RESEARCH AND STATISTICS ANSWERKEY

(15 MARKS)
Q1. Define Sampling and Explain probability sampling atifie random sampling techniques.
Answer

Defination:

Sampling is a process of selecting representative units from an entire population.

Probability Sampling
Introduction :

It is one of a technique of sampling ,it is based on theory of probability.

It involves random selection of the elements from the population

Techniques of probability sampling :

[Link] random sampling

[Link] random sampling

[Link] random sampling

[Link]/multistage sampling

[Link] sampling

I. Simple Random Sampling:

In this every member of population has an equal chance to getting selected. In this for the sampling used random
sampling technique. Due to the random selection there is a absence of systemic bias. Random selection either by a
lottery, random table or computer.

ADVANTAGES :

Most realiable and unbiased method

Requires minimum knowledge of study population

Free from sampling errors

DISADVANTAGES:

Need up to date complte list of of all members of the population

Expensivre and time consuming

II. Stratified Random Sampling:

Dividing heterogeneous population in strata based on selected traits such as age , gender ,habitat ,and then
random selection of sample from each strata.

ADVANTAGES
Ensures representative sample in heterogeneous population.

Comparision is possible in two group.

DISADVANTAGES

Requires complete information of population

Large population is required

Chances of faulty classification of strata

III. Systematic Random Sampling:

Selecting of every Kth case from the group ,,such as every 10th person on a patient list or 100th person

ADVANTAGES:

Convenient and simple to carry out

Distribution sample over entire population

DISADVATAGES

Less representative sample if subjects are non randomly distributed

Sometimes may result in biased sample

IV. Cluster Or Multistage Sampling:

In very large population random selection of geographic cluster and then random selection of subjects from the
cluster. When population is very large such as “Asia” random selection of geographic cluster

ADVANTAGES:

Cheap, quick and easy for large population

Population parameters of population can be estimated for sample size

DISADVANTAGES:

Possibility of high sampling error

Chances of least presentative sample due to over represented or under represented cluster

V. Sequential Sampling:

The investigator initially select small sample and tries to make inferences ;if not able to draw result ,he/she then add
subjects until clear cut inferences can be drawn. Sample size is not fix continue till inference are drawn

ADVANTAGES

Study on best possible smallest sample

Facilitates inferences of study

DISADVANTAGES:

Not possible to study a phenomena which need to be studied to one point of time

Requires are repeated entry into field to collect the sample

Q.2. Define Data Collection. List The Sources Of Data Collection. Explain Any One Method Of Data
Collection In Detail.
Answer:

Definition:

"Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon under study.
In research studies, two types of data are collected; those are primary and secondary data."

"data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated or created to validate original research
findings. Although usually digital, research data also includes non-digital formats such as laboratory notebooks and
diaries."

The sources of data collection are generally categorized in two broad categories, they are as following:

[Link] sources

[Link] sources

[Link] sources:

Primary data are directly collected from the research units, which may be individuals, objects, programmes,
or institutions. Primary sources provide the first hand information collected by the researcher directly from the
respondents or the situa tions, which may be collected through interviews, questioning, observation, biochemical
measurements, and psychosocial measurement scale.

[Link] sources:

Secondary data are collected from either internal or external secondary sources. External sources involve
existing materials, such as published or unpublished records. Published records may include the journals, magazines,
newspapers, government reports, statistical abstracts, census reports, constituents of mass communication, and
commission reports. Unpublished records may include official records, patient records, thesis, dissertations, and
reports. In addition, internal secondary sources also known as private documents-may include the biographies,
personal diaries, letters, memoires, etc.

The methods of data collection are as following:

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link] methods

[Link] methods
[Link]:

Introduction:

The interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subjects or interview gives the
needed information verbally in a face-to-face situation.

Interviewing requires face-to-face contact or contact over telephone and calls for inter viewing skills. Interview
may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in collection of research-related data.

Definition:

"A method of data collection in which one person (interviewer) asks the questions from another person
(respondent) conducted either face-to-face or telephonically."

Characteristics of interview:

-Characteristics of Interview

-The participants, the interviewer, and the respondent are strangers.

-The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. -Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to
questions put verbally.

- The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be face to-face because
interviews can be conducted over telephone also.

Benefits of interview:

1. provide in depth and detailed information.

2. permits greater depth of response.

3. Data from illiterate subject.

4. higher response.

5. help to gather other supplementary information.

Types of Interview:

1. Structured Interview:

Structured interview is a means of data collection in which the interviewer has an interview schedule in
which the questions are listed in the order in which they are to be answered.

2. Unstructured Interview:
 These interviews are also known as nonstandardized interviews. Unstructured interview is method wherein
the questions can be changed to meet the respondent's intelligence, under standing, and beliefs.

3. semistructured Interview:

Semistructured interview is a flexible method that allows new questions to be brought up during the interview,
depending upon the situation during the interview.

4. In-depth Interview:

This is an intensive and investigative interview conducted and aimed at studying the respon dent's opinion
and emotions on the basis of interview guide.

5. Focused group Interview:

group Focused interview is an unstructured group interview technique where 8-12 members are brought
together under the guidance of a trained interviewer to focus on a specific phenomenon.

6. Telephone Interview:

Telephone interviewing is a nonpersonal method of data collection. This method of collecting information
consists of contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is used widely in indus trial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.

The Interviewing process are as following:

-Preparation for interview

-Pre-interview introduction.

-Developing rapport

-Carrying the interview forward.

-Recording the interview

- Closing the interview.

The data collection, sources of data collection and methods of data collection are given above.
Q. 3. List the type of research design. Explain non experimental research desing in details ?

ANSWER

Quantitative Research Design -

In Quantitative Research Design, a researcher examines the various variables while including numbers as well as
statistics in a project to analyze its findings. The use of graphics, figures, pie charts is the main form of data collection
measurement and meta-analysis (it is information about the data by the data).

Qualitative Research Design -

This type of research is quite contrary to quantitative research design. It is explanatory in nature and always seeks
answers to “What’s” and “How’s”. It mainly focuses on why a specific theory exists and what would be the
respondent’s answer to it. This allows a researcher to draw a conclusion with proper findings. Case studies are
mainly used in Qualitative Research Design in order to understand various social complexities.

NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Nonexperimental research design is one of the broad categories of research designs in which the researcher
observes the phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables are introduced. It is a research design in
which neither the variables are deliberately manipulated nor is the setting controlled.

In nonexperimental research, researchers collect data without making changes or intro ducing treatments. Data
obtained are analysed and the results may lead to the formation of hypothesis that can then be tested
experimentally. Within a quantitative framework, the ob servations are represented by numbers that can be
statistically analysed. Areas of research interest that have not been examined in depth may be best understood by
conducting a de scriptive study. Data in nonexperimental research are generally collected through the use of
questionnaires, interviews, observations, literature reviews, and critical-incident technique.

Need of Nonexperimental Design

Nonexperimental research design is frequently used by the nurse researchers. Some of the

study situations where only nonexperimental designs can be used to conduct a study are as

follows: The studies in which the independent variables cannot be manipulated.

The studies in which it is unethical to manipulate the independent variable, ie, manipulation may cause physical or
psychological harm to subjects. The studies or research situations where it is not practically possible to conduct
experiments.

• Descriptive - type studies that do not require any experimental approaches. most suitable to improve the
understanding about the nonexperimental research designs.
 o Descriptive design Univariant descriptive design

• Exploratory descriptive design . Comparative descriptive design . Correlational/Ex-post facto design

• Prospective design

Retrospective design Developmental research design

• Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Epidemiological designs.

Case-control studies

• Cohort studies

• Survey research design

Q.4. List Purpose Of Literature Review, What Are Sources Of Literature Review ?
Ans:

Purposes Of Literature Review

The purpose of a Iiterature review is to con:c'y to the readcr previous knowledge and facts established on a h'pic.
and tjwir strv11I4ths and [Link] The literrM:re review allows the rvader to lc updati'd with the state d research
Jn a field and any contrad'ctions that mav e"sl which ehalle,W fmdings of other reqearch studws Furthennore.
literature review enhances rPseaixhers' kmuvledp,e. It hPlps la develop rerearch investit;ative tools and to uupnwe
x'searrh methodologies. It also providcs the knowledge about the pmblems faced L"- tl,e prenou' Tw-archers' while
studyint; the same topic. Besides enhancin8 researchers' [Link] about the topic. writiW; a literature review helps
to:

•Place each in the context of its contribution to Ehe understandin8 of subject under n'view.

•Dexrilx' thv relationship of each study to other research studies under consideration_

• ldentifi new ways to interpret and shed light on any gaps in previous research.

• Resolve coniTice amongst secmingly contradictory previous studies. •ldentify areas of prior scholarship to prevent
duplication of effort.

• Point a wav forwa rd for further research.

•See what has and has not been investigated. •Develop general explanation for observed variations in a behaviour
or phenomenon identify potential relationships between concepts and to identify researchable hy- pothesis.

•Learn how others have defined and measured key concepts.

•Identify data sources that uther researchers have used.

•Develop alternative research projects.

• Disco bnver how a research projed is related to the work of others.

• Place one's original work (in case of thesis or dissertation) in context of the existing iiterature.

𝙎𝙤𝙪𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙡𝙞𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙪𝙧𝙚 𝙧𝙚𝙫𝙞𝙚𝙬

Litcratu'rc car bc rcvi,'wcd from two main sources, i.e. primary and secondary sources; however, litcrahire wvic'w
[Link] relies on primary source. 𝙋𝙧𝙞𝙢𝙖𝙧𝙮 𝙎𝙤𝙪𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙨:
 Primary sources are original, peer-reviewed, and published research journal articles reported original resc'archers.
h, other words, primary sources are the research reports, which are describestion of studies written by researchers
who conducted them. A primary source is writ- tcm by a person who dc\vloped the theory or conducted the
research. or is the description Lian investigaticm written by the person who conducted it. Most [Link] are
found in published literature; for example, a nursing research article. A credible Literature review reflect the use of
mainly primary sources.

𝙎𝙚𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙖𝙧𝙮 𝙎𝙤𝙪𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙨: Secondary source research documents are description of studies prepared by someone other
than the original researcher. They are written by people other than the individuals v:ho developed the theory or
conducted the research. The secondary sources inclu,ie the comments and summaries of multiple research studies
on one topic, e.g. sy-stemic reviews, meta-analysis, mc'ta-svnthesis, etc. Secondary sources are usually paraphrased
and may be based on the secondary author's interpretation of the primary work; it is necessary then to review
primary source whenever possible to ensure accuracy. However, the secondary sources [Link] be used when primary
sources are not available or if research- ers want external opinions on an issue or problem or even the results of
their own research.

1. Elt-chrmic sources Compuk'r sisted litc'raturv search hds re'voIutic,mzed the review of hteratux. Thesx xarclws,
huwever, for ct variety "f reasuns may not provide'. thedesired references. Electronic literature search through web
may be very useful, hul sometimes it can bc time consuming and unpredictable because there are many v,-cbsiles
a,,d vveb pages that can lead to information overload and confusion. However. currentlY it is one of the most
important sources of literature searches. Geru'ral liK-rature search can be conducted through search engines, like
Yahoo ('-vwv,.- [Link]), Goofle ([Link]), MSN search, Lycos, WebCrawler, Alta \rista. or E'.,cite;
and scientific nursing literature may be located at several available database sources. It is appropriate to define the
database and to indicate how it is different from search _-nyne. As mentioned above that Coogle is a search engine
and MEDI_INE is a database_ A search engine is a collection of software programmes that collect information from
web. index it and put it in a format that is accessible visually on screen at an on-site library Or jn do\vnloadable.
readable vvritten format. In contrast, a database is an organized body of re- lated information arranged for speed of
access and retrieval. In other w-ords, a database is a storage location like a librarv, where information is stored,
catalogued, maintained, and uploaded systematically. The two main types of database are available. i.e.
bibliographk and full-text database. Bibliographic database gives only direction on where to find information,
vvhereas full-text database contains the information itself (full research arhc in dov,'nloadable format). However,
the most useful and relevant nursing databases are as follows:

𝘾𝙄𝙉𝘼𝙃𝙇 (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature): Accessible at http:[Link], it contains
citations of nursing literature published after 1988. Even full-text articles are available on CINAHL Plus, a paid web
page.

𝙈𝙀𝘿𝙇𝙄𝙉𝙀 (medical literature analysis and retrieved system online):

It s another electronic source of literature. Review commonly used by nurse Th National [Link] of medicine
provides free assess to MEDLINE , through PubMcd. available at www. pubmc,i.a,m or
hitp:[Link]. Ger,erally. abstractn of x'soawh Artidcs aw pnwidxi frw "f av?t.; sorrw of tfw
(ull-lexf copies are also freely availabk nnd sonw olhcrA aTV ,v,ilnble for r' fcw. NbMcd: NbMPcl 'L'nl' N ulKd to
search resenrch nbatracts, available at http: wwwpubmcxlA-om.

𝘽𝙧𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙨𝙝 𝙉𝙪𝙧𝙨𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙄𝙣𝙙𝙚𝙭: 'Tlw nritEsh Nursing Index (BNr) iri a leading UK nursing database p"vidi"8 biblio8raphic
rcFwt-ncea to journal erticles from all the major British "ursi and midwifcry journals, as well as a AelectJon of English-
language ink-mational journals. It is available from Royal ColleF;e of Nursin8 Library e-library d.,tabasc:
[Link]. 𝙈𝙚𝙙𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙚𝙋𝙡𝙪𝙨: It is the National Library of Medicine's websites for consumer health
informatum. It is available at http:[Link]. 𝙉𝙪𝙧𝙨𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙃𝙚𝙖𝙡𝙩𝙝 𝙎𝙘𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚: It is n fuIJ-text collcct'ion
of 24 journals published by Sage p\Mica Lion.

𝙍𝙚𝙜𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙧 𝙤𝙛 𝙉𝙪𝙧𝙨𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙍𝙚𝙨𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙘𝙝: Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing makes this database
available through its Virginia Henderson International Nursing LibraW. Access to this database has been redesigned
and made easier for users to oblain evidence and scientific findings from more than 2200 research articles and
conference abstracts. The research abstracts are searched via key words. author, and title of the research study. Free
access to this database may be found at http: [Link],[Link]. 𝘾𝙤𝙘𝙝𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙚 𝙙𝙖𝙩𝙖𝙗𝙖𝙨𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙨𝙮𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙢 𝙧𝙚𝙫𝙞𝙚𝙬𝙨:
Health care-related literature can be searched from this source. available at http:[Link]:[Link].

𝙀𝙍𝙄𝘾: The ERIC database is the largest source of education information. A free search may be carried out at
http:,'[Link]. 𝙋𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙄𝙉𝙁𝙊: The PsycINFO database belongs to American Psychological Assoaation. and
covers literature from psychological or related disciplines. It may be searched at http:[Link].
𝘿𝙞𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙧𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙖𝙗𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙨 𝙤𝙣𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙚: Abstracts of masters' and doctoral theses are available on this electronic
database.

𝙊𝙣𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙚 𝙟𝙤𝙪𝙧𝙣𝙖𝙡'𝙨 Following arc the website addresses for journals and magazines that are available online: '
http.'[Link]:comnursinf;[Link] ' http:[Link] '
httlp:[Link] ' http:[Link] ' http:[Link]?category-
1727 ' http:[Link] ' http:[Link] ' http:[Link] '
http:[Link] ' http:[Link]

. 𝙊𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧 𝙤𝙣𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙚 𝙙𝙖𝙩𝙖𝙗𝙖𝙨𝙚𝙨:

Many other online databasea can be searched for free by nurse, from the following website
Ml,:[Link] (HIVAIDS information) ' [Link].8ov (informaliun on hazardous aSents)
hup:[Link] (combined hea,Iih information dataloase) . http:hnvw.t'[Link] (toxicology
database network) . Omw lit tCmm-r Iitcratnrc EMSASE (Emvl,tn A'Iedicn Dnt"imse) . ETOH AIcohol "ud n Icoho I
problems science database . . HmIthSTAR WLvrith senlices tedr,ro Iogy administration and researchJ . Radix
(N,,rsinSm,d nmnr,Scd cnre d"Mbase . CD-ROA4 (Coinpnct disc-read on Iy memory with research ,detabase

𝙋𝙖𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙙 𝙨𝙤𝙪𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙙: Printed sources are also used for literature review. Printed researd '.ummary may be located
from published abstracts, such as NursinS Research Abstract. Psychological Abstracts. Dissertation Abstract
International, Masters Abstract Intema. tionat, etc References of the other printed sources may be located
throughindices, such as Cumulatwe Index to Nursing and Allied Flealth Literature, Nursing Studies index,and Index
[Link]; are the main printed sources that can be used to review the rele\'ant literature: .

𝙅𝙤𝙪𝙧𝙣𝙖𝙡: There are several nahonal and international journals that can be used to re'iew the research-related
literature. Some of the main nahonal and international nursing journals are as follows:

𝙽𝚊𝚖𝚎𝚜 𝚘𝚏 𝚗𝚊𝚝𝚒𝚘𝚗𝚊𝚕 𝚗𝚞𝚛𝚜𝚒𝚗𝚐 jo"rnals

• Nursing and Midwife Research Journal

• Indian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery

• The Nursing Journal of lndia

• Nightingale Nursing Times

• International Journal of Nursing Education.

Q.5. Definition of nursing research and scientific steps of nursing research .

Definition of RESEARCH -

Nursing research is research that provides evidence used to support nursing practices. Nursing, as an
evidence-based area of practice, has been developing since the time of Florence Nightingale to the present day,
where many nurses now work as researchers based in universities as well as in the health care setting.
Steps Of Scientific Research.

I. Identifying the problem: It is a clear finding of the problem that should be studied. In general broad topic area is
selected and then the topic is narrowed down to a specific one. It may be from personal experiences or literature
sources.

II. Review of literature: It is one of the most important step in the research process. A literature review is an account
of what has been already established or published on a particular research topic by various researchers.

III. Developing the a theoretical/conceptual framework : It is the valuable part of scientific research. Which helps in
the selection of the study characters and in defining them. It also directs to the prediction and the interpretation of
the study findings.

IV. Identifying the study Assumptions : Assumptions are held to be true but have not necessarily seen proven. It
influences the questions that are asked. It is based on the information collected and study interpretation.

V. Developing the a theoretical/conceptual framework : It is the valuable part of scientific research. Which helps in
the selection of the study characters and in defining them. It also directs to the prediction and the interpretation of
the study findings.

VI. Identifying the study Assumptions : Assumptions are held to be true but have not necessarily seen proven. It
influences the questions that are asked. It is based on the information collected and study interpretation.

VII. Formulating the Hypothesis or Research Question: Hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more
characters. According to the asked questions in the problem statement. The hypothesis furnishes the answer to it. It
is testable or verifiable by the information gathered. The research is guided by research questions that are further
elaboration of the problem statement.

VIII. Selecting the research Design : It is the plan for how the study will be conducted as well as concerned with the
type of information that will be collected.

IX. Identifying the population/sample: The population means the complete set of individuals or objects that posses
some common characteristics of interest to the researcher. The subgroup of populations is called study sample.

X. Conducting a pilot study : A pilot study is a miniature trial version of the planned study. It reveals the feasibility of
the study and helps to test the instruments. It also plays a role in gaining experience with the study process and it
indicates that where the revision should be made.

XI. Collecting Data : It is the process of collection or gathering of pieces of information’s facts that are related to the
study.

XII. Organizing the data for Analysis : It is the grouping of information’s for tabulation and evaluation purpose. A
statistician should be consulted in the early and phase of the research process. The statistician can help to follow the
appropriate analytical method.

XIII. Interpreting the findings : After the data are analyzed the finding of the result are compared with those of
previous studies for further recommendation.
Q.6. Definition Of Nursing Research And Scientific Steps Of Nursing Research .

Definition of research -

Nursing research is research that provides evidence used to support nursing practices. Nursing, as an
evidence-based area of practice, has been developing since the time of Florence Nightingale to the present day,
where many nurses now work as researchers based in universities as well as in the health care setting.

Steps of scientific research.

1 Identifying the problem: It is a clear finding of the problem that should be studied. In general broad topic
area is selected and then the topic is narrowed down to a specific one. It may be from personal experiences or
literature sources.

2 Review of literature: It is one of the most important step in the research process. A literature review is an
account of what has been already established or published on a particular research topic by various researchers.

3 Developing the a theoretical/conceptual framework : It is the valuable part of scientific research. Which
helps in the selection of the study characters and in defining them. It also directs to the prediction and the
interpretation of the study findings.

4. Identifying the study Assumptions : Assumptions are held to be true but have not necessarily seen proven. It
influences the questions that are asked. It is based on the information collected and study interpretation.

5 Developing the a theoretical/conceptual framework : It is the valuable part of scientific research. Which
helps in the selection of the study characters and in defining them. It also directs to the prediction and the
interpretation of the study findings.

6 Identifying the study Assumptions : Assumptions are held to be true but have not necessarily seen proven. It
influences the questions that are asked. It is based on the information collected and study interpretation.

7 Formulating the Hypothesis or Research Question: Hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or
more characters. According to the asked questions in the problem statement. The hypothesis furnishes the answer
to it. It is testable or verifiable by the information gathered. The research is guided by research questions that are
further elaboration of the problem statement.

8 Selecting the research Design : It is the plan for how the study will be conducted as well as concerned with
the type of information that will be collected.

9 Identifying the population/sample: The population means the complete set of individuals or objects that
posses some common characteristics of interest to the researcher. The subgroup of populations is called study
sample.

10 Conducting a pilot study : A pilot study is a miniature trial version of the planned study. It reveals the
feasibility of the study and helps to test the instruments. It also plays a role in gaining experience with the study
process and it indicates that where the revision should be made.

11 Collecting Data : It is the process of collection or gathering of pieces of information’s facts that are related to
the study.
12 Organizing the data for Analysis : It is the grouping of information’s for tabulation and evaluation purpose. A
statistician should be consulted in the early and phase of the research process. The statistician can help to follow the
appropriate analytical method.

13 Interpreting the findings : After the data are analyzed the finding of the result are compared with those of
previous studies for further recommendation.

Q.7. Definition of Research and Characteristics of Good Research.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE IN NURSING

A well-developed and reliable body of knowledge is a foundation for any profession. This most sought-after
knowledge can be acquired from highly structured as well as loosely ar ranged processes or methods. Traditionally,
loosely arranged methods are used to develop knowledge, such as inherited traditions, authority, experience,
intuition, and trial-and-error method. However, with increased complexity in development, researchers discovered
more structured methods for generation of new knowledge. Nursing professionals largely believe in development of
knowledge from highly structured methods, such as logical reasoning problem solving, and scientific
methods/research.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

Research employs scientific methods. Good research is systematic. logical, empirical, and also replicable. However,
one expects that a good research must satisfy the following criteria :

• Orderly and systematic process: A research can only be considered good if it is conducted in an orderly and
systematic way, because this is the most important criterion for a scien tific research process.

Based on current professional issues: Resolving current issues of any discipline is one of the fundamental purposes of
any research. Therefore, a good research must be based on the current professional issues, so that a particular
discipline can be up to date with solu tions to professional concerns.

Begin with clearly defined purposes:

A research can only be conducted in effective man ner if it is started with clearly defined purposes. However, in
absence of clarity about objectives, research may not yield very good results.

• Emphasize to develop, refine, and expand professional knowledge. The main purpose of the research is to develop
the new knowledge or refine the existing professional knowledge Ever expanding professional body of knowledge is
the most important need of any profession. There fore, a good research is always directed towards expansion of
professional body of knowledge.

Directed towards development or testing theories:

Theory development and testing is a systematic process of enquiry in a discipline. Therefore, only a good research
can make it possible to develop or test a theory. Finding solution of a problem: Finding answer or solution to
professional problems is another important purpose of a research. Therefore, a good research is always directed
towards finding an answer or solution for the pertinent emerging professional problems. Dedicated to develop
empirical evidence: Another important purpose of the research is to generate empirical evidences, which can be
used to improve the professional practices. Therefore, a good research always strives to develop empirical
evidences.
Strive to collect first-hand information/data: A successful research is conducted by collection of data directly from
subjects by different methods like questioning, interviews, or observation.

An objective and logical process: Research information collected through subjective means or in haphazard manner
will never lead to satisfactory results. Therefore, a good research emphasizes on objective and logical research
process.

Generate findings to refine and improve professional practices:

A research cannot be considered successfully conducted until and unless it contributes towards refinement and
improvement in professional practices as per the need of time.

Use of appropriate methodology: Selection of a methodology in any research depends on several factors, because
each variable and research has unique features. Therefore, a good research always employs the most appropriate
and suitable methodology.

Conducted on representative sample:

Generalization of research findings is only possible if study is conducted on a sample which has characteristics similar
to the population of the study. Therefore, a good research is conducted on a representative sample.

Conducted through appropriate use of methods and tools of data collection:

Based on the nature of phenomenon and subjects under study, methods and tools of data collection will be
different. Therefore, only the most appropriate and suitable methods and tools of data collection can lead to
successfully conducted research. For example, questionnaire cannot be used for illiterate subjects or a performance
can only be measured through observation method.

Use of valid and reliable data collection tools:

Evidences generated from a research activity can only be considered valuable if they are generated through valid
and reliable research tools.

Therefore, a good research always depends on the validity and reliability of research tools.

Carefully recorded and reported:

A research can only be considered good if research in formation is carefully recorded and reported because in
absence of careful recoding and reporting, the evidences generated during research may be covert in nature.
Therefore, to generate quality empirical evidences, it is essential to carry out recording and reporting very carefully.

Adequately and appropriately analysed research:

A research activity is incomplete and poor until gathered data is adequately and appropriately analysed using
standardized and accepted methods of data analysis. Patiently carried out activity: Research cannot be carried out in
hurry; it needs lots of time and patience. Therefore, patience and endurance are foundations of good research.

Researcher's expertise, interest, motivation, and courage:

It is largely believed that a good research activity needs expertise, interest, motivation, and courage among research
ers. In absence of these attributes among researchers, accomplishment of a good research cannot be imagined.
Q. 8. Explain Steps Of Quantities Research Process?
• Quantitative research is a formal, objective, and systemic process for generating information about the
world. Quantitative research is conducted to describe new situation, events, or concept.

• The research process starts with the identification and formulation of research problem and end with the
dissemination of research finding.

1. Formulation of research problem

2. Determining study objectives

3. Review of literature

4. Developing conceptual framework

5. Formulating hypothesis/assumptions

6. Selecting research approach /design

7. Specifying the population

8. Developing tool (s) for data collection

9. Establishing ethical consideration

10. Conducting pilot study/ tryout of tool

11. Sample selection

12. Data collection

13. Preparing data for analysis

14. Analysis and interpretation of data

15. Disseminating the research findings

1. Formulation of research problem

The foremost step of a research process is too discover an interesting and Research-worthy problem.

It is such an important step that the whole process can get wasted if the research problem is not clearly understood.

Therefore any good research need a good research problem.

The research problem must ensure features of originality, Solvability, and feasibility of research problem as well as
the need to take account it’s following dimensions.

• Substantive dimension : is the research problem clinically or theoreticlly important?

• Methodological dimension: what is the best possible way to study his problem?

• Practice dimension: are adequate resources available to conduct the study?

• Ethical dimension: would this problem respect the right of the study subject?

2. Determining study objectives:

• There must be a clear direction to every research prom and objectives certainly serve this purpose.

• Therefore, researchers must have a lis objectives for the study, which provides the guidelines for the
researcher as to w exactly must be done during the course of a particular research study.

• There may general and specific objectives for a research project.

• This step of the research process also includes writing operational definitions of variables under study. These
objectives and operational definitions not only help delimiting the research problem, but also provide a defined
direction to research proce where researchers have clarity about what to be studied under a particular statement
problem.

3. Review of literature:

• A literature review is a summary of previous knowledge generated the topic of study.

• It is believed by researchers that research cannot be conducted in a va uum, bereft of the previous
knowledge available, but that it requires a foundation of existi knowledge to plan and conduct a good research.

• This knowledge base can only be acquir through literature review from several sources, such as books,
journals, research repor unpublished theses, newspapers, magazines, and other current popular electronic inform
tion sources.

• Review of literature helps the researchers to understand what already known about a topic and what needs
to be further investigated. An effective litera ture review needs certain basic skills in researchers, such as critical
thinking, brainstorming reading, comprehending, analysis, synthesizing, and summarizing Literature review play an
important role in the development of research project and, moreover, researchers develop greater insight into the
research problem and gain information on what has been alread investigated regarding a particular topic under
study.

4. Developing conceptual framework:

• The basic aim of research in most disciplines is to develop, refine, or test theories.

• Nursing profession is considered as one of the oldest arts. but one among the youngest sciences, where
there is great need of developing new theories or refining/testing existing theories to expand the body of
professional knowledge.

• Most of the nursing researchers plan to develop a conceptual framework based on the existing nursing or
other non-nursing theories. However, researchers may have their own concepts to develop new nursing-based
conceptual frameworks for research studies.

• These conceptual frameworks not only provide meaning to the research problem, but also help in
developing hypothesis or assumptions for the research studies.

5. Formulating hypothesis/assumptions:

• Hypothesis is an assumed statement suggesting an answer to a question, which may or may not be true.

• In simple words, it translates the statement of problem prediction of what is into a a clearly understandable
and easy-to-comprehend is expected to be the outcome of the study, which is either accepted or rejected based on
the empirical data generated at the end of the research process.

• For example, consider this research statement, 'A correlational study on alcohol intake and incidence of liver
disease among people of an urban community at Ludhiana' Here, hypothesis will be 'alcoholics have higher incidence
of liver disease".

• Assumptions are statements that are to be tested to be considered true, before they have been scientifically
tested. In other words, assumptions are the general beliefs of the people at large that are held to be true, but have
not necessarily been proven. For example, satisfaction is largely influenced by the preconceived expectations of the
customers. This is a general belief of the people, but a researcher may use it as an assumption in a customer
satisfaction study. Generally, in nonexperimental research, investigators use assumptions or research questions to
have defined directions for the research study.
 6. Selecting research approach/design:

• A research design is the systematic plan to obtain answers to research questions. In a broader sense,
research design is the blueprint of research study, which enables the researcher to know on whom, what, when,
whereand how the study will be conducted.

• Who: Specifies the subject(s) under study, eg. patients, families, groups, etc

• What: Specifies the variables that are to be focused upon and measured.

• When: Specifies the time of the study, duration, and frequency of the observations.

• Where: Specifies the setting of the study; that is where researcher will be conducting the study.

• How: Specifies how the data will be collected. For example, through manipulation of the variables in
experimental study under random assignment or simple questioning, inter view, or observation of a phenomenon
without manipulation and control over variables. Basically, there are three approaches/designs for the quantitative
research: experimental, quasiexperimental, and nonexperimental. However, these designs can be further
subclassified into several subtypes of each design.

• Experimental: In experimental researches, there is random assignment of subjects, and an availability of a

control group to compare with the experimental group, and manipulation of independent variable to observe effect
on dependent variable in an experimental group

• Quasiexperimental: Quasiexperimental studies involve manipulation of independent variables to observe

effect on dependent variables, but usually they do not exert complete control over extraneous variables in
manipulation and randomization. Research studies on humans, in either field or clinical settings, make it impossible
to strictly imply the random assignment of subjects or control of manipulation and extraneous variables. Therefore,
health care professionals mainly conduct quasiexperimental research.

• Nonexperimental: In this design, research variables are studied without manipulating them in natural setting
for the purpose of description, exploration, explanation, or identification of correlation between two or more
variables.

7. Specifying the population:

• In quantitative research studies, it is essential to learn about the characteristics the subjects possess and
clearly define the group of subjects or objects under study. Research population is an aggregate of all the subjects or
objects with specific characteristics. For example, in study on 'prevalence of hospital-acquired infection among
patients admitted to intensive care units, population is patients admitted to intensive care units, where all the
patients are living in similar situation, Le. they are all admitted to intensive care units.

• Population specification helps the researcher to plan and develop an effective methodol ogy and tools sfor
the e development of empirical evidences

8. Developing tool(s) for data collection:

• This is the most important and crucial step of the t is essential to devise methods and tools to measure the
research vari research process It is ables as objectively and accurately as possible. The plan and design of the tools
for data collection depends on several factors, such as type of research design, variables, subjects, researcher's
expertise, available resources, and time for study.

• The researcher could use existing standardized research tools or may develop new tools, which must be
used after establishing their validity and reliability. In quantitative research, usually structured or semistructured
tools are used for data collection, which requires lot of constructive efforts, such as review of relevant content,
brainstorming, expert suggestions, and so on.
 9. Establishing ethical considerations:

• In nursing science, most of the research is conducted on humans, where it becomes more important to
establish ethical consideration. During research studies, a researcher can address the ethical issues and may
establish ethical con siderations by taking the following measures:

• Taking informed consent from participants

• Avoiding errors in data collection.

• Obtaining the permission from competent authority to conduct the study.

• Doing justice to participants in analysing data.

• Maintaining confidentiality of the information and anonymity of subjects.

10. Conducting pilot study/tryout of tool: Pilot study is a kind of small-scale rehearsal on the subjects, but these
subjects are not a part of the actual study. Pilot study is conducted to ensure the feasibility of the study and revise
methodology and tool(s) of the study in caseof any shortcoming found.

11. Sample selection: It is not practically possible to conduct study on entire population. There fore, researchers
must select a representative part of the population. A sample can be selected by using either probability or
nonprobability sampling technique, where choice of sampling technique depends on several factors, like nature of
the study; availability of time, money, resources, and researchers' knowledge about population, etc. However,
researchers always strive to select a representative sample which adequately reflects the population's trait.

12. Data collection: It is the most time-consuming step of the research process, which involves direct or indirect
interaction with respondents to gather information pertaining to the topic under study. It must be carefully planned
and implemented to collect relevant information by using preplanned methods, techniques, and tools of data
collection. Data collection requires adequate planning, patience, communication, interpersonal relationship, and
recording skills. Data could be collected through questioning, interviewing, or observation methods.

13. Preparing data for analysis: In quantitative studies, careful checking of every tool for its completeness and coding
is the main activity during this step of the research process. must be ensured that one code specifies only one piece
of information, and it should be maintained carefully to avoid any error. Coding can be carried out manually on a
paper sheet or on a computer grading sheet (eg. MS Excel sheet) or directly in statistical software.

14. Analysis and interpretation of data: In quantitative research studies, numerical data must be organized in an
orderly and sequential manner, and processing is required because research questions cannot be answered in
numerical form. In quantitative research, data may be analysed by using descriptive or inferential statistics.
Furthermore, data may be analysed either by manual calculations or by using statistical software programmes, like
Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS). Data is presented through tables, graphs, and charts to facilitate the
interpretation of data.

15. Disseminating the research findings: Research may fail in achievement of its objectives, if findings are not
disseminated to its users. Research findings may be communicated through writing of research thesis, article, or
presenting an oral research report at scientific professional conferences. Research finding must be communicated in
a standardized for mat according to the international, national, or institutional guidelines.
Q.9. Steps Of Qualitative Research Process
Qualitative research is a systematic and subjective approach to describe events or life experiences, and to give them
intended meanings. Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary
field. It is committed to the naturalistic perspective to the interpretative understanding of human experiences. It not
only helps to unearth hidden facts, but also to exploring attitude, emotions, beliefs, sensitive issues, opinions,
concepts processes, and relationships of people. The process of qualitative research is relatively less formally
planned, where planning and execution of research moves hand in hand. Therefore, steps of qualitative research
process are slightly different from that of quantitative research which a are following :

1. Identifying research problem area

2. Formulating broad study objectives

3. Review of literature

4. Entry in the research setting

5. Selecting research approach/design

6. Select a small sample

7. Collecting data

8. Planning tools for data collection

9. Establishing ethical considerations

10. Organizing data for analysis

11. Analysis and interpretation of dats

12. Disseminating the research findings

1. Identifying Research Problem Area :

In qualitative research, initially a broad research area is identified, and then focus may be narrowed down as the
researcher gets more familiar ity and experience in the research setting. Qualitative research begins with a general
topic of research problem and the group or population expected to be studied. Further more, researchers have less
understanding about the phenomenon and the population under study; therefore, it becomes difficult to have a
formal plan of research study in advance. For instance, in a qualitative study, an initial statement of problem could
be a study on experiences of tsunami survivors in coastal regions of the state of Tamil Nadu, India'.

2. Formulating broad study objectives:

Objectives serve as guidelines to conduct a research study; however, in qualitative studies, only broad objects
may be planned, which could later be modified based on the need of the research.

3. Review of literature:

There are different schools of thoughts about literature review in qualitative studies. Some eminent researchers
believe that literature review in qualitative studies may become a source of blas, since qualitative research is a
subjective approach of studying a phenomenon. However, others argue that literature review is a mandatorystep in
every research process, where researchers may learn about the work that has been already done on the particular
phenomenon under study. Moreover, in qualitative studies, understanding the phenomenon or population under
study is very minimal; therefore, literature review would help the researchers to gain some amount of prior
information to have an effective future planning and execution of the research project.
4. Entry in the research setting:

As in qualitative study, the researcher is not much aware about population and phenomenon, and thus this is an
important step for further planning and execution of the research process. Entry in research setting requires prior
permission. from competent authorities as well as contacts with key people in the area of the interest. In
ethnographic studies, these people are called key informants. These key people may be the important sources of
information about the phenomenon and subjects under study.

5. Selecting research approach/design:

There are a few common designs used in qualitative studies, namely phenomenology, grounded theory,
ethnography, case study, historical research, action research, and philosophical inquiry. Choice of a research design
in qualitative study depends on the nature of the phenomenon under study. For example, Phenomenological design:
It may be used if the researcher is interested in a description of experiences of people, eg a study on experiences of
people who survived in the tsu nami disaster in the coastal states of India.

6. Selecting a small sample:

Qualitative studies are in-depth inquiries; therefore, generally a quite small sample (10-15 subjects) is selected for
study. However, there are no defined set of rules for exact sample size for a qualitative study; even a single case can
be a sample in case study design of qualitative research. Generally, the size of the sample in qualitative research is
always smaller than the one tn quantitative research. In qualitative research, depth and quality of data is more
important than quantity of data.

7. Collecting data:

In qualitative research, data collection is the most crucial and time consuming step of the research process.
Interview and observation are two most common types of data collection methods used in qualitative studies, which
provide greater flexi bility in data collection that is of prime importance in qualitative studies. Rapport building and
confidence establishment are the two essential tasks a researcher must accomplish before starting data collection.
Generally, data is collected either by tape-recording the session, detailed notes on the information, or both.

8. Planning tools for data collection:

Tools used for data collection in qualitative research are generally semistructured or unstructured. Most of the
items are open-ended, the answers of which should be taken in the form of narrations. Data may be collected
through video-taping, tape-recording, focus-group interviews, photographs, reflective journals. field notes,
transcripts, cumulative diaries, and so on.

9. Establishing ethical considerations:

Same as quantitative study, qualitative study also develops and plans to address the ethical aspects related to the
participant. This is a more important concern in qualitative study because of the more intimate nature of the rela
tionship that typically develops between the researcher and the study participant. Ethical issues can be addressed
and established by taking informed consent from participants, avoiding errors in data collection, doing justice to
participants in analysing data, and maintaining the confidentiality of the information and anonymity of the subject.
10. Organizing data for analysis:

Before analysis, data is organized for data analysis and interpretation by following techniques:

a. Listing b. Categorizing

c. Comparing d. Laddering

11. Analysis and interpretation of data:

In qualitative studies, analysis of data actually begins with data collection, and some of the researchers argue
that there is no separate step of analysis of data in qualitative research. Analysis of data in qualitative research
usually involves an examination of words rather than numbers, as is the case in quantitative research In qualitative
studies, large amount of data is collected in the form of words, which could be several thousand pages of notes.
Therefore, data analysis in qualitative studies is a challenging task. There are no universally accepted rules for
analysis of qualitative data. However, quall tative data can be analysed by using descriptive coding, indexing,
narrations, integrative diagrams, thematic analysis, etc.

12. Disseminating the research findings:

Research findings may be communicated by writ ing research thesis, article, or presenting an oral research report
at scientific professional conferences. Research finding must be communicated in a standardized format according to
the international national or institutional guidelines.

Q.10. Define Sampling. Discuss The Technique Of Sampling.

DEFINITION

Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences
from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are widely used by
researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable
insights.

It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling
techniques can be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation.

Sampling in market research is of two types 1) probability sampling and 2)Non-probability sampling

1) Probability sampling:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and
chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the
sample with this selection parameter.

2) Non-probability sampling:
In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This sampling method
is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have
equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
Types of probability sampling

1) Simple random sampling:

One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the Simple
Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member of a
population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen
to be a part of a sample.

For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building activities, it is
highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected.

2) Cluster sampling:
Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters
that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic
parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective
inference from the feedback.

For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland
US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado,
Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and
provide insightful immigration data.

3) Systematic sampling:
Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members of a population at regular
intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at
regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is
the least time-consuming.

For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she
numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a part of the
sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

4) Stratified random sampling:

Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into smaller groups
that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and
then draw a sample from each group separately.

For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual income
divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 –
$30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of
people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones
to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

Types of non probability sampling :

1) Convenience sampling:
This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-
by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of
carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the
sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability
 sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where
there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.

For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming
events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.

2) Judgmental or purposive sampling:

Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely
consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the target audience. For instance, when
researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s
degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who
respond with a “No” are excluded from the sample.

3) Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to trace. For
example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases,
using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and derive results.
Researchers also implement this sampling method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not
openly discussed—for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily
respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated
with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

4) Quota sampling:
In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set
standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample will have the
same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.

Q .11. 1) Define Research Design.

2) Write Need And Characteristics Of Research Design.
3) Explain Principles Of Experimental Research Design.
1) Definition Of Research Design

“ Research Design is the master plan specifying the method and procedures for collecting and

analysing needed information in a the research study.”

“Research Design is a plan of how when and where data are to be collected and analysed “.

2) Need and characteristics of research design.

Characteristics Of Research Design

a. Objectivity: – The findings obtained by the research should be objective. It is possible by allowing more than one
person to agree between the final scores/ conclusion of the research.

b. Reliability: – If the similar research is carried out time and again in a similar setting it must give similar result. So
the researcher must frame the research questions to make it reliable and provide similar outcomes.

c. Validity: – Any measuring device can be said to be valid if it measures what it is expected to measure and nothing ]
else. To make a research valid the questionnaire framed before research must be framed accordingly.
d. Generalization: – The information collected from given sample must be utilized for providing a general application
to the large group of which the sample is drawn.

Needs Of Research Design

• Provides firm foundation to the endeavour.

• It reduces inaccuracy. Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability.• Eliminates bias and marginal errors.

• Minimizes wastage of time.• Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research
problem.

• Helpful for collecting research materials.

• Helpful for testing of hypothesis.

• Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time, and efforts.

• Provides an overview to other experts.

• Guides the research in the right direction.

• Smooth & efficient sailing (sets boundaries & helps prevent blind search).

3) Basic Principles Of Research Design.

The basic principles of experimental designs are randomization, replication and local control.

These principles make a valid test of significance possible. Each of them is described briefly in the

following subsections.

A ) Randomization .

-The first principle of an experimental design is randomization. ----which is a random process of assigning treatments
to the experimental units.

-The random process implies that every possible allotment of treatments has the same probability.

- An experimental unit is the smallest division of the experimental material, and a treatment means an experimental
condition whose effect is to be measured and compared.

-The purpose of randomization is to remove bias and other sources of extraneous variation which are not
controllable.

B) Replication.

- The second principle of an experimental design is replication, which is a repetition of the basic experiment.

- In other words, it is a complete run for all the treatments to be tested in the experiment.

- In all experiments, some kind of variation is introduced because of the fact that the experimental units such as
individuals or plots of land in agricultural experiments cannot be physically identical. -This type of variation can be
removed by using a number of experimental units.

-We therefore perform the experiment more than once, i.e., we repeat the basic experiment.

- An individual repetition is called a replicate.

- The number, the shape and the size of replicates depend upon the nature of theexperimental material. A
replication is used to:
 1. Secure a more accurate estimate of the experimental error, a term which represents the differences that
would be observed if the same treatments were applied several times to the same experimental units;

2. Decrease the experimental error and thereby increase precision, which is a measure of the variability of
the experimental error; and

3. Obtain a more precise estimate of the mean effect of a treatment, since σ2y¯¯¯=σ2n, where n denotes the
number of replications.

C) Local Control.

-It has been observed that all extraneous sources of variation are not removed by randomization and replication.

- This necessitates a refinement of the experimental technique.

- In other words, we need to choose a design in such a manner that all extraneous sources of variation are brought
under control.

- For this purpose, we make use of local control, a term referring to the amount of balancing, blocking and grouping
of the experimental units.

-Balancing means that the treatments should he assigned to the experimental units in such a way that the result is a
balanced arrangement of the treatments.

-Blocking means that like experimental units should be collected together to form a relatively homogeneous group.

- A block is also a replicate. The main purpose of the principle of local control is to increase the efficiency of an
experimental design by decreasing the experimental error.

- The point to remember here is that the term local control should not be confused with the word control.

- The word control in experimental design is used for a treatment which does not receive any treatment when we
need to find out the effectiveness of other treatments.

(5 marks)
Q.12. Steps In Writing Literature Review.
Ans:

INTRODUCTION:

- Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process.

- It is an account of what is already known about a particular phenomenon.

- before starting any research,a literature review of previous studie and experience related to the proposed
investigation has to be done.

DEFINITION:

1. A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of knowledge on a particular topic
of research.

2. A literature review is an account of what has been already established or published on a particular research
topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW :
step 1 : understanding the concept of research problem and identify the key search terms :

-The journey of literature search begins with understanding and examining the concept of research problem
so that essential key search terms may be identified.

- these search terms may be elements that are included in the problem statement, variables that appears in
the research questions and tha characteristics of the population of interest.

STEP 2: Identifying the relevant sources:

- After understanding the concepts of research problem and identification of key search terms , now it is time
to locate the relevant sources for literature review.

- the common sources used for literature review by nurses are discussed in the previous topic of this chapter.

- the journals are considered as superior and up to date source over the books and other resources, because
books are considered out dated by the time they published after a long process.

STEP 3: Searching the Literature

- having selected relevant sources of literature review,the next step is to identify is an structured way the
appropriate and related information.

- the traditional method of literature search is manual search from the hard copy of journals that are
specially related to the topic of interest or those that are likely to cover the topic.

- In this method ,initial reference of journal is obtained from indices developed for this purpose,such as index
medicus and or from the reference/bibliography of the initially located articles of the related topic.

STEP 4 : Analysing and synthesizing the literature

- After collecting the relevant literature,it is the stage to analyse and synthesize the collected literature

- the most popular and simple method is referred to as the preview, questions,read,summarize system.

a) preview / overview : this begins with initial quick overview or preview of the articles through obsrtract
or summary of articles given at the beginning of each article to get a sense that what the articles is about and is it
worthy of inclusion for furth reading.

b) Questions,read and summarize: in the question stage, questions are asked of articles under review.

Here , several writers have suggested using an indexing or summary system to assist the review process.

- there are different criteria suggested for the indexing and simmerization but generally they include it author, year
of study, title of article, purpose and methodology of study , main finding and outcome of study.

STEP 5 : Writing the Literature Review

- this is final step of literature review after completing the adequate apprasial of literature.

- It is time to give a serious thought about how to write a draft of literature review.

- it is essential avoid long and confusing words and keep sentence short with one clear message.

- nonetheless, is imperative to be logical and there are some important elements that are need to be included.
Q 13. Barrier Of Utilization Of Nursing Research ?
. Introduction

A major barrier to research utilization is the absence of published research on specific clinical issues. The barrier to
research utilization under four categories as discussed below.

1. factors related to Nurses

NURSES
• have a lack of time, motivation, confidence, research knowledge, money and resources.
• Nurses do not see the value of research for practice.
• They see little benefit for self from research.
• They are inflexible and unwilling to change try new ideas.
• There is not a documented need to change practice.
• Nurses lack confidence in new research finding.
• Nurses lack time and resources to saty in touch with knowledgeable colleagues with whom to discuss the
research.

2. Nursing research factors=

•The research has methodological Inadequacies

•The conclusions drawn from the research are not justified.

• The research has not been replicated.

•The literature reports conflicting results.

•communicate results clearly and comprehensively.

•publish widely in user friendly journals.

•research report/articles are not published fast enough.

3. Organizational factors=

•Organizations fail to provide access to journals and research resources.

•Organizations lack the funding to support new research findings.

•Administration does not allow implementation of the research finding.

•physicians will not cooperate with implementation of new research.

•Other staff are not supportive of implementation.

•There is inefficient time in the job to implement new ideas.

•The facilities are inadequate for implementation.

•The nurses feel results are not generalized to their setting.

4. Communication factors =

•lack of collaboration between researchers and clinicians.

•lack of presentation of research findings to nurses in clinical setting.

•lack of publication in clinical nursing journals.

•lack understandable research publications.

•Implications for practice are not clear.

•Research report/article are not readily available.

•The research is not reported clearly and readably.

•statistical analyses are not understandable.

•The research is not relevant to the nurses practice.

•The relevant literature is not compiled in one place..

Q.14. Sources of Research Problem.

The common sources from which a researcher may find ideas to identify and formulate a research problem include

Personal experiences:

Day-to-day personal experience of a researcher may serve as good source of ideas to formulate a research problem.
For example, a researcher observed domestic violence suffered by wives of alcoholic husbands. This experience may
provide ideas to identify several research problems related to domestic violence against women. There may be so
many such life experiences of a researcher which could be used to develop a research problem.

• Practical experience:

Nurses get plenty of ideas to formulate research problems from their clinical experiences. Every curious nurse has
several questions to be answered that are encountered during clinical experience. For example, a nurse finds that
unrestricted visit ing hours in surgical wards reduced the analgesic demand among postoperative patients. In
another instance, a nurse observed that application of ice at the site of heparin injection reduced the chances of
ecchymosis. Such clinical experiences could be rich sources of ideas to identify a significant research problem.

• Critical appraisal of literature:

When we critically study books and articles relating to the subject of our interest, including research reports, opinion
articles, and summaries of clinical issues, pertinent questions may arise in our mind. These may strike reader's mind
indirectly by stimulating imagination and directly by stating what additional research is needed.

For example, a nurse reads an article on the prevalence of the pin site infection among patients with external
fixators. While reading this article, she learns that there is lack of con sensus about pin site care. This information
may serve as a basis to formulate a research problem.

Another type of literature that acts as a source of good research ideas is the requests for proposals (RFPs) that are
published by government agencies and some companies. Typi cally, the RFPs describe the problems that need
addressing, the contexts in which theyoperate, the approach they would like you to take to investigate and to
address the prob lem, and the amount they would be willing to pay for such research.
• Previous research:

A body of knowledge should be developed on a sound foundation of re search findings. Usually, at the end of a
research, further research problems are suggested, based on the shortcomings of previous research, which can be
investigated. In nursing profes sion, not much research has been yet done; therefore, this profession needs
researchers who are willing to replicate or repeat other studies on different samples and settings where all the
essential elements of the original study are held intact. Further refinements may be made in the experimental
treatments, or more appropriate outcome measures may be identified.

• Existing theories:

Research is a process of theory development and theory testing Nurses use many theories from other disciplines in
their practices. If an existing theory is used in developing a researchable problem, a specific statement from the
theory must be isolated. Generally, a part or parts of the theory are subjected to testing in the clinical situation. The
testing of an existing theory is definitely needed in nursing; therefore, they serve as good sources of research
problems.

• Consumer feedback:

Research problems may be generated from the results of activities aimed to solicit patient feedback. For example, at
the time of discharge of patient after angiography, a nurse obtained a feedback from the patient. Patient verbalized
that it was a wonderful experience except discomfort during removal of pressure dressing at the femoral puncture
site. This feedback provided a concept for nurse to research on efficacy of available alternative means of dressing at
puncture site to minimize the discomfort among patient undergoing angiography. *Performance improvement
activities: The performance improvement activities, known as quality improvement activities, are used to improve
processes and outcomes t meet regulatory requirement. In the process of performance activities, several issues in
merge that require answers through research. Thus performance improvement activity also serve as an important
source of research problem.

• Social issues:

Sometimes, topics are suggested by more global contemporary social or political ues of relevance to the health care
community. For example, HIV/AIDS, female feticade sexual harassment, domestic violence, and gender equality in
health care and in earth a some of the current social and political issues of concern for health care professionals. An
ide for a study may stem from a familiarity with social concerns or controversial social issues.

*Brainstorming:

Brainstorming sessions are good techniques to find new questions, when an intensified discussion among interested
people of the profession is conducted to find more ideas to formulate a good research problem. For example, ideas
for studies may emerge from reviewing research priorities by having brainstorming session with othe nurses,
researchers, or nursing faculty.

*Intuition:

Traditionally, intuitions are considered good sources of knowledge as well a sources to find new research problems It
is believed that the reflective mind is a good source of ideas, which may be used to formulate a good research
problem.
* Folklores:

Common beliefs could be right or wrong For example, it is generally believed that studying just before the test
decreases the score. We believe we should not study j before test to relax our mind. Researchers can conduct a
research study on whether one should study before the test or not.

*Exposure to field situations:

During held exposure, researchers get variety of experience which may provide plenty of ideas to formulate research
problems. For example, whir working in field, a researcher observed a specific traditional practice for cure of a disen
condition, which can be used as research problem to investigate its efficacy.

* Consultations with experts Experts are believed to have sound experience of their spective field, which may
suggest a significant problem to be studied In addition, expen may help in finding a current problem of discipline to
be solved, which may serve as hass for formulation of research problem.

Q.15 Characteristics Of Good Research.

DEFINITION :

[Link] may be defined as the systematic and objectives analysis and recording of controlled observation that
may lead to the development of generalization , principles, theories, resulting in prediction and possible ultimate
control of events.

( [Link],1969)

[Link] essentially is a problem - solving process,a systematic, intensive study directed towards full scientific
knowledge of the subject studies.

( Ruth M. French ,1968)

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

Research employs scientific methods. Good research is systematic, logical, empirical, and also replicable. However,
one expects that a good research must satisfy the following criteria:

1. .Orderly and systematic process:

A research can only be considered good if it is conducted in an orderly and systematic way, because this is the most
important criterion for a scientific research process.

2. Based on current professional issues:

Resolving current issues of any discipline is one of the fundamental purposes of any research. Therefore, a good
research must be based on the current professional issues, so that a particular discipline can be up to date with solu
tions to professional concerns.
 3. Begin with clearly defined purposes:

A research can only be conducted in effective man ner if it is started with clearly defined purposes. However, in
absence of clarity about objectives, research may not yield very good results.

4. .Emphasize to develop, refine, and expand professional knowledge:

The main purpose of the research is to develop the new knowledge or refine the existing professional knowledge.
Ever expanding professional body of knowledge is the most important need of any profession. There fore, a good
research is always directed towards expansion of professional body of knowledge.

5. Directed towards development or testing theories:

Theory development and testing is a systematic process of enquiry in a discipline. Therefore, only a good research
can make it possible to develop or test a theory.

6. Finding solution of a problem:

Finding answer or solution to professional problems is another important purpose of a research. Therefore, a good
research is always directed towards finding an answer or solution for the pertinent emerging professional problems.

7. Dedicated to develop empirical evidence:

Another important purpose of the research is to generate empirical evidences, which can be used to improve the
professional [Link], a good research always strives to develop empirical evidences.

8. .Strive collect first-hand information/data:

A successful research is conducted by collection of data directly from subjects by different methods like questioning,
interviews, or observation.

9. .An objectives and logical process:

Research information collected through subjective means or in haphazard manner will never lead to satisfactory
results. Therefore, a good research emphasizes on objective and logical research process.

10. .Generate findings to refine and improve professional practices:

A research cannot be considered successfully conducted until and unless it contributes towards refinement and
improvement in professional practices as per the need of time.

11. .Use of appropriate methodology:

Selection of a methodology in any research depends on several factors, because each variable and research has
unique features. Therefore, a good research always employs the most appropriate and suitable methodology.
 12. Conducted on representative sample:

Generalization of research findings is only possible if study is conducted on a sample which has characteristics similar
to the population of the study. Therefore, a good research is conducted on a representative sample.

13. Conducted through appropriate use of methods and tools of data collection:

Based on the nature of phenomenon and subjects under study, methods and tools of data collection will be
different. Therefore, only the most appropriate and suitable methods and tools of data collection can lead to
successfully conducted research. For example, questionnaire cannot be used for illiterate subjects or a performance
can only be measured through observation method.

14. .Use of valid and reliable data collection tools:

Evidences generated from a research activity can only be considered valuable if they are generated through valid
and reliable research tools.

Therefore, a good research always depends on the validity and reliability of research tools.

15. .Carefully recorded and reported:

A research can only be considered good if research in formation is carefully recorded and reported because in
absence of careful recoding and reporting, the evidences generated during research may be covert in nature.
Therefore, to generate quality empirical evidences, it is essential to carry out recording and reporting very carefully.

16. .Adequately and appropriately analysed research:

A research activity is incomplete and poor until gathered data is adequately and appropriately analysed using
standardized and accepted methods of data analysis.

17. Patiently carried out activity:

Research cannot be carried out in hurry; it needs lots of time and patience. Therefore, patience and endurance are
foundations of good research.

18. Researcher's expertise, interest, motivation, and courage:

It is largely believed that a good research activity needs expertise, interest, motivation, and courage among research
ers. In absence of these attributes among researchers, accomplishment of a good research cannot be imagined.

19. Adequately communicated:

A research cannot be considered good until the information generated is adequately disseminated to its users .
therefore a good research activity strives to communicate findings as widely as possible
Q.16. Steps Of Writing Research Report
Ans.

Definition:

A research report is the ultimate outcome of the research process. A research process cannot be considered
complete until its report has been written and disseminated. Writing a report highlights the research project and
help in dissemination of research findings. Dissemination of research findings serves scientific, professional and
public functions. An effective dissemination of scientific information leads to an overall improvement in knowledge
and practice among health care providers.

• Steps of writing report

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter

2. Preparation of the final outline

3. Preparation of the rough draft

4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft

5. Preparation of final bibliography

6. Written the final draft

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter:

It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject.

2. Preparation of the final outline:

It is the next step in writing the research report.

Outline are the framework upon which works are constructed. they are an aid to the logical organization of the
material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in report.

[Link] of the rough draft:

These step is importance for the researchers as it involves actually writing down what they have done in
the context of their research studies. The researcher write down the procedures adopted by them in collecting the
material for their study along with various limitations, the techniques of analysis adopted by them, the broad
findings and generalizations, and the various suggestion they want to offer regarding the problems encountered.

[Link] and polishing of the rough draft:

These step happen to be the most difficult part of all formal writing. The careful revision makes the difference
between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should check mechanics of writing grammer,
spelling and usage.

5. Preparation of final bibliography:

It is a last of books, journal articles, papers presented etc. that have contributed or are in some way pertinent to the
research which has been done.

The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts
First part may contain the name of book and journal

Second part may contain the names of magazines and newspaper articles.

[Link] the final draft:

This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objectives style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expressions, such as ‘it seems ‘,’there may be’, etc. While writing the final draft, researcher
must avoid abstract terminology. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problems and must contribute to the solution of problem and must add to the knowledge of both the
researcher and the reader

Q.17. Criteria For Selecting Research Problem?

Criteria for Selecting a Good Research Problem

One commonly used acronym to define the criteria for a good research problem or question is FINER, where F stands
for feasible, I for interesting, N for novel, E. for ethical, and R for relevant. However, there are many factors that
should be considered while deciding credibil ity of a particular research question for a scientific investigation. Some
of the most essential factors are discussed below:

-Significance to nursing profession: A problem that a researcher is selecting should have significance to nursing
profession or it will not serve any purpose. A research problem is significant for nursing profession when it is
directed to develop or refine the body of pro fessional knowledge. A research problem could be considered
significant for nursing pro fession if it fulfils the following criteria:

⚫ Benefits nursing profession and patients, nurses, and health care fraternity through the study

• Improves clinical nursing practices through the results.

•Promotes nursing theory development or testing. Provides solutions of current nursing practice needs Generates
information to get practical implications for nursing, profession

•Original: It is fundamentally considered that every research problem should be new and unique in itself. Therefore,
it is the key responsibility of a researcher that an innovative knowledge is used for selecting a research problems, so
as to extend the growth of existing body of knowledge in a profession.

•Feasible: Feasibility is an essential consideration of any research project. Regardless of how significant or
researchable a problem may be, the feasibility of research problem in reference to time, availability of subjects,
facilities, equipment and [Link] ethical considerations should be checked. It will help the researcher to decide
whether selected problem is appropriate or inappropriate and study can becarried out or not.

Time: A nurse might be interested in studying sibling relationships among quintuplets Knowledge of the incidence of
quintuplet births would certainly discourage anyone considering research on this particular population unless the
researcher plans to make this a lifetime project. So, time is always a factor to be considered. It is wise to allow more
time than seems to be needed because unexpected delays frequently occur.

• Cost: All research projects cost money, some studies are much more expensive than others. The researcher must
consider realistically the financial resources available. Equipment and supplies: All research projects require some
type of resources. There fore, before making the final decision to conduct a study, an accurate determination of the
needed equipment and supplies should be ensured. Some questions that should be answered before beginning a
research project include:
What Is this is the equipment that will be needed? s equipment available and i in proper working order?

Is there a qualified operator of the equipment? Are the necessary supplies available or can they be obtained?

If the researcher takes into consideration equipment and supplies in the early phases of a research project, there are
less chances of the project to be revised or discarded later because of equipment or supply problems.

• Administrative support: Many research projects require administrative support. The nurse researcher may find it
very difficult to conduct research independently. Financial as well as psychological support from administration is
very helpful. Knowing that your superiors support your research efforts can be a very powerful motivating force.

Peer support: Many research ideas have never been developed because potential researchers received no support
from their peers. One of the best ways to determine a researchable is through interactions and discussions with
other nurses. A climate of shared interest in nursing research is essential among the members of the nursing
profession. Availability of subjects: A researcher may believe that study subjects are readily available for the study.
But this may not be the case. Potential subjects may not Solicit.

3. RESEARCH PROBLEM

meet the study criteria, may be unwilling to participate, or may already be partici pating in other studies. Therefore,
availability of subjects must be ensured well in advance.

• Researcher's competence: A research problem can only be feasible if it is in accordance with researcher's
competence, where researcher is capable to handle a given research problem.

Ethical considerations: A researcher must ensure that the research problem can be considered by the ethical
committee without undue hurdles. A very important topic of research cannot be considered feasible unit unless it is
in accordance with ethical guidelines.

• Solvable/Researchable: Problem selected is considered good only if it is solvable so that chances of insolvability of
problem should be minimized. Thus, it will enhance relevant results. For example, a researcher selects a research
problem to know the existence of God in this universe. These sorts of problems are ambiguous and impossible to
solve. Therefore, the researcher must ensure that a research problem selected for the study is solvable.

• Current: A good research problem must be based on the current problems and needs of a profession, so that
results generated will be of more use. Furthermore, more number of the professionals will be interested in the
research conducted on the current issues of their profession.

Interesting: A research problem can only be considered good if it is in accordance with researcher's field of interest.
A research problem must be as per the motivation of the researcher and should be fascinating to the researcher, so
that research is conducted with full enthusiasm and not merely for its accomplishment.

Q.18 Importance Of Nursing Research.

1. To improve nursing standards.

2. To improve nursing education system.

3. To help nurses investigate more carefully related to various nursing diagnosis and other problems.

4. To help nursing staffs to gain in-depth information related to various topic.

5. To help nurses to investigate regarding various methods of treatment in advanced form.

6. To enquiry regarding newer methods to deal with the problem.

7. To provide quality care to the patient.

8. To invent new techniques to care patient.

9. To provide cost effective patient care.

10. To save nursing profession legally.

11. To develop and improve nursing standards.

12. To update newer informations.

13. To become dynamic.

14. To improve the health of community people.

15. To solve daily obstacles.

16. To update informations on various field where the nurses are involved.

Q.19. Pilot Study

Introduction -

In nursing science research,the term pilot study is utilised in two different [Link] refers to the so called
feasibility studies that are trial run or small scale version.A pilot study also be utilised to measure the feasibility of
assessment procedures, recruitment,randomization, retention,new methods,and implementation of the novel
intervention.

Definition -

1."Pilot study is a trial study carried out before a research design is finalized to assist in defining the research
question or test the feasibility, reliability and of the proposed study design."

2."Pilot study is a small scale study conducted to test the plan and method of a research study."

Purposes of pilot study -

Pilot studies are employed for a range of different purposes or reasons ;those are:

1. Assessing study feasibility and practicability of research study.

2. Assessing the availability of study subjects.

3. Establishing validity and reliability of the research tools.

4. Ensuring the appropriateness of methods and procedures of data collection.

5. Understanding the study variables and other confounding variables.

6. Estimating the actual time and potential problems researcher may encounter during the actual large research
study.

7. Refining the study methodology.

8. Plannig for the data analysis and interpretation of the final larger research.

9. Developing and testing sufficiency of research instruments.

10. Assessing the practicality of full scale study .

11. Assessing whether the research protocol is practicable and workable.

12. Establishing if the technique and sampling frame are effective.

13. Preliminary data collection.

14. Developing a research plan and questions.

15. Convincing funding bodies that the research team is knowledgeable and competent.

Pilot study results can guide in the designing and implementation of larger scale efficacy studies.

Problems and Issues of Pilot Study-

Following are some of the significant problems or issues of pilot study, which a researcher may consider while
carrying out the pilot study:

•It may be possibility that the researcher may make inaccurate prediction or assumptions on the basis of pilot data,
specifically when the data of pilot study is used for estimating the sample size.

•Contamination is another [Link] may arise two ways:[Link] pilot participants are included in the main
study,but new data are collected from thes people and [Link] data from the pilot study are included in main
[Link] avoid the risk of contamination the following is considered:

•The data collected during pilot study are not included in analysis of main study [Link] other reason that pilot
study data is not included in main study data analysis is that after the pilot study there are changes in data collection
tools and study methodology.

•The main study is generally not conducted in the same area where pilot study was conducted to avoid the risk of
contamination.

Q. 20. Historical research design

Ans -

Introduction –

The systematic collection and criteria evaluation of data relating to past occurrence of particular
phenomenon is also relies primarily quantitative [Link] research is undertaken to answer questions
concerning causes , effects , or trends relating to past events that may shed light on present behavior or practices...

*Characteristics of Historical research design*

▪ It is important not to confuse Historical research with a review of literature about Historical events.

▪ Historical research involves the careful study and analysis of data about past events.

▪ Historical research is a critical investigation of events , Their development, experience of the past evidence.

▪ The purpose is to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of the past on present and future events related to
the life [Link] involves detailed analysis of what has been written.

▪ Is used to describe, explain, or interpret events.

 ▪ Generally ,Historical research involves the review of written materials but may include oral documentation as
well.

▪ Historical research typically relies on available data.

▪ Historical method of research also covers categories such as Historical, legal,documentary, institutional,or
organizational.

▪ Important existing data sources for nurse researchers are hospital records,nursing chart,physician order
sheet,care plan statement.

*Steps of Historical research*

▪ First step : Data Collection

▪ Second step : Criticism of the data .

▪ Third Step : Presentation of the facts

- *First Step* :

Comprehensive gathering of data is [Link] sources of data usually classified two main categories that
is -

•Primary Sources - primary sources are First hand information that include –

1)oral or written records .

2)Remains or realic associated with person ,events,groups.

3) Documents classified as laws ,office records certificates, newspapers, magazines, maps,diagrams etc.

•Secondary source :

These are the reports of people who related the actual witness or actual participants in the same

For example- Most of the history books.

*Second Step :Critism of the data*.

The second step necessitate a comprehensive review of gathered [Link] types of critism

1) External critism - The establishment of validity of the source.

2)Internal critism - the determination of reliability by correctly interpreting the contents of the document

*Third Step : Presentation of the facts*

After evaluating the Historical data ,the researcher must bring the material together to analyse it and to the
research hypotheses
*Areas of Historical study*
▪ Periods- Historical studies often focus on events and developments that occurred during particular blocks of time
in the past.

▪ Geographical locations- particular Geographical location e.g countries, cities

▪ Military history- is concentrates on the study of conflicts that have happened in human society.

*Methods and tools used in Historical research*

▪ Contemporaneous corroboration

▪ Photography

▪ Historical revisionism

▪ Change log

▪ Human evolution

▪ Social change .

[Link] Of Review Litrature

Ans.

Introduction-

Literature review is a systemic and orderly process, which is undertaken for various reasons, such as a step
of research process or eliciting the information for developing policies and evidence-based practices. It is identified
that nurses and nursing students found literature review as a daunting task and frequently have many questions
ranging from where to start. how to select the themes, where to search the nursing literature, how to search the
literature, how many articles to include, how to synthesize and organize the literature, and how to write the
literature.

Following are the steps or Methods of review of literature -

Step I.

Understanding the concepts of research problem and identifying the key search terms:

The journey of literature search begins with understanding and examining the concepts of research problem so that
essential key search terms may be identified. The key search terms serve as foundation for the overall search of
literature. These search terms may be elements that are included in the problem statement.

Boolen operators(AND,OR,NOT) are then used to combine the search terms into search statement

Step [Link] the relevent sources:

After understanding the concepts of research problem and identification of key search terms now its time to locate
the relevant sources for literature review. The common sources used for literature review by nurse are the journals
are considered as up-to-date source over the books and other resources, because books are considered out dated
by the time they published after a long process. However contribution of books be ignored in literature review .But
in present , electronic literature are mostly commonly preferred resources for iterature review because of easy and
quick acess.

Therefore, there are vast variety of database available for the research, thus it is very essential to decide the
relevant electronic database for literature search.

Step III. Searching the literature:

Having selected relevant sources of literature review, the next step is to identify in a structured way the appropriate
and related information. The traditional method of literature search is manual search from the hard copy of journals
that are specially related to the topic of interest or three that are likely to cover the topic. In this method, initial
reference of journal is obtained from websites developed for this purpose such such as PubMed
([Link]) and then searching full articles in hard copies of related published journals.

Nowadays searches are undertaken most commonly using computer and electronic database or search engines
Therefore identifying and use of keywords is the most critical act in literature search. However, keywords need
careful consideration in order to select terms that will generate the data being sought.

StepIV. Analysing and synthesizing the literature:

After collecting the relevant literature, it is the stage to analyse and synthesize the collected literature. There are
several substages or systems to achieve this purpose. The most popular and simple method is referred to as the
preview, question, read, summarize(PQRS)system.

a. Preview/Overview: This begins with initial quick overview or preview of the articles through abstract or summary
of articles given at the beginning of each article.

b. Questions, read and summarize:

In the question stage, questions are asked of eachbarticle under review. There are differerent criteria suggested for
the indexing and summarization but generally they include the author, year of study, title of article, purpose and
methodology of study, main findings and outcome of study. In addition, it is important to include the reviewer's key
com ments and thoughts about reviewed article. It should be written in own words to facilitate understanding of the
literature, and it also forms a good basis for the writing of the review.

Step V. Writing the literature review:

This is a final step of literature review after complet ing the adequate appraisal of literature. It is time to give a
serious thought about how to write a draft of literature review. It is essential to avoid long and confusing words and
keep sentence short with one clear message. The spelling and grammar must get due attention and English being
used.

The length of literature reviews varies and word limits and specific criteria for the overall construction depend on
the guidelines prescribed by a particular institute or university

Q.22. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling techniques.*

*Advantages of sampling*

1. Low cost of sampling:

If data were to be collected for the entire population, the cost will be quite high. A sample is a small proportion of a
population. So, the cost will be lower if data is collected for a sample of population which is a big advantage.
2. Less time consuming in sampling:

Use of sampling takes less time also. It consumes less time than census technique. Tabulation, analysis etc., take
much less time in the case of a sample than in the case of a population.

3. Scope of sampling is high:

The investigator is concerned with the generalization of data. To study a whole population in order to arrive at
generalizations would be impractical.

4. Accuracy of data is high:

Having drawn a sample and computed the desired descriptive statistics, it is possible to determine the stability of the
obtained sample value. A sample represents the population from which its is drawn. It permits a high degree of
accuracy due to a limited area of operations. Moreover, careful execution of field work is possible. Ultimately, the
results of sampling studies turn out to be sufficiently accurate.

5. Organization of convenience:

Organizational problems involved in sampling are very few. Since sample is of a small size, vast facilities are not
required. Sampling is therefore economical in respect of resources. Study of samples involves less space and
equipment.

6. Intensive and exhaustive data:

In sample studies, measurements or observations are made of a limited number. So, intensive and exhaustive data
are collected.

7. Suitable in limited resources:

The resources available within an organization may be limited. Studying the entire universe is not viable. The
population can be satisfactorily covered through sampling. Where limited resources exist, use of sampling is an
appropriate strategy while conducting marketing research.

8. Better rapport:

An effective research study requires a good rapport between the researcher and the respondents. When the
population of the study is large, the problem of rapport arises. But manageable samples permit the researcher to
establish adequate rapport with the respondents.

*Disadvantages of sampling*

Disadvantages of sampling may be discussed under the heads:

1. Chances of bias

2. Difficulties in selecting truly 3.a representative sample

4. Need for subject specific knowledge

4. changeability of sampling units

5. impossibility of sampling.

1. Chances of bias:

The serious limitation of the sampling method is that it involves biased selection and thereby leads us to draw
erroneous conclusions. Bias arises when the method of selection of sample employed is faulty. Relative small
samples properly selected may be much more reliable than large samples poorly selected.

2. Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample:

Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample produces reliable and accurate results only when they are
representative of the whole group. Selection of a truly representative sample is difficult when the phenomena under
study are of a complex nature. Selecting good samples is difficult.

3. In adequate knowledge in the subject:

Use of sampling method requires adequate subject specific knowledge in sampling technique. Sampling involves
statistical analysis and calculation of probable error. When the researcher lacks specialized knowledge in sampling,
he may commit serious mistakes. Consequently, the results of the study will be misleading.

4. Changeability of units:

When the units of the population are not in homogeneous, the sampling technique will be unscientific. In sampling,
though the number of cases is small, it is not always easy to stick to the, selected cases. The units of sample may be
widely dispersed.

5. Impossibility of sampling:

Deriving a representative sample is difficult, when the universe is too small or too heterogeneous. In this case,
census study is the only alternative. Moreover, in studies requiring a very high standard of accuracy, the sampling
method may be unsuitable. There will be chances of errors even if samples are drawn most carefully.

Q.23. Define variable and types of variable*

*Definition*

A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted.

A variable may also be called a data item. Age, sex, business income and expenses, country of birth, capital
expenditure, class grades, eye colour and vehicle type are examples of variables. It is called a variable because the
value may vary between data units in a population, and may change in value over time.
*Types of variable*

The *independent* variable

is the one that is changed by the scientist. To insure a fair test, a good experiment has only ONE
independent variable. As the scientist changes the independent variable, he or she records the data that they collect.

The *dependent variable

is the item that responds to the change of the independent variable. The dependent variable
depends/changes when the independent variable is changed.

The *controlled variables

are quantities/items that you want to remain constant, and must observe them as carefully as the
dependent variables.

Q. 24. Hypothesis- Definition, Characteristics, Sources and Types ?

Definition:

Hypothesis is a starting of any investigation. It explains what is going to happen further and how the
investigation will go through. It consists of variables, a population, and the relationship between the variables.
Hypothesis in research is a theory used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Characteristics of Hypothesis:
A Hypothesis should have the following characteristics in order to be complete and good.

It must come into direct contact with observable objects. It should not be based on fake belief , but rather on
observation. Those things and objects that we cannot observe in order to formulate that hypothesis.

A Hypothesis should be understandable to everyone including laymen. It should not contain scientific terms or
definitions which are complex and difficult to anyone.

A Hypothesis has to be specific and to the point. It should not roam around the topic or contain extra irrelevant
information.

It should also be able to provide new ideas and suggestions to the investigation.

Sources of Hypothesis:
There are several sources of hypothesis but some of the important ones are given as follows :

Previous study Previous knowledge and information regarding the topic of hypothesis will be extremely helpful to
create a concrete hypothesis.

Personal experience If one has a personal experience regarding the topic of investigation, he/she can use that
information in the hypothesis to make it more complete and good quality.

Thinking and imagination A researcher's creative thinking and imagination can sometimes aid in the formulation of a
good hypothesis. A researcher's personal ideas and thinking abilities would result in a greater number of hypothesis
formulations as well as control over the problem.

Scientific theory It would be extremely helpful to use scientific theories in hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis:
There are basically several types of Hypothesis but some of the common and important type of formulation of
Hypothesis are explained below:

Simple hypothesis

It is also known as a basic hypothesis. It depicts the relationship between two variables, one of which is known as
the independent variable or ‘cause' and the other as the dependent variable or ‘effect.'

Complex hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is one that has multiple dependent and independent variables.

Null hypothesis

It contradicts the empirical hypothesis because it asserts that there is no relationship between the dependent and
independent variables. It basically says that the data and variables being tested do not exist.

Alternative hypothesis

It is also referred to as a sustained hypothesis or a research hypothesis. To begin, numerous hypothesis are
proposed. The most efficient one is then chosen from among them. Alternative hypothesis are further classified into
four main types.

Point alternative hypothesis

Non-directional alternative hypothesis

One-tailed directional hypothesis

Two-tailed directional hypothesis

Logical hypothesis � It is logically verified, as the name implies. The verification process entails the following steps:

Agreement

Disagreement

Different points of view

Empirical hypothesis

It is also known as a 'working hypothesis.' During the formulation phase, it is only an assumption, but once tested, it
is no longer just an idea or notion. It is actually changing in relation to those independent variables.

Statistical hypothesis

The statement could be logical or illogical, but if statistical evidence validates it, it becomes a statistical hypothesis.

Basic Laws of Physics

Unit of Time

List of Physics Scientists and Their Inventions

Modern Physics
Hypothesis examples

To understand the concept of hypothesis more clearly and completely, here are the examples of each type of
hypothesis :

The cause in this case is global warming, and the effect is melting icebergs.

Complex hypothesis :

Global warming causes icebergs to melt which leads to significant changes in weather patterns.

The cause in this case is global warming but the effect is melting icebergs along with changing weather.

Null hypothesis :

Water has no effect on plant growth.

An animal cannot survive in the absence of water.

This is correct because all living things require water.

Empirical hypothesis :

Cotton clothing is preferable to velvet clothing in the summer.

Statistical hypothesis :

Vitamin C is beneficial to the skin.

To validate this hypothesis, you would need to test it on a group of people. This is a statistical approach to verifying
the statement.

Functions of hypothesis

There are several functions of hypothesis. Some of them are given below:

Hypothesis facilitates observation and experimentation.

It serves as the investigation’s starting point.

The hypothesis aids in the verification of the observations.

It aids in steering inquiries in the right direction.

Q.25. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Interview Method In Data Collection.*

Advantages of interview*
[Link] the right candidate:

Interviews may be the best chance for you to assess a candidate’s skills and personality. An interview is a two-
way street, where you’ll get to see how the candidate reacts in a relatively relaxed environment. They allow for you
to see if your candidate has what it takes to do the job, or if they are even suitable for the role. Interviews can be
time consuming and hard work, but when done correctly, they can help identify candidates who are perfect for the
position.

[Link] assessment:

Aspiring for a job in a new industry can be daunting. An interview is one of the best ways to find out how much you
know about the industry. Interviews are beneficial for both parties, the employer and the applicant. It allows an
employer to assess all of the applicant’s skills and knowledge to decide whether he or she is a good fit for the
company.

[Link] source of :

Information: Interviews are not just for job applications – these are a primary source of important and reliable
information. Interviews can be profitable for businesses because they provide valuable information that can help
improve decision making, customer satisfaction, and customer retention. Interviews are also popular with students
who want to conduct research on specific topics.

[Link] knowledge:

Interviews are a great way to get to know the person you’re interviewing, and the interviewee can learn more about
themselves during the process (such as their weakness or area of improvement). Additional insight can also help you
develop your own personal leadership styles.

Disadvantages of Interviews
[Link] bias:

Interviews are not always a positive experience. They have their disadvantages. Personal opinions may be held, and
the potential candidate may feel they aren’t being assessed fairly. There can also be an element of manipulation
involved in many interviews and some might not want to disclose too much personal information, fearing it could be
used against them.

[Link] to judge:

Interviews are often used to gain insight into the applicant and their qualifications, but they can also be a time-
consuming process. During the interview itself decision-making tends to be made within the first few minutes of the
interview and then the remainder of the time is typically used to validate or justify the original decision. This
methodology is not only inefficient, but it can lead to further issues with passing judgement on applicants during
interviews

[Link] stereotypes:

When interviewing candidates for a new job, an interviewer will form a set of assumptions about the person’s skills,
abilities and personality based on their interview response. These stereotypes are formed unintentionally and can
have a significant impact on the outcome of the candidate’s hiring process.

[Link] to verify the truth:

Interviews can be a great way to get in-depth information about a company. However, it’s important to remember
that not everything said during an interview will be completely accurate and truthful. Many times, the things being
said aren’t even true at all.

[Link] outcome:

Interviews are not as reliable or valid as tests, but they still hold value in some cases. For example, when
interviewing a new employee, the interview can give you insights into how the individual thinks and how they might
interact in the workplace.

*Q. 26. Different Methods Of Primary Data Collection.

Introduction

Data are the observable & measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon under study.
In research studies are two types are collected this are primary & secondary data.

Definition

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an established
system, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes.

Data collection it is a most essential for research to have appropriate method of data collection variety of data
collection methods are used in nursing research studies. Such as interview questioning, observation, biophysical
measurement, psychosocial measurement, scale record and analysis etc.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data collection methods are different ways in which primary data can be collected. It explains the tools used
in collecting primary data, some of which are highlighted below:

1. Interview Method

An interview is a method of data collection that involves two groups of people, where the first group is the
interviewer (the researcher(s) asking questions and collecting data) and the interviewee (the subject or respondent
that is being asked questions). The questions and responses during an interview may be oral or [Link] can
be carried out in 2 ways, namely; in-person interviews and telephonic interviews. An in-person interview requires an
interviewer or a group of interviewers to ask questions from the interviewee in a face-to-face fashion.

Interviews include a notepad or recording device to take note of the conversation—very important due to human
forgetful nature. On the other hand, telephonic interviews are carried out over the phone through ordinary voice
calls or video calls. The 2 parties involved may decide to use video calls like Skype to carry out interviews.

A mobile phone, Laptop, Tablet, or desktop computer with an internet connection is required for this.

PROS
In-depth information can be collected.

Non-response and response bias can be detected.

The samples can be controlled.

CONS
It is more time-consuming.

It is expensive.

The interviewer may be biased.

*2. Surveys & Questionnaires*

Surveys and questionnaires are 2 similar tools used in collecting primary data. They are a group of questions typed or
written down and sent to the sample of study to give responses.

After giving the required responses, the survey is given back to the researcher to record. It is advisable to conduct a
pilot study where the questionnaires are filled by experts and meant to assess the weakness of the questions or
techniques used.

There are 2 main types of surveys used for data collection, namely ; online and offline surveys.

Online surveys are carried out using internet-enabled devices like mobile phones, PCs, Tablets, etc. They can be
shared with respondents through email, websites, or social media. Offline surveys, on the other hand, do not
require an internet connection for them to be carried out.

The most common type of offline survey is a paper-based survey. This kind of survey is called online-offline surveys
because they can be filled offline but require an internet connection to be submitted.

Pros
Respondents have adequate time to give responses.

It is free from the bias of the interviewer.

They are cheaper compared to interviews.

Cons
A high rate of non-response bias.

It is inflexible and can't be changed once sent.

It is a slow process.

3. Observation

The observation method is mostly used in studies related to behavioral science. The researcher uses observation as a
scientific tool and method of data collection. There are different approaches to the observation method—structured
or unstructured, controlled or uncontrolled, and participant, non-participant, or disguised approach.

*Pros*

The data is usually objective.

Data is not affected by past or future events.

*Cons*
The information is limited.

It is expensive

*4. Focus Groups*

Focus Groups are gathering of 2 or more people with similar characteristics or who possess common traits.A focus
group is a primary source of data collection because the data is collected directly from the participant. Focus groups
are less formal and the participants are the ones who do most of the talking, with moderators there to oversee the
process.

*Pros*

It incurs a low cost compared to interviews. This is because the interviewer does not have to discuss with each
participant individually.

It takes lesser time too.

*Cons*

Response bias is a problem in this case because a participant might be subjective to what people will think about
sharing a sincere opinion.

Group thinking does not clearly mirror individual opinions.

5. Experiments

An experiment is a structured study where the researchers attempt to understand the causes, effects, and processes
involved in a particular process. During the first stage of the experiment, the researcher selects the subject which
will be [Link] experiments can be used to collect different types of primary data, it is mostly used for
data collection in the laboratory.

Pros

It is usually objective since the data recorded are the results of a process.

Non-response bias is eliminated.

Cons

Incorrect data may be recorded due to human error.

It is expensive.
Q.27. Utilization Of Research Findings?

Introduction:

From the beginning, nursing has been recognized as both an art and a [Link] Nightingale book,
Note on nursing , provided the information necessary for those who nursed others back to health

Utilization Research Findings:

Research utilization is the process of synthesizing, disseminating, and using research-generated knowledge to make
an impact on or change in the existing nursing practice. The research utilization process was developed years ago to
address the problems of using research findings in practice. Research utilization is a multi-step process that involves;
critique and synthesis of findings from several studies, application of these findings to make a change in nursing
practice, and measurement of the outcomes from the change in nursing practice. Research utilization has a smaller
focus than evidence-based practice.

In the past two decades, professional practice development has evolved from research utilization to evidence-based
practice. Evidence-based practice requires integration of best research evidence of high-quality studies in a health-
related area, focusing on health promotion, illness prevention, and the assessment, diagnosis and management of
acute and chronic illnesses. In addition, clinical expertise, patient values and needs in the delivery of quality, cost-
effective health care are essential components in the conscientious integration of evidence-based practice.

Q. 28. Validity Of Research Tool.

Validity of an instrument refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to be measuring.

Definition-

According to Treece and Treece, " Validity refers to an instrument or test actually testing what it is supposed to
be testing".

Validity is the appropriateness, completeness, and usefulness of an attribute measuring research instrument.

Types of validity

Validity is has four types

1. Face validity-

Face validity involves an overall look of an instrument regarding it's appropriateness to measure a particular
phenomenon. Face validity is not considered as very important and essential. This aspect of validity refers to the face
value or the outlook of an instrument.

2. Content validity

It is concerned with scope of coverage of content area to be measured. It is applied in tests of knowledge
measurement, mostly used in measuring complex psychologic test of person. Judgement of the content viability may
be subjective and is based on previous researchers and experts opinion about the adequacy, appropriateness and
completness of content of instrument.
3. Criterion validity

This type of validity is a relation between measurements of the instrument with some other external criteria. The
instrument is valid if it's measurements strongly responds to the score of some other valid criteria.

Criteria related validity may be differntiated by preductive and concurrent validity.

• Predictive validity

It is the degree of forecasting judgement. An instrument may have preductive validity when it's score
significantly correlates with some future criteria.

•Concurrent validity

It is the degree of the measures in present. It relates to the present specific behavior and characteristics; hence
the difference between preductive and concurrent validity refers to timing pattern of obtaining measurements of a
criteria.

4. Construct validity

A construct is founded in this type of validity, such as a nurse may have designed an instrument to measure the
concept of pain in amputed patients. The pain pattern may be due to anxiety; hence the results may be misleading.
Construct validity is a key criterion for assesing the quality of study and construct validity has most often been
addressed in terms of measurement issues. The construct validity gives more importance to test relationship
predicted on theoratical measurements. One method of construct validation is known as group technique.

Q.29. Reliability Of Research Tool

Introduction

tance to test relationship predicted on theoretical measurements. The researcher can make prediction in relation to
other such type of constructs. One method of construct validation is known as group technique.

*_Definition_* ;

Reliability is the degree of consistency and accuracy with which an instrument measures the attribute for which it is
designed to measure.

OR

Reliability is defined as the ability of an instrument to create reproducible results.' Therefore, reliability is concerned
with consistency of the measurement tools. A tool only can be considered reliable if it measures an attribute with
similar results on repeated use.

*Measuring of Reliability*

There are several ways to measure the reliability for the research tools, which depends on several factors, such as
the nature of instrument as well as aspects of reliability the researcher wants to measure. The main aspects of the
reliability considered important in quantitative research include: stability, internal consistency, and equivalence. One
of the following aspects may be considered important to measure the reliability of a research instrument.

• Stability :
The stability aspect of reliability means research instrument provides same results when used consecutively for two
or more times. Stability is estimated to make sure that research instrument is consistent in providing similar results
with repeated adminis tration.

It is also known as reliability of test-retest function. To measure test-retest reliability. the test is given twice at two
different points in time. It is used to measure the consistency of a test across time. This type of reliability supposes
that there will be no change in the quality or construct being assessed. Test-retest reliability is suitably best used for
things that are strong over time (e.g. intelligence). Reliability will be, generally, higher when little time has passed
between tests.

Statistical Calculation (Test-retest Method)*

Procedure of calculating test-retest reliability (stability) of research instrument involves the following steps.;

1) Administration of a research instrument to a sample of subjects on two different occasions.

2) Scores of the tool administered at two different occasions are compared and calculated by using following
formula of correlation coefficient

3) The correlation coefficient reveals the magnitude and directions of relationship between scores generated by a
research instrument at two separate occasions.

4) Interpretation of results. The results of the correlation coefficient range between-1.00 through 0.0 and +1.00, and
the results are interrelated as follows:

 +1.00 score indicates prefect reliability,

 score indicates no reliability.

A score above 0.70 indicates an acceptable level of reliability of a tool.

Formula : Karl Pearson's correlation coefficient formula for estimation of reliability

NEXY - (EX)(EY)

R= ____________________________

√NEX² - (EX²)√NEY² - (EY)²

In the above formula r= correlation coefficient, N= number of pairs of scores, ΣXY = sum of the products of paired
scores, 2X = sum of X scores, ΣY = sum of Y scores, ΣX² = sum of squared X scores, and Y2 = sum of squared Y scores.

* Internal consistency. It is also called homogeneity. Internal consistency ensures that all the subparts of a research
instrument measure the same characteristics.

Statistical Calculation (Split-Half Method)

Procedure of calculating split-half reliability of research instrument involves following steps.

• Divide items of a research instrument in two equal parts through grouping either in oddnumber question and even
number question or first-half and second-half item groups.

• Administer two subparts of the tool simultaneously, score them independently, and com pute the correlation
coefficient on the two separate scores by using following formula

. Σ (x-ȳ)(y-ȳ)
 R= ______________________

√(x-x)² -2(y-5)²

• In split-half, to overcome the underestimation of reliability of entire scale, as the for mula given above has
estimated reliability of only half items, the following formula is used to estimate the reliability of entire test.

Where the correlation coefficient computed on the split-halves with the estimated reliability of the entire test

2r

(R2) = ____________

1+r

The split-half technique is frequently used to estimate the internal consistency, however. a more preferred method
Cronbach's alpha or coefficient alpha may be calculated by using the following formula (Formula 9.4)

k. [1-. Σ σ2 ]

r= _____. __________________

K+1 σ y2

Where the r = estimated reliability

k =the total number of items in the test

σ2=the variance of each individual items

σy2= the variance of the total test scores

Σ =the sum of

• Equivalence: This aspect of reliability is estimated when a researcher is testing the reli ability of a tool, which is
used by two different observers to observe a single phenomenon simultaneously and independently or two
presumably parallel instruments are adminis tered to an individual at about the same time.

This is also known as interrater or interobserver reliability, which is estimated by the admin istration of tool to
observe single event simultaneously and independently by two or more trained observers. This reliability may be
computed by using following equation:

Number agreement

R= __________________________________

No of agreement + no of Disagreement

Q.29. Likert Scale And Rating Scale

Definition:

Likert scale is a composite measurement scale use to measure attitude, value, and, feeling of the people that
involve summation of sources on the set of positive and negative declarative statements regarding measuring
variables to which respondents are ask to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement

Use Of Likert Scale:

1) Use to measure the attitudes, values, feelings of the peoples specific concepts, such as situations, people,
places,objects

2) Use to assess the opinions of respondent about particular concept.

3) it collects the opinion of people with various attitude, emotion and feelings toward a particular concept.

Characteristics Of Likert Scale

1. Psychologic measurement tool: une as psychologic measurement tool to assess the attitudes, and feeling of
people about a specific concept.

2. Neutral statements: This must contain neutral statements.

3. Bipolar scaling method: This composed of alternative positive and negative declarative statement so that
respondent's respond, bias can be eliminated. Here positive statement gets high score with agreement and negative
score gets high score with statement.

4. Measurement of specific number of scaling categories: This scale was originally developed with five scaling
categories; but later scale even developed with four, six and seven scaling categories.

SCORING OF THE LIKERT SCALE

Scoring of the likert scale is done on the bias of type of statement and level of respondents agreement with
statement. For positive statement respondent get higher score if there is agreement with statement. However in
case of negative statement respondent gets higher score if there is a disagreement with statement.

Advantages Of Likert Scale

1. Its relatively easy to construct this scale.

2. It considered as more reliable and valid tool to measure the psychosocial variables.

3. It is easy to administer, since respondent only have to tick in space provided against of each statement

4. It is less time-consuming during construction and administration.

Disadvantages Of Likert Scale

1. In this scale respondent may feel forced to answer the [Link] all preplanned items and their categories.

2. Feelings of the respondent not fully assessed.

3. Difficulty in justifying the selection of the number of categories.

4. Difficult to treat neutral opinions as neither agree or disagree.

RATING SCALE
Definitions

1) Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of opinion, which describes varying degree of the dimensions of an attitude
being observed.
2) Rating scale is a device by which judgements may be qualified or an opinion concerning a trait can be
systematized.

Types of the Rating Scale

1. Graphic rating scale.

In this scale, the performance is printed horizontally at various points from lowest to highest. It includes the
numerical points on the scale. It is anchored by two extremes presented to respondents for evaluation of a
concept or object.

2. Descriptive rating scales:

This type of rating scales do not use number, but divide the assessment into series of verbal phrases to
indicate the level of performance.

3. Numerical rating scale:

It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed number of points, but defines only numbers at the extremes. In
these scales, each statement is generally assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 10, or even more.

4. Comparative rating scale.

In this type of rating scale, the researcher makes a judgement about an attribute of a person by comparing it
with that of a similar another person(s) For example, Mr. Ram's decision-making abilities closely resemble
those of Mr. Shyam and Mr. Gopal. In this type of rating scale, researcher must have prehand knowledge
about the selected attributes of the people with whom the subjects are supposed to be compared

Characteristics of Rating Scale

1) Rating scale is the judgement of one person by another

2) It is a directed observation

3) It is opinion of some object, situation or character

4 )it systemizes the expression of opinion concerning a trait.

5) a systematic procedure for obtaining, recording and reporting observer's judgements.

6) it is a subjective method through which we can find out opinions about a particular person.

7) similar to a check list but with finer discriminations.

8) it may be filled during or immediately after or much later after the observation is made.

9) ratings are done by parents, guardians, teachers, students themselves, friends, a board of interviewers, judges,
and by the self as well.

10) each statement constructed in rating scale must be unique in itself so that attributes can be judged
appropriately.

Advantages Of Rating Scale

1) easy to administer and score the measured attributes.

2) rating scales have a wide range of application in nursing research

3) graphic rating scale is easier to make and requires less time.

4) rating scales can be easily used for a large group.

5) it is also used for quantitative methods.

6) it may also be used for the assessment of interests, attitudes, and personnel characteristics.

7) used to evaluate performance, skills, and product outcomes.

8) rating scales are adaptable and flexible research instruments.

Disadvantages Of Rating Scale

1) it is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about many aspects of an individual.

2) misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.

3) there are chances of subjective evaluation, thus the scales may become unscientific and unreliable.

4) limited reliability

5) may be substantial variations among informants

6) do not assess sources of behavior problems

7) ease of use - unqualified users may use and interpret these scales.

8) not suitable for sophisticated treatment planning.