2. Groundwater Pollution:
o Groundwater sources include rain, snow, and hail.
o Chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides) leach into the ground, polluting
groundwater.

Industrial Water Pollution

 Caused by discharging harmful chemicals and compounds, rendering water unusable.

 Extensive industrial wastewater discharge into water bodies in the last century has
caused severe pollution and harm to ecosystems and human life.

Causes of Industrial Water Pollution:

 Inadequate regulations.
 Outdated technologies.
 Insufficient funding.
 Unplanned industrial expansion.
 Leaching from mines.

Types of Industrial Wastewater:

1. Inorganic:
o From coal, steel, commercial, and metal processing industries.
o Contains suspended matter removable by sedimentation (often with
flocculation).
2. Organic:
o From chemical, pharmaceutical, tanneries, textile, and paper industries.
o Also includes organic dyes.

Classification of Water Pollutants

 Sewage
 Pathogens
 Nutrient Pollutants
 Organic Pollutants
 Suspended Matter
 Inorganic Pollutants
 Radioactive Pollutants
 Thermal Water Pollutants
 E-Waste
 Acid Mine Drainage

Organic Pollutants:

 Oxygen-Demanding Wastes:
 o
Sources include sewage, food processing, canning, slaughterhouses, and
beverage industries.
o Biodegradable organic compounds consume dissolved oxygen (DO).
o Oxygen depletion (below 4 mg/L) kills aerobic organisms and produces toxins
(ammonia, sulfides).
 Synthetic Organic Compounds:
o Pesticides, detergents, food additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, paints,
fibers, plastics, solvents, and VOCs.
o Resistant to biodegradation.
o Trace amounts can make water unsafe.
o Highly persistent and chemically stable.
 Oil:
o Natural product from fossilized plant remains (hydrocarbon mixture).
o Sources: oil spills, leaks, tankers, refineries.
o Harmful to birds and coastal plants.
o Reduces light penetration, affecting aquatic plant photosynthesis.

Pathogens:

 Microorganisms (viruses, bacteria) enter water primarily through sewage and

industrial wastewater (slaughterhouses).
 Cause waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio, hepatitis).

Nutrients:

 Agricultural runoff, fertilizer industry wastewater, and sewage contribute nitrogen and
phosphorus.
 Leads to eutrophication, causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion, creating a
"dead pool."
 Swimming in eutrophic waters can cause skin/eye irritation, gastroenteritis, and
vomiting.

Suspended Solids and Sediments:

 Include silt, sand, and eroded minerals.

 Reduce sunlight penetration in water.
 Deposition disrupts aquatic life and biodiversity.
 Decomposition creates anaerobic conditions.

Inorganic Pollutants:

 Non-biodegradable and persistent.

 Examples: mineral acids, salts, trace elements, metals, metal compounds, cyanides,
sulfates.
 High metal concentrations (Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, Se) are toxic.

Thermal Pollutants:

 Hot water discharge from power plants and industries using water as a coolant.
 Increases water temperature, reducing DO and harming aquatic life.
  Causes thermal stratification, with hot water layering on top.

Radioactive Pollutants:

 From research, agriculture, medical, and industrial activities (I131, P32, Co60, Ca45,
S35, C14).
 Also from nuclear plants and reactors (Sr90, Cs137, Pu248, Uranium-238, Uranium-
235).
 Toxic to life forms.

Sewage:

 Includes domestic, hospital, animal, and human waste.

 Causes oxygen depletion and spreads diseases (hepatitis, typhoid, cholera).

E-Wastes:

 70% of heavy metals in landfills come from electronic waste.

 Incinerating e-waste releases hazardous "Dioxins."

Acid Mine Drainage:

 Highly acidic water (sulfuric acid) from coal and metal mines.
 Forms when pyrite (FeS2) reacts with oxygen and water.
 Acid production occurs when water flows through mines or tailings.

Effects of Water Pollution

 Waterborne Diseases: A major global problem, affecting billions and ranging from
mild illness to death. Fecal coliform bacteria indicate disease potential and make
water unsafe to drink.
 Eutrophic Lake: Excess nutrients cause excessive plankton growth, depleting
oxygen and killing aquatic life.
 Biomagnification: Toxins accumulate up the food chain, becoming increasingly
concentrated.
 Bioaccumulation: Toxins build up in an organism's tissues within a trophic level.
Lecture 13 Waste water treatment:
What is Wastewater Treatment?

 Wastewater treatment usually refers to sewage treatment or domestic wastewater

treatment.
 It is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, including both runoff
and domestic wastewater.
 Wastewater comes from various sources such as residences (kitchen, bathroom),
commercial institutions, and industrial institutions, which usually require specialized
treatment processes.
 The purpose of treatment is to purify water for domestic use or for specialized
industrial applications.
 Treated wastewater can be released into water bodies like streams, rivers, bays,
lagoons, or wetlands.
 It can also be used for irrigation, parks, and even groundwater recharge if
sufficiently clean.

Wastewater Treatment Processes

The wastewater treatment process typically involves five main stages:

1. Preliminary treatment (Mechanical):

o This stage focuses on removing or reducing the size of large, suspended, or
floating solids.
o These solids can include wood, cloth, paper, plastics, garbage, sand, gravel,
metal, glass (grit), and excessive oils or greases.
2. Primary treatment (Physical/Chemical):
o Removes both settleable and suspended solids.
o This stage involves processes like:
 Coagulation: Adding alum to neutralize the negative charge of
colloids, forming a fluffy and sticky layer around the particles.
 Flocculation: Discharged particles collide to form larger flocs.
 Sedimentation: Suspended solids (flocs) settle out under gravity.
3. Secondary treatment (Biological):
o This stage uses biological processes to further purify the wastewater.
o It can be categorized into:
 Aerobic processes: Utilizing oxygen for treatment. Examples include
trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, and activated sludge
processes.
 Anaerobic processes: Occurring in the absence of oxygen. Examples
include Imhoff tanks and anaerobic lagoons/oxidation ponds.
4. Tertiary treatment (Chemical):
o This stage involves advanced treatment methods to remove remaining
contaminants.
o Examples include:
 Activated Carbon Adsorption: Used to remove dissolved organics
and inorganics.
 Electrodialysis: Separates ions using an electric current.
 Ion Exchange: Used for water softening and removing hardness
caused by calcium and magnesium salts.
 Removal of Pathogens: Methods like chlorination, ozonation, and
ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection.
5. Sludge treatment (Biological):
o This stage focuses on treating the sludge produced during previous
treatment stages.
o Aerobic and anaerobic digestion are commonly used methods.

Preliminary Treatment Devices

 Screening: Removes large debris using bar screens or mesh screens of various sizes
(coarse, medium, fine, milli, micro).
 Comminution: Uses a rotating slotted screen to grind solids into smaller particles that
can pass through.
 Grit removal: Employs devices like hydrocyclones and sedimentation tanks to
remove heavy inorganic materials like sand and gravel.

Secondary Treatment Processes

 Trickling Filters (TFs):

o Conventional aerobic biological treatment units consisting of a cylindrical
tank filled with high-surface-area material (rocks, gravel, plastic media).
o Wastewater is trickled over the filter media, allowing biofilm formation.
o Organisms in the biofilm oxidize the organic matter, converting it to CO2 and
water.
o The filter bed alternates between dosing and air exposure.
o Oxygen depletion can occur within the biomass, leading to anoxic or
anaerobic conditions in the inner layers.
o Periodic sloughing occurs, where the slime layer detaches and is washed out
with the flow.
o Advantages: Low energy needs (natural aeration), simple operation, can
withstand varied loading, no bulking sludge problems, better sludge
thickening, low operation and maintenance costs, suitable where activated
sludge processes cannot be installed, requires less skilled personnel and
technical expertise.
o Disadvantages: Poorer effluent quality (may require additional treatment),
sensitive to low temperatures, odor production, sloughing events can create
large amounts of sludge in a short time, nitrogen removal is difficult, limited
flexibility and control compared to activated sludge processes.
 Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs):
o Consist of large plastic discs mounted on a rotating shaft, partially immersed
in wastewater and partially exposed to air.
o Discs accumulate a thin layer of attached biomass that degrades organic
matter.
o Both TFs and RBCs are examples of fixed-film biological (FFB) or
attached growth processes.
 Activated Sludge Process (ASP):
o Wastewater is aerated, allowing microorganisms to metabolize organic
matter.
 o Part of the organic matter is converted into new cells, while the rest is
oxidized to CO2 and water.
o New cells form a flocculent sludge that is removed in settling tanks.
o A portion of this settled biomass (activated sludge) is returned to the aeration
tank, and the rest is wasted (excess sludge).
 Imhoff Tanks:
o Named after Karl Imhoff, these tanks combine clarification by settling and
sedimentation with anaerobic sludge digestion.
o The upper chamber is for sedimentation, and solids slide down to the lower
chamber for digestion.
o The two chambers are separate, with sewage flow only in the upper
sedimentation chamber.
 Anaerobic Lagoons:
o Wastewater undergoes anaerobic respiration, converting volatile organic
compounds into carbon dioxide and methane.
o Toxic substances can be emitted through gas emissions (ammonia, hydrogen
sulfide, methane, carbon dioxide) and lagoon overflow.
o Overflow can be caused by lagoon defects, improper construction, or adverse
weather.
o Mechanism of Anaerobic Digestion:
1. Hydrolysis: Anaerobic bacteria secrete enzymes to break down
complex organic matter into simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty
acids.
2. Acidogenesis and Acetogenesis: Acidogenic bacteria convert these
simpler molecules into CO2, H2, acetic acid (CH3COOH), and
alcohol.
3. Methanogenesis: Methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid into
methane (CH4) and CO2.

Tertiary Treatment Processes

 Activated Carbon Adsorption: Effective for removing dissolved organics and

inorganics.
 Electrodialysis: Utilizes an electric current to separate ions.
 Ion Exchange:
o Used for water softening by replacing hardness-causing ions (calcium and
magnesium) with less objectionable ones.
o Total hardness is the sum of calcium and magnesium hardness.
o Carbonate hardness (temporary hardness) is due to carbonate and
bicarbonate salts of calcium and magnesium.
o Non-carbonate hardness (permanent hardness) results from calcium and
magnesium salts other than carbonates and bicarbonates.
o Lime-Soda Softening: Treats water with lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda ash
(Na2CO3) to precipitate calcium as CaCO3 and magnesium as Mg(OH)2.
o Ion Exchange Softening: Water flows through a bed of ion exchange
material, exchanging undesirable ions for less objectionable ones.
o Hot Lime-Soda Softening: A variation of lime-soda softening conducted at
elevated temperatures.
 Removal of Pathogens:
o Chlorination: Uses chlorine (Cl2) to disinfect water.
  Free available chlorine: HOCl (hypochlorous acid) is the primary
disinfecting agent.
 Combined available chlorine: Chlorine reacts with ammonia (NH3)
to form chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine, trichloramine),
which also have disinfecting properties.
o Ozonation: Utilizes ozone (O3) as a powerful oxidizing agent to disinfect
water.
o Ultraviolet Light (UV): UV radiation effectively inactivates pathogens in
water.

Sludge Treatment

 Aerobic digestion utilizes oxygen to break down organic matter in sludge.

 Anaerobic digestion occurs in the absence of oxygen and produces methane, which
can be used as a biogas.

Lecture 14 Soil Pollution:

Soil Formation and Composition

 Soil is formed from parent material (bedrock) through weathering processes.

 Mechanical weathering involves physical breakdown by temperature changes, wind,
water, glaciers, and abrasion.
 Chemical weathering involves chemical reactions that break down the rock.
 Lichens also contribute to weathering.
 Soil formation is a slow process. Under ideal conditions, it can take 15 years to form 1
cm of soil.

Soil Horizons

 O-horizon: Composed of freshly-fallen and partially decomposed organic matter like

leaves, twigs, animal waste, and fungi. It has a brown or black color.
 A-horizon: Contains humus (decomposed organic matter) mixed with inorganic
mineral particles. This layer is darker and looser than deeper layers.
 Both O and A-horizons support a rich ecosystem of bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and
insects, contributing to soil fertility and nutrient recycling.
 B-horizon (Subsoil): Contains less organic material and fewer organisms compared
to the A-horizon.
 C-horizon: Consists of broken-up bedrock without any organic material. Its chemical
composition affects soil pH and water absorption/retention.
 R-horizon: The unweathered bedrock layer underlying the other horizons.

Soil Pollution

 Definition: Soil pollution is the presence of chemicals or alterations in the natural soil
environment that change soil quality and potentially harm public health and the
environment.
  Causes of Soil Degradation:
o Soil erosion, leading to loss of topsoil and reduced fertility and water-holding
capacity.
o Activities like excessive farming, construction, overgrazing, burning grass
cover, and deforestation.
o Salinization due to excess salts and water.
o Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides.
o Improper disposal of solid waste.

Soil Pollution Control

 Minimize pesticide and fertilizer use.

 Improve cropping techniques to control weeds.
 Designate specific pits for waste disposal.
 Practice controlled grazing and forest management.
 Establish windbreaks and shields in wind-prone areas.
 Promote afforestation and reforestation.
 Implement the 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle.

Information Required for Soil Remediation

 Type of contaminant: Organic or inorganic, biodegradable, and potential hazards to

humans and animals.
 Quantity of contaminant: Determine if it overloads the soil organisms.
 C:N ratio of the pollutant: Affects the decomposition process.
 Soil characteristics: Ability to handle the contaminant before groundwater
contamination.
 Environmental conditions: Temperature, moisture, and their impact on soil
organisms.
 Time since contamination: Evidence of environmental problems and decomposition
progress.
 Immediate dangers: Evaluate the urgency of the situation regarding threats to people
and the environment.

Bioremediation

 Definition: Using naturally occurring microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, plants) to

break down toxic compounds in the environment.
 Benefits: Treats soil, making it non-hazardous, and avoids future liabilities.
 Factors Affecting Bioremediation:
o Absence of competitive organisms and toxicity.
o Favorable temperature for microbial activity.
o Sufficient moisture content.
o Availability of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
o C:N ratio of the contaminant below 30:1.
o Suitable pH levels.
o Adequate oxygen supply in the soil.
Types of Bioremediation

 In-situ Bioremediation: Treatment conducted directly at the contaminated site

without excavation.
o Intrinsic Bioremediation (Natural Attenuation): Relies on indigenous
microorganisms for biodegradation.
o Accelerated Bioremediation (Biostimulation): Adds substrates or nutrients
to enhance microbial growth and contaminant breakdown.
 Bioventing: Provides air and nutrients through wells to stimulate
indigenous bacteria in contaminated soil.
 Biosparging: Injects air under pressure below the water table to boost
oxygen levels and enhance biodegradation in groundwater.
o Bioaugmentation: Introduces specialized microbes or enzymes to the site.
 Ex-situ Bioremediation: Requires excavation of contaminated soil or pumping of
groundwater before treatment.
o Slurry-phase: Soil is mixed with water and additives in a tank, along with
microorganisms, nutrients, and oxygen.
o Solid-phase:
 Land-farming: Contaminated soil is spread on a pad, and leachate is
collected.
 Soil biopiles: Soil is heaped, and air is added for aeration.
 Composting: Biodegradable waste is mixed with a bulking agent.
 Land application: Waste is directly added to the soil, which is later
used for planting crops.

Advantages and Disadvantages of In-situ and Ex-situ Bioremediation

Feature In-situ Bioremediation Ex-situ Bioremediation

Cost Less expensive More expensive

Dust generation Creates less dust Creates more dust

Contaminant
Lower risk of contaminant release Higher risk of contaminant release
release risk

Suitable volume Effective for large volumes Suitable for smaller volumes

Treatment speed Slower process Faster process

Soil type Not effective in clay or highly Can treat a wider range of
limitations layered subsurfaces contaminants and soil types

Advantages of Bioremediation Over Other Remediation Technologies

 Detoxification: Bioremediation detoxifies hazardous substances instead of just

transferring them.
 Environmental friendliness: Bioremediation is less disruptive to the environment
than excavation-based methods.
 Cost-effectiveness: Bioremediation can be significantly cheaper than conventional
methods like vacuuming, absorption, burning, dispersing, or relocating contaminants.
Lecture 15 Noise Pollution:
Definition: Noise pollution is unwanted or disruptive sound that negatively impacts quality
of life. It's often overlooked as an environmental problem because it's invisible. The World
Health Organization recognizes noise as a serious threat to human well-being.

Health Effects: According to the USEPA, noise pollution has direct links to health problems,
affecting millions of people.

 Physiological Effects:
o High blood pressure
o Stress-related illnesses
o Sleep disruption
o Hearing loss
o Productivity loss
 Psychological Effects:
o Memory loss
o Severe depression
o Panic attacks
 Other Effects:
o Lack of sleep
o Irritability
o Digestive issues (heartburn, indigestion, ulcers)
o Potential heart disease
o Annoyance
o Communication interference

Specific Impacts:

 Noise levels as low as 45 decibels can disrupt sleep.

 Hearing damage can occur at 85 decibels.
 Pain is experienced at 120 decibels.

Sources of Noise Pollution:

 Transportation: The primary source in urban areas. This includes noise from
vehicles, trains, and airplanes.
 Construction: Activities like building highways and structures generate noise from
equipment like air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks, and pavement
breakers.
 Industrial Noise: Factories and industrial processes contribute to noise pollution with
sounds from machinery, equipment, and operations.
 Household and Other Sources: Appliances and devices like loudspeakers,
plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, fans, and vacuum cleaners also
produce noise.

Measurement of Sound and Noise

Decibel Scale:
  Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB).
 The decibel scale is logarithmic due to the vast range of sound intensities, from the
softest sounds (0.000,000,000,001 watts/m2) to extremely loud sounds like a Saturn
rocket launch (over 100,000,000 watts/m2).
 A 10 dB increase represents a tenfold increase in noise intensity.
 Distance affects the perceived decibel level. For example, moderate traffic at 30
meters measures around 50 dB, but for a driver with an open window or a pedestrian
nearby, it's around 70 dB.

Sound Measurement Devices:

 Sound Level Meter: This device measures sound intensity as perceived by the human
ear.
o A high-quality microphone converts the sound signal into an electrical signal.
o The signal is amplified, and its root mean square (RMS) value is determined.
o The logarithm of the RMS value is displayed in decibels (dB).
o The RMS value represents the energy content of the sound signal.
o For short-duration sounds (impulses) lasting less than one second, a 35-
millisecond RMS time constant is used.

Solutions for Noise Pollution

Environmental and Design Strategies:

 Planting Vegetation: Trees and bushes around noise sources can help absorb and
deflect sound.
 Building Design: Using noise-absorbing materials in walls, windows, and ceilings
can reduce noise transmission within buildings.

Maintenance and Equipment:

 Vehicle Maintenance: Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles can minimize noise
emissions.
 Machinery Maintenance: Similar to vehicles, lubricating and maintaining machinery
can reduce noise.
 Soundproofing: Installing soundproof doors and windows can block external noise.
 Hearing Protection: Providing workers with earplugs and earmuffs can protect their
hearing in noisy environments.

Regulations and Planning:

 Loudspeaker Restrictions: Implementing regulations to limit loudspeaker use in

crowded areas and public spaces.
 Zoning: Locating factories and industries away from residential areas to minimize
noise exposure for residents.
 Urban Planning: Incorporating noise reduction considerations into long-term
community development and urban management plans.

Public Awareness:
  Education and Awareness Programs: Raising public awareness about the causes
and effects of noise pollution can encourage individual and collective actions to
mitigate it.

Lecture 16 Solid and Hazardous waste:

Solid Waste Management

Definition of Waste:

 Waste encompasses unwanted or useless materials.

 Waste includes unwanted substances or toxins expelled by living organisms.
 The Basel Convention defines waste as "substances or objects which are disposed of
or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of
the law.”

Disposal:

 Disposal refers to any operation that can lead to resource recovery, recycling,
reclamation, direct reuse, or alternative uses.

Basel Convention

 The Basel Convention is an international treaty aimed at reducing hazardous waste

movement between nations.
 The primary goal is to prevent hazardous waste transfer from developed to less
developed countries (LDCs).
 It excludes radioactive waste.
 Objectives:
o Minimize the amount and toxicity of waste generated.
o Ensure environmentally sound waste management, preferably close to the
source.
o Support LDCs in managing hazardous and other wastes responsibly.
 The Convention was opened for signature on March 22, 1989.

Kinds of Wastes

 Solid wastes: Wastes in solid forms, including domestic, commercial, and industrial
wastes.
o Examples: plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles, cans, papers, scrap iron, and
other trash.
 Liquid Wastes: Wastes in liquid form.
o Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, wastewater from ponds,
industries, and other sources.
Classifications of Wastes

According to their Properties:

 Bio-degradable: Materials easily decomposed by natural agents like water, oxygen,

UV rays, acid rain, and microorganisms.
o Examples: paper, wood, fruits.
 Non-biodegradable: Materials that cannot be decomposed by natural agents.
o Examples: plastics, bottles, old machines, cans, styrofoam containers.

According to their Effects on Human Health and the Environment:

 Hazardous wastes:
o Substances unsafe for commercial, industrial, agricultural, or economic use.
o Possess properties like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity.
 Non-hazardous:
o Substances safe for various uses.
o Lack the hazardous properties mentioned above.
o Often create disposal problems.

According to their Origin and Type:

1. Municipal Solid wastes: Household garbage, rubbish, construction & demolition

debris, sanitation residues, packaging materials, and trade refuse managed by
municipalities.
2. Bio-medical wastes: Solid or liquid wastes from medical diagnosis, treatment, and
research, including containers and intermediate products.
3. Industrial wastes: Liquid and solid wastes from manufacturing and processing units
of industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal, gas, sanitary, and paper.
4. Agricultural wastes: Primarily biodegradable wastes generated from farming
activities.
5. Fishery wastes: Wastes from fishery activities, commonly found in coastal and
estuarine areas.
6. Radioactive wastes: Waste containing radioactive materials, often byproducts of
nuclear processes.
o Industries not directly involved in nuclear activities can also produce
radioactive wastes like radio-isotopes and chemical sludge.
7. E-wastes: Electronic wastes from modern establishments, including discarded
electrical or electronic devices.
o Components like CRTs may contain contaminants such as Pb (lead), Cd
(cadmium), Be (beryllium), or brominated flame retardants.

Impacts of Waste

 Health impacts: Waste can directly and indirectly affect human health through
contamination and disease.
 Socio-economic impacts: Waste management costs, reduced property values, and
tourism impacts.
 Coastal and marine environment impacts: Pollution, habitat destruction, and harm
to marine life.
  Climate impacts:
o Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from waste disposal contribute to climate
change.
o Rising global temperatures lead to rising sea levels, changing precipitation
patterns, and altered local climate conditions.
o These changes affect forests, crop yields, water supplies, human health,
animals, and ecosystems.

Methods of Waste Disposal

 Landfills: Burying waste in the ground.

o Sanitary Landfills: Engineered sites designed to minimize environmental
impact.
 Incineration: Burning waste to reduce volume and generate energy.
o Common before 1940 but declined due to odor and smoke.
o Currently, about 15% of U.S. municipal solid waste is incinerated.
o Pros: Reduces volume by 90%, weight by 75%, and can generate electricity
from heat.
o Cons: Creates air pollution and concentrates toxins in ash.
 Source reduction: Reducing waste generation at the source.
 Composting: Decomposing organic waste into a nutrient-rich soil amendment.
 Recycling: Reprocessing materials into new products.
o Benefits:
 Saves money, raw materials, and land.
 Encourages individual responsibility.
 Reduces pressure on disposal systems.
 Lowers demand for raw resources.
 Reduces energy consumption and air pollution.
o Japan recycles approximately half of its household and commercial waste.

What Can We Do?

 Reduce consumption: Buy durable items, repair them, choose products with minimal
packaging.
 Reuse: Use reusable containers and rechargeable batteries.
 Recycle: Buy recycled goods and recycle properly.
 Compost: Compost yard and food waste.
 Advocate: Lobby for trash separation and recycling programs.

Dealing with Material Use and Wastes

Reuse:

 Extends resource supplies.

 Saves energy and money.
 Reduces pollution.
 Creates jobs.
 Examples of reusable products: refillable water bottles, cloth bags, and rechargeable
batteries.
Recycle:

 Offers numerous benefits as outlined in the previous section.

Dealing with Hazardous Wastes: Requires specialized methods like deep-well disposal and
hazardous waste landfills.

Lecture 17 Disaster Management:

 Disasters have affected humanity throughout history. Early accounts of disasters
and their management, like the story of Noah's Ark, can be found in mythology and
various cultures.
 The word "disaster" has evolved over time.
o It originated from the Greek words "Dus" (bad) and "Aster" (star), initially
attributing calamities to the positions of celestial bodies.
o The term transitioned through Italian ("disastro") and French ("désastre")
before becoming the English word "disaster".
 A disaster is defined as an event that causes significant damage, ecological
disruption, loss of life, and impacts health services on a scale requiring
extraordinary response efforts.

Classification of Disaster

 Hazard vs. Disaster:

o Hazard: A natural event with the potential to threaten life and property.
o Disaster: The realization of a hazard, resulting in actual damage and
consequences.
o While hazards might be inevitable, disasters can be prevented or mitigated.

Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness focuses on being ready to respond effectively to a disaster. Key

aspects of preparedness include:

 Saving lives: Establishing systems and protocols to quickly and efficiently rescue and
provide aid to those affected.
 Evacuation plans: Developing and practicing clear and comprehensive plans to
safely evacuate people from danger zones.
 Emergency exercises and training: Regularly conducting drills and simulations to
ensure a coordinated and effective response in a real disaster situation.
 Early warning systems: Utilizing technology like satellites, remote sensing, and
ocean buoys to provide timely warnings of impending disasters.
 Emergency communications: Establishing reliable communication systems, such as
community radio, to disseminate information and coordinate efforts during
emergencies.
 Resource reserves: Stockpiling essential supplies like food, medicine, and water to
meet the immediate needs of those affected.
  Emergency personnel and contacts: Maintaining updated lists of trained personnel
and contact information for swift mobilization during emergencies.
 Public training: Educating the public on disaster preparedness measures and
encouraging individual and community-level readiness.
 Post-disaster response: Immediate actions following a disaster, including:
o Search and rescue operations to locate and assist survivors and the injured.
o Providing temporary shelters for those displaced.
o Repairing critical infrastructure damaged during the disaster.

Disaster Mitigation

Disaster mitigation aims to eliminate or reduce the likelihood of a disaster occurring in

the first place. Key mitigation strategies include:

 Building codes and enforcement: Establishing and strictly enforcing building

regulations that incorporate safety features for various hazards, such as fire escapes,
fire extinguishers, earthquake-resistant designs, and accessibility features.
 Vulnerability analysis: Conducting thorough assessments to identify areas and
populations most susceptible to specific hazards and creating vulnerability maps for
government use in planning and resource allocation.
 Zoning and land use management: Implementing regulations that dictate the
location of industries, residential areas, and coastal zones to minimize risk exposure.
 Preventive healthcare: Conducting proactive public health campaigns, like
vaccination programs, to prevent and control the spread of diseases, especially in the
wake of disasters.
 Public education: Raising awareness among the general public about potential
hazards, risk reduction measures, and appropriate responses to different types of
disasters.

Lecture 18 No material shared

Lecture 19 Global Environmental Problems:
Global Warming

 Definition: The increase in Earth's average atmospheric temperature.

 Greenhouse Effect:
o One-third of solar energy is reflected back to space.
o Two-thirds is absorbed by Earth's surface and atmosphere.
o Earth radiates absorbed energy as infrared radiation.
o The atmosphere absorbs and re-radiates much of this infrared radiation back to
Earth, trapping heat and warming the planet.
o This process is essential for life, maintaining an average temperature of
approximately 32°C.
 Causes of Global Warming:
o Greenhouse Gases:
 Water vapor
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) - persists for 500 years
 Methane (CH4) - persists for 10 years
 Nitrous oxides (NOx) - persist for 180 years
 Ozone (O3)
o Sources of Greenhouse Gases:
 Thermal power stations
 Coal
 Vehicle exhaust
 Agricultural waste burning
 Petrol
o Deforestation:
 Cutting down trees for development, resources (e.g., paper,
commercial logging), mining, urbanization, industrialization, and dam
construction.
 Reduces CO2 absorption through photosynthesis, leading to higher
greenhouse gas concentrations.
 Effects of Global Warming:
o Global mean surface temperature increase of 1.4°C to 5.8°C by 2100.
o Melting of ice in Arctic and Antarctic regions.
o Rise in sea levels worldwide.
o Increased severity of storms (hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis).
o Species extinction.
o Drought and desert area expansion.
 Melting of Ice Sheets:
o Greenland Ice Sheet melt contributes to rising sea levels.
 Killer Storms:
o Examples: Hurricane Ivan, Hurricane Katrina.
 How to Reduce Global Warming:
o Plant more trees.
o Reduce fossil fuel consumption.
o Turn off electric devices when not in use.
o Drive cars that run on gas or electricity.
o Travel by public transport.
 o Avoid using water heaters and air conditioners.
o Use recyclable materials instead of disposable materials.
o Utilize renewable energy sources (wind, solar, nuclear).
 Recent Approaches to Reduce Global Warming (UN Summit on Climate
Change):
o Reflecting some sun rays back to space to counter the projected 6.4°C
temperature increase by 2100.
o Yellow crops: Reflect sunlight, potentially preferable to green crops.
o Artificial trees: Absorb and bury CO2.
o White painting: On roofs, houses, and roads to reflect sunlight.
o Space mirrors: Placed where Earth's and Sun's gravitational forces equalize
to reflect sunlight.
o Green sea: Encouraging marine plant growth by increasing iron content in
seawater for enhanced CO2 absorption.

Kyoto Protocol

 Adoption and Entry into Force:

o Adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997.
o Entered into force on February 16, 2005.
 Objective:
o Reduce global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere.
 Greenhouse Gases Targeted:
o Carbon dioxide (CO2)
o Methane (CH4)
o Nitrous oxide (N2O)
o Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
o Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
o Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

Ozone Layer Depletion

 Ozone Definition:
o A molecule with three oxygen atoms.
o Rare in the atmosphere, averaging about three molecules per 10 million air
molecules.
 Ozone Layer Location:
o Primarily in two regions:
 Stratosphere: Contains about 90% of atmospheric ozone, forming the
"ozone layer."
 Troposphere: Contains the remaining 10%.
 Good vs. Bad Ozone:
o Good Ozone (Stratospheric):
 Beneficial to humans and living organisms by absorbing harmful UV
radiation from the sun.
 Protects against skin cancer, cataracts, and immune system
suppression.
 Contributes to heat in the stratosphere, maintaining stable atmospheric
temperatures.
 o Bad Ozone (Tropospheric):
 Located near Earth's surface.
 Harmful to humans, plants, and other living organisms.
 Formed due to pollution from factories and car exhaust (smog).
 Excessive exposure reduces forest growth and crop yields.
 Causes of Ozone Depletion:
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
 Used in refrigeration, air conditioners, cleaners (especially for
electronic circuit boards), foam production (e.g., fire extinguishers),
and aerosols.
o Rocket launches
 Ozone Hole:
o Defined as an area with less than 220 Dobson units (DU) of ozone in the
overhead column.
 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion:
o Human and Animal Health: Increased risk of eye diseases, skin cancer, and
infectious diseases.
o Terrestrial Plants: Damage to grasslands, trees, and loss of biodiversity.
o Aquatic Ecosystems: Harm to phytoplankton, fish, crabs, and shrimp.
o Air Quality: Degradation.
o Materials: Adverse effects on synthetic polymers, including discoloration and
loss of mechanical integrity.
o Climate Change: Contributes to global warming.
 Protection of Ozone Layer:
o Montreal Protocol: International agreement banning substances that deplete
the ozone layer.
 Production of CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform has been discontinued.
 Industry has developed more ozone-friendly substitutes.
o Expected Recovery: With adherence to international agreements, the ozone
layer is expected to recover within the next 50 years.

Acid Rain

 Definition:
o Rain that is acidic due to pollutants in the air, primarily nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emitted by cars and industrial processes.
 pH Levels:
o Normal rainwater: Slightly acidic with a pH range of 5.6-6.0 due to carbon
dioxide.
o Acid rain: pH below 5.6.
 Causes of Acid Rain:
o Natural sources:
 Erupting volcanoes
 Lightning strikes
 Decaying vegetation
 Wildfires
o Human-made sources:
 Burning of fossil fuels
 Automobiles
  Industries
 Effects of Acid Rain:
o Aquatic environment: Harms aquatic life.
o Forests: Damages trees and reduces forest health.
o Soil: Acidifies soil, affecting plant growth.
o Architecture and buildings: Corrodes building materials, especially stone
and metal.
o Public health: Causes lung and heart problems.
o Corrosion of metals
o Peeling of paints on surfaces
 Control of Acid Rain:
o Cleaning Exhaust Pipes and Smokestacks:
 Using "scrubbers" to remove up to 95% of SO2 gases from power
plants.
 Installing catalytic converters in automobiles to reduce NOx emissions.
o Restoring Damaged Environments:
 Liming (adding limestone or lime) to neutralize the acidity of lakes and
rivers.
o Alternative Energy Sources:
 Reducing reliance on fossil fuels that contribute to acid rain.
o Individual, National/State, and International Actions:
 Implementing policies and regulations to reduce emissions and
promote sustainable practices.

Lecture 20 Environmental Law:

Four Main Environmental Laws in India

1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

2. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
3. The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986
4. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

 Implementation Date: March 23, 1974

 Legislative Authority:
o Water is a state subject in India, meaning that individual states have primary
authority over water-related matters.
o The Indian Parliament cannot directly legislate on water subjects.
o However, the Parliament can pass legislation on water if a majority of states
agree to it.
o In the case of the Water Act, a majority of states resolved in favor of
Parliament legislating on water pollution, enabling the passage of this Act.
Salient Features of the Water Act

 Objectives:
o Prevent and control water pollution.
o Maintain the wholesomeness of water.
o Establish central and state Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) for the prevention
and control of pollution.
o Empower the Boards to prevent and control pollution.
o Provide penalties for violations of the Act's provisions.
o Establish central and state water testing laboratories.
 Structure: The Act comprises eight chapters.
o Chapter I - Preliminary: This chapter likely defines key terms, outlines the
scope of the Act, and establishes the foundational framework.

Key Provisions and Functions

 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

o Advises the Central Government on water pollution control.
o Coordinates the activities of the State Boards.
o Provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards.
o Plans and organizes training programs.
o Organizes media programs to raise awareness.
o Performs the functions of the State Board in case of default by the State
Board.
o Collects and publishes technical data related to water pollution.
o Lays down standards for water quality in streams and wells.
o Plans and organizes pollution control programs.
o Establishes laboratories for water quality testing.
 State Boards:
o Plan and control/abate water pollution.
o Advise the State Government on water pollution matters.
o Collect and disseminate information on water pollution.
o Investigate and conduct research on pollution issues.
o Inspect sewerage systems and trade effluents.
o Establish standards for sewerage and trade effluents.
o Develop methods for effluent and sewerage disposal.
o Prevent the discharge of waste into water bodies.
o Establish laboratories for water quality testing.
o Coordinate with the CPCB.
 Powers and Enforcement:
o State Governments can restrict the Act's application to specific areas.
o State Governments have the power to obtain information related to water
pollution.
o PCBs have the authority to take samples of effluents for testing.
o PCBs must provide a report of the analysis of effluent samples.
o PCBs can enter any factory to inspect for potential sources of pollution.
o PCBs can prohibit the use of a stream or well for the disposal of polluting
matter.
o PCBs can regulate new outlets and new discharges of effluents.
 o PCBs can approach courts to restrain apprehended pollution of water in
streams or wells.
o PCBs can issue directions to industries and individuals to prevent and control
water pollution.
 Penalties (Chapter VII):
o The Act levies penalties for various offenses, including:
 Destruction of notices issued by PCBs.
 Obstructing PCB personnel from carrying out their duties.
 Damaging property belonging to PCBs.
 Non-furnishing of required information.
 Failure to report accidents that may cause water pollution.
 Willful omission of information or making false statements.
o Punishments may include imprisonment along with a penalty of Rs. 10,000
and/or 3 months in prison.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

 Implementation Date: March 29, 1981

 Structure: Consists of seven chapters.

Key Provisions

 Central Pollution Control Board (CPB):

o Plays a major role in controlling and abating air pollution.
o Advises the Central Government on improving air quality.
o Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards.
 Prevention and Control of Air Pollution (Chapter VI):
o State Governments, in consultation with the Boards, can declare air pollution
control areas.
o They can also alter existing air pollution control areas or declare new ones.
o The Act provides for the control of emissions from automobiles.
o It restricts certain industries based on their potential for air pollution.
 Enforcement:
o Empowers courts to restrain individuals or entities from polluting the air.
o Grants PCBs the right to enter and inspect factories to ensure compliance.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

 Scope: Enacted to protect plant and animal species throughout India.

o Applies to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir,
which has its own wildlife act.
 Schedules: Includes six schedules that provide varying degrees of protection to
different species.
o Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II: Provide absolute protection to the
listed species. Offenses against these species carry the highest penalties.
o Schedule III and Schedule IV: List protected species, but the penalties for
offenses are lower than those for Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II species.
o Schedule V: Includes animals that are permitted to be hunted.
o Schedule VI: Lists plant species that are prohibited from cultivation and
planting.
The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986

 Scope: Applicable to the whole of India, including Jammu & Kashmir.

 Implementation Date: November 19, 1986

Objectives:

 Provide for the protection and improvement of the environment.

 Implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human and Environment
held in Stockholm in June 1972.
 Enact a general law covering areas of environmental protection not addressed by
existing laws.
 Coordinate the activities of various regulatory agencies under existing environmental
laws.
 Establish authorities for environmental protection.
 Impose deterrent punishments on those who endanger the human environment, safety,
and health.

Powers of the Central Government:

 Planning and Execution: Develop and implement a nationwide program for

preventing, controlling, and abating environmental pollution.
 Standards Setting: Establish standards for environmental quality and for emissions
or discharges of pollutants from various sources.
 Industrial Restrictions: Restrict areas where industries or certain types of operations
cannot be carried out or can be carried out only with specific safeguards.
 Accident Prevention and Remediation: Establish procedures and safeguards to
prevent accidents that may cause environmental pollution and implement remedial
measures for such accidents.
 Hazardous Substances: Lay down procedures and safeguards for the handling of
hazardous substances; examine manufacturing processes, materials, and substances
likely to cause environmental pollution.
 Research and Investigation: Conduct and sponsor research on environmental
pollution problems.
 Inspection and Enforcement: Inspect premises, plants, equipment, machinery,
manufacturing processes, materials, and substances; issue orders to ensure
environmental compliance.
Lecture 21 Environmental Impact Assessment:
Definition:

 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process that ensures environmental

considerations are integrated into project planning early on.
 EIA considers technical, economic, and traditional aspects, including impacts on local
communities and biodiversity.

Purpose:

 EIA aims to prevent or minimize negative environmental impacts and enhance project
quality.

Benefits of EIA:

 Reduces long-term project costs.

 Increases project acceptance.
 Enhances project design.
 Facilitates informed decision-making.
 Promotes environmentally sensitive decisions.
 Increases accountability and transparency.
 Minimizes environmental damage.
 Improves project integration into environmental and social contexts.

Projects Undergoing EIA:

 Agriculture
 Construction (roads, malls, townships, dams)
 Industries
 Electrical projects
 Waste disposal
 Projects near Protected Areas/Nature Reserves

EIA History in India:

 1976-77: Planning Commission directed the Department of Science & Technology to

evaluate River Valley Projects from an environmental perspective.
 Pre-1994: Environmental Clearance from the Central Government was an
administrative decision lacking legislative backing.
 January 27, 1994: The Union Ministry of Environment & Forests, under the
Environment Protection Act 1986, issued the EIA notification.
o This made Environmental Clearance mandatory for expansion, modernization,
or new projects listed in Schedule One of the notification.

The EIA Directive:

 Requires projects with potential significant environmental impacts (due to nature,

size, or location) to undergo an environmental assessment before approval.
  Defines a project as the execution of construction works, installations, schemes, or
interventions in the natural environment, including mineral extraction.

EIA Scope:

 The EIA should assess the direct and indirect effects of a project on:
o Human beings
o Fauna and flora
o Soil, water, and air
o Climate and landscape
o Material assets
o Cultural heritage
o Interactions between the above factors

Sectors Requiring EIA Clearance:

 32 categories of developmental works need total EIA clearance, categorized into:

o Mining
o Thermal power plants
o River valley projects
o Infrastructure (roads, highways, ports, harbors, airports)
o Industries (including small electroplating or foundry units)
 Activities allowed under the Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991 also require similar
clearance.

Limitations of EIA:

 Lack of Effective Screening:

o Without proper screening, EIA can become a requirement for too many
projects, hindering the assessment of important projects and weakening the
legitimacy of EIA.
o Examples:
 Colombia: Lack of screening led to EIA being required for all projects,
resulting in low-quality EIAs due to the sheer volume and lack of
baseline data.
 Bangladesh: The Environment Conservation Act (1995) required
clearance but allowed the government to waive it, leading to attempts
to bypass the requirement.
 Limited Public Consultation and Participation:
o Limited public involvement prevents counteracting illegal influence and
hinders the effective identification and mitigation of environmental impacts.
o Example: Bangladesh (as mentioned above).

Value of EIA Despite Limitations:

 Encourages developers to consider environmental impacts and risks.

 Allows governments and society to analyze projects thoroughly, though it can be
expensive and time-consuming.

EIA Methodology:
Main Tasks & Studies:

 Scoping Stage:
o Kick-off meeting and site visit
o Review of the institutional and legal framework
o Identification of the area of influence
o Project description
o Preliminary definition of baseline studies using secondary data
 Baseline Studies:
o Air quality (dust, pollutants, odors, EMF)
o Water quality (chemical and biological)
o Soil and groundwater analysis
o Noise and vibration surveys
o Biodiversity assessment (fauna, flora, terrestrial and maritime)
o Social surveys and interviews for resettlement plans
 Alternatives Study:
o Evaluation of different project locations
o Assessment of the "do nothing" option
o Consideration of alternative technologies
 Impact Assessment Evaluation:
o Identification and evaluation of impacts at different project stages
o Development of mitigation measures
 Modeling Studies:
o Water thermal diffusion and pollutant discharge modeling
o Air dispersion modeling (primary and secondary pollutants, odors, synergic
effects)
o Noise assessment (preliminary mapping, action plans)
o Assessment of coastal effects and morphology
 Social Impact Assessment:
o Evaluation of human health and integration of social surveys
o Development of resettlement action plans (RAP)
o Identification of affected populations and creation of inventories
o Management of land acquisition and compensation, including negotiations
with stakeholders
o Establishment of grievance procedures
 Environmental Management & Monitoring Plan (EMMP):
o Development of a management plan outlining roles and responsibilities
o Proposal, defense, and execution of a monitoring plan
 Public Hearings & Meetings:
o Initial strategic communication and involvement of society and administration
o Preliminary communication during the scoping stage
o Preparation and support for local meetings
o Defense and response to public hearings and stakeholder contributions

Controversies Surrounding EIA 2020:

 Exemptions from Prior Environmental Clearance (EC) or Environmental

Permission (EP):
 o Concerns arise from the exemption of nearly 40 projects, including clay and
sand extraction, well digging, building foundations, solar thermal power
plants, and common effluent treatment plants, from prior EC or EP.
 Exemptions from Public Consultation:
o Projects like B2 projects, irrigation, halogen production, chemical fertilizer
and acid manufacturing, biomedical waste treatment facilities, building
construction and area development, elevated roads, flyovers, highways, and
expressways are exempt from public consultation.
 Post-facto Approvals:
o The draft allows for post-facto project approvals, enabling clearances even for
projects that have commenced construction or operation without obtaining
environmental clearances. This raises concerns about awarding clearances
after environmental damage has potentially occurred.

Lecture 22 Environment and human health:

Types of Environmental Hazards

 Biological Hazards: Over 1,400 pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites,

protozoa, and fungi, can infect humans. A pathogen is an organism that causes
disease.
 Chemical Hazards: Harmful chemicals present in air, water, soil, food, and human-
made products.
 Natural Hazards: Events like fire, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and
storms.
 Cultural Hazards: Unsafe conditions in workplaces and highways, criminal assault,
and poverty.
 Lifestyle Choices: Smoking, unhealthy food choices, excessive alcohol consumption,
and unsafe sexual practices.

Infectious Diseases

 Caused by pathogen invasion and multiplication within the body's cells and tissues.
Examples include tuberculosis, flu, malaria, and measles.
 Bacteria are single-celled organisms present everywhere, with most being harmless
or beneficial. Bacterial diseases arise from infection as bacteria multiply and spread
within the body.
 Viruses, smaller than bacteria, invade cells and hijack their genetic machinery for
replication. They then multiply and spread, leading to viral diseases like flu or AIDS.
 Transmissible Diseases: Infectious bacterial or viral diseases that spread from person
to person.
 Non-transmissible Diseases: Not caused by living organisms and do not spread
between individuals. Examples include cardiovascular diseases and most cancers.

Entry Routes of Infectious Disease Organisms into the Human Body

  The source does not specify the ways infectious disease organisms can enter the
human body.

Seven Deadliest Infectious Diseases (Deaths per year)

 The source does not list the seven deadliest infectious diseases.

Preventing or Reducing Infectious Diseases

 The source does not detail the methods to prevent or reduce the incidence of
infectious diseases.

Chemical Hazards

 Toxic chemicals cause temporary or permanent harm or death to humans and

animals.
 The EPA's top five toxic substances based on human and environmental health are
arsenic, lead, mercury, vinyl chloride (used in PVC plastics), and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).

Types of Toxic Agents

 Carcinogens: Chemicals, radiation types, or viruses that cause or promote cancer.

 Mutagens: Chemicals or radiation forms that cause mutations or DNA alterations in
cells or increase their frequency.
 Teratogens: Chemicals that harm a fetus or embryo, causing birth defects.

Mercury Pollution Prevention and Control

 The source does not mention ways to prevent or control mercury pollution inputs.

Bisphenol A (BPA)

 BPA is present in plastic water bottles, baby bottles, and food container linings.
 Studies suggest that low BPA levels can cause various problems, including brain
damage, early puberty, prostate cancer, breast cancer, and heart disease. However,
studies funded by the chemical industry showed no or weak evidence for adverse
effects from low-level BPA exposure in test animals.
 In 2008, the FDA declared BPA in food and drink containers safe.
 Canada classified BPA as toxic in 2010 and banned its use in baby bottles, while the
EU voted to ban the sale of BPA-containing plastic baby bottles.

Harmful Household Chemicals

 The source does not list the potentially harmful chemicals found in many homes.

Greatest Health Risks

 Poverty, gender, and lifestyle choices pose the most significant health risks.
Reducing Premature Death and Serious Health Problem Risks

 Avoid smoking and second hand smoke.

 Maintain a healthy weight.
 Limit cholesterol and saturated fat intake.
 Consume a diverse range of fruits and vegetables.
 Engage in regular exercise.
 Moderate or abstain from alcohol consumption.
 Minimize sun exposure.
 Practice safe sex.