SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER - 1

ECOLOGY

E cology ‘Oikos’ meaning home or place to live in and

‘logos’ meaning study. Literally it is the study of the
home of nature.
Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship
The environment is defined as ‘the sum total of living,
non-living components; influences and events, surrounding
an organism.
All organisms (from virus to man) are obligatorily depend-
of the living organisms with each other and with their ent on the other organism and environment for food, en-
environment.” ergy, water, oxygen, shelter and for other needs.
It deals with the ways in which organisms are moulded by The relationship and interaction between organism and
their environment, how they make use of environmental environment are highly complex. It comprises both living
resources including energy flow and mineral cycling. (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.
The environment is not static. Both biotic and abiotic fac-
1.1. HISTORY OF ECOLOGY tors are in a flux and keeps changing continuously.
The roots of ecology lie in Natural History, which is as old
as human civilization itself. Since early history, man has Components of Environment
indulged in ecology in a practical sort of way, knowingly Abiotic Biotic
and unknowingly. In primitive societies every individual Energy Green plants
was required to have an intimate knowledge of his envi- Radiation Non-green plants
ronment for their survival, i.e., about the forces of nature Temperature & heat flow Decomposers
and of plants and animals around him/her. Water Parasites
Our ancient Indian texts have references to ecological prin- Atmospheric gases and wind Symbionts
ciples. The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Fire Animals
Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas- Gravity Man
Upanishads contain many references to ecological concepts. Topography
The Indian treatise on medicine, the Charaka-Samhita and Soil
the surgical text Sushruta-Samhita, show that people during Geologic substratum
this period had a good understanding of plant and animal For instance: Let’s take the environment of a fish in the
ecology. pond.
These texts contain classification of animals on the basis
of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature of soil, climate External environment of fish
and vegetation; and description of plants typical to various • Its environment consists of abiotic components such as
localities. Charaka- Samhita contains information that air, light, temperature, including the water in which nutri-
land, water and seasons were indispensable for life and ents, oxygen, other gases and organic matter are dis-
that polluted air and water were injurious to health. solved.
• The biotic environment consists of microscopic organ-
1.2. ENVIRONMENT AND ITS COMPONENT isms called plankton which it assume as well as aquatic
Everything that surrounds or affects an organism during plants, animals and decomposers.
its life time is collectively known as its environment.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Internal environment of fish Population density is the relation between the number of
• It is enclosed by the outer body surface. individuals of a population and the area they occupy.
• The internal environment is relatively stable as com- 1.3.3. Community
pared to the external environment.
If we look around ourself, we will notice that population
• However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury, illness or of plants and animals seldom occur by themselves. The
excessive stress upsets the internal environment.
reason for this is quite obvious. In order to survive, indi-
• For example, if a marine fish is transferred to a fresh viduals of any one species depend on individuals of dif-
water environment, it will not be able to survive. ferent species with which they actively interact in several
ways.
1.3 L EVELS OF ORGANISATIONS IN
For eg: Animals require plants for food and trees for shel-
ECOLOGY
ter. Plants require animals for pollination, seed dispersal,
The main levels of organisation of ecology are six and are and soil microorganism to facilitate nutrient supply.
as follows.
Communities in most instances are named after the dom-
inant plant form (species).
For example: A grassland community is dominated by
grasses, though it may contain herbs, shrubs, and trees,
along with associated animals of different species.
A community is not fixed or rigid; communities may be
large or small.

Do you know?
The skies over North India are seasonally filled with
a thick soup of aerosol particles all along the southern
edge of the Himalayas, Bangladesh and the Bay of
Bengal.- NASA research findings.
Ecological Organisation
Types of Community
1.3.1. Individual
On the basis of size and degree of relative independence
Organism is an individual living being that has the ability communities may be divided into two types:
to act or function independently. It may be plant, animal,
bacterium, fungi, etc. It is a body made up of organs, or- (a) Major Community
ganelles, or other parts that work together to carry out on These are large-sized, well organized and relatively inde-
the various processes of life. pendent. They depend only on the sun’s energy from out-
side and are independent of the inputs and outputs from
1.3.2. Population
adjacent communities.
Population is a group of organisms usually of the same
E.g: tropical ever green forest in the North-East
species, occupying a defined area during a specific time.
Population growth rate is the percentage variation between (b) Minor Communities
the number of individuals in a population at two different These are dependent on neighbouring communities and
times. Therefore the population growth rate can be positive are often called societies. They are secondary aggregations
or negative. within a major community and are not therefore com-
The main factors that make population increase are birth pletely independent units as far as energy and nutrient
and immigration. The main factors that make population dynamics are concerned. e.g: A mat of lichen on a cow
decrease are death and emigration. dung pad.
The main limiting factors for the growth of a population
are abiotic and biotic components.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Structure of a community and light energy etc. It also involves chemicals like oxygen,
In a community the number of species and size of their nitrogen etc. and physical processes including volcanoes,
population vary greatly. A community may have one or earthquakes, floods, forest fires, climates, and weather
several species. conditions.
Abiotic factors are the most important determinants of
The environmental factors determine the characteristic of
where and how well an organism exists in its environment.
the community as well as the pattern of organisation of
Although these factors interact with each other, one single
the members in the community.
factor can limit the range of an organism.
The characteristic pattern of the community is termed as
structure which is reflected in the roles played by various a) Energy
population, their range, the type of area they inhabit, the Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life.
diversity of species in the community and the spectrum of In the case of plants, the sun directly supplies the neces-
interactions between them. sary energy. Since animals cannot use solar energy directly
they obtain it indirectly by eating plants or animals or
1.3.4. Ecosystem both. Energy determines the distribution of organisms in
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit the environment.
of biosphere consisting of community of living beings and b) Rainfall
the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging
materials between them. Water is essential for all living beings. Majority of bio-
chemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium.
It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organ- Water helps to regulate body temperature. Further, water
isms, water, soil, and people. bodies form the habitat for many aquatic plants and
Ecosystems vary greatly in size and elements but each is a animals.
functioning unit of nature. Everything that lives in an
ecosystem is dependent on the other species and elements c) Temperature
that are also part of that ecological community. If one part Temperature is a critical factor of the environment which
of an ecosystem is damaged or disappears, it has an impact greatly influences survival of organisms. Organisms
on everything else. can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and
When an ecosystem is healthy (i.e. sustainable) it means humidity.
that all the elements live in balance and are capable of d) Atmosphere
reproducing themselves. Ecosystem can be as small as a The earth’s atmosphere is responsible for creating condi-
single tree or as large as entire forest. tions suitable for the existence of a healthy biosphere on
this planet.
Difference between ecology, environment and
e) Substratum
ecosystem
Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, pro-
For example, let us take Shankar IAS Academy and its
tozoa, fungi and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it.
students. Let’s say that ecology would be the scientific
Roots of plants pierce through the soil to absorb water and
study of student’s relationship with the Shankar IAS
nutrients. Organisms can be terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial
Academy as a whole. The Shankar IAS Academy being
animals live on land. Aquatic plants, animals and microbes
the environment in which the student studies, and the
live in fresh water as well as in the sea. Some microbes live
set of circumstances surrounding the student in which
even in hot water vents under the sea.
environment would be the teachers, books, other stu-
dents, etc are said to be ecosystem. f) Materials:
(i) Organic compound such as proteins, carbohydrates,
Components of Ecosystem lipids, humic substances are formed from inorganic
compound on decomposition.
the components of ecosystem and environment are same.
(ii) Inorganic compound such as carbon dioxide, water,
1. Abiotic Components sulphur, nit rates, phosphates, a nd ions
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts of various metals are essential for organisms to
of the world. The abiotic part consists of soil, water, air, ­survive.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
g) Latitude and altitude (ii) M
 icro consumers - Saprotrophs (decomposers
Latitude has a strong influence on an area’s temperature, or osmotrophs)
resulting in change of climates such as polar, tropical, and • They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and
temperate. These climates determine different natural bi- nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances (de-
omes. tritus) of plant and animal origin.
From sea level to highest peaks, wild life is influenced by • The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutri-
altitude. As the altitude increases, the air becomes colder ents which are released in the ecosystem are reused by
and drier, affecting wild life accordingly. producers and thus recycled.
2. Biotic Components • Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as nema-
todes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders and help in
Biotic components include living organisms comprising the decomposition of organic matter and are called det-
plants, animals and microbes and are classified according rivores.
to their functional attributes into producers and consumers.
Classification of Eco-system:
a) Primary producers - Autotrophs (self-
nourishing)
Natural Ecosystem
• Primary producers are basically green plants (and cer-
tain bacteria and algae).
• They synthesise carbohydrate from simple inorganic Terrestrial Aquatic
raw materials like carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis
for themselves, and supply indirectly to other non- • Forests • Fresh Water
producers.
• Grasslands • Saline Water
• In terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically herba-
ceous and woody plants, while in aquatic ecosystem • Deserts • Marine Water
producers are various species of microscopic algae.
b) Consumers – Heterotrophs or phagotrophs The detailed study of ecosystem will be dealt in the subse-
(other nourishing) quent chapters.

• Consumers are incapable of producing their own food Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state
(photosynthesis). of equilibrium. They can regulate their own spe-
• They depend on organic food derived from plants, ani- cies structure and functional processes. This capacity
mals or both. of ecosystem of self regulation is known as
homeostasis.
• Consumers can be divided into two broad groups
namely micro and macro consumers. Goods and Services provided by ecosystems
(i) Macro consumers include:
• They feed on plants or animals or both and are catego- • Provision of food, fuel and fibre
rised on the basis of their food sources. • Provision of shelter and building materials
• Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly • Purification of air and water
on plants e.g. cow, rabbit. • Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
• Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. • Stabilization and moderation of the Earth’s climate
wolves. • Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes
• Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are and the forces of wind.
called tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat
wolves.
• Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutri-
ent cycling.
• Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants • Pollination of plants, including many crops Control of
and animals e.g. man, monkey. pests and diseases

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs to crop physical and chemical factors that a species needs to sur-
varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, and other vive, stay healthy and reproduce.
products A niche is unique for a species, which means no two species
• Cultural and aesthetic benefits have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role
Ecotone in conservation of organisms.
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse If we have to conserve species in its native habitat we
ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an should have knowledge about the niche requirements of
ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Other the species and should ensure that all requirements of its
examples are – grassland, estuary and river bank niche are fulfilled.
Types of Niche
1. Habitat niche – where it lives
2. Food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species
it competes with
3. Reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces.
4. Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape,
land slope, humidity & other requirement.

Do you know?
Two Schemes namely Nagar VanaUdyanYojana and
School Nursery Yojana have been launched. Nagar
VanaUdyanYojana aims to create at least one city for-
Ecotone est in each city with a minimum area of 25 ha. The
scheme aims at creation of a City Forest in forest areas
Characteristics of Ecotone within their jurisdiction up to a maximum of 100 ha
• It may be very narrow or quite wide. and minimum area of 20 ha. The objective of the Yo-
• It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent eco- jana is to create 200 City Forests in the country. The
systems. Hence it is a zone of tension. School Nursery Yojana aims to build a lasting bond of
students with nature.
• It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species
composition of one in coming community and a simul-
taneous decrease in species of the other out going ad-
joining community.
1.3.5. Biome
• A well developed ecotones contain some organisms
which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
communities.
• Sometimes the number of species and the population
density of some of the species is much greater in this
zone than either community. This is called edge effect.
The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly
in this zone are known as edge species. In the terrestrial
ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
For example the density of birds is greater in the mixed
habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert.
Niche
BIOME Distribution based on Temperature
A niche is the unique functional role or place of a species and Precipitation
in an ecosystem. It is a description of all the biological,

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes, which are characterized, by climate,
vegetation, animal life and general soil type.
No two biomes are alike. The climate determines the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and animals found
in each one of them. The most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.

S.No. Name of Biome Region Flora and Fauna

1 Tundra Northern and Southern most Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs in the southern
region of world adjoining the part of tundra biome, ground flora includes lichen,
ice bound poles mosses and sedges.
The typical animals are reindeer, arctic fox, polar
bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare, ptarmigan.
Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
2 Taiga Northern Europe, Asia and The dominating vegetation is coniferous evergreen
North America. Moderate mostly spruce, with some pine and firs.
temperature than tundra. Also The fauna consists of birds, hawks, fur bearing
known as boreal forest. carnivores, little mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger,
wolverine, wolves etc.
3 Temperate Extends over Central and The flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple and
Deciduous Southern Europe, Eastern cherry.
Forest North America, Western Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and
China, Japan, New Zealand etc. invertebrates.
Moderate average temperature These are generally the most productive agricultural
and abundant rainfall. areas of the earth

4 Tropical rain forest Tropical areas in the equatorial Tropical rainforest covers about 7% of the earth’s
regions, which is abound with surface & 40% of the world’s plant and animal
life. Temperature and rainfall species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed evergreen
high. tree species are in abundance. Most animals and
epiphytic plants are concentrated in the canopy or
tree top zones.
5 Savannah Tropical region: Savannah is Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny
most extensive in Africa. shrubs.
The fauna include a great diversity of grazers and
browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras,
elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores include lion,
cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents.

6 Grassland North America, Ukraine, etc. Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna include
Temperate conditions with low large herbivores like bison, antelope, cattle, rodents,
rainfall. prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of
ground nesting bird.
7 Desert Continental interiors with very The flora is drought resistance such as cactus,
low and sporadic rainfall with euphorbias, sagebrush. Fauna: Reptiles, Small
low humidity. The days are Mammals and birds.
very hot but nights are cold.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Aquatic Zones
Aquatic systems are not called biomes, however they are divided into distinct life zones, with regions of relatively distinct
plant and animal life. The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels of dissolved
nutrients, water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration.

S.No Aquatic ecosystem Characteristics

1. Fresh Water Ecosystem Fresh water ecosystem are classified as lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or
stagnant water). Lotic water system includes freshwater streams, springs,
rivulets, creeks, brooks, and rivers. Lentic water bodies include pools, ponds,
some swamps, bogs and lakes. They vary considerably in physical, chemical
and biological characteristics.
2. Marine Ecosystem Nearly three – quarter of earth’s surface is covered by ocean with an average
depth of 3,750 m and with salinity 35 ppt, (parts per thousand), about 90 per
cent of which is sodium chloride.
3. Estuaries Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal marshes form the estuaries. In estuaries,
fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and the two are mixed by action of
tides. Estuaries are highly productive as compared to the adjacent river or sea.
4. Coral reef
5. Mangrove

1.3.6. Biosphere Biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South

Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist. Bio- poles, the highest mountains and the deepest oceans, since
sphere represents a highly integrated and interacting zone existing hostile conditions there do not support life. Oc-
comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and casionally spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at great
lithosphere (land). height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically
active, and hence represent only dormant life.
The energy required for the life within the biosphere comes
from the sun. The nutrients necessary for living organisms
L it

re come from air, water and soil. The same chemicals are
ho

p he
sp

os recycled over and over again for life to continue.

he

m
At
re

Living organisms are not uniformly distributed throughout

Biosphere the biosphere. Only a few organisms live in the polar regions,
while the tropical rain forests have an exceedingly rich di-
versity of plants and animals (50% of Global Biodiversity).

Hydrosphere
Do you know?
Environmental Information System (ENVIS), a Cen-
tral Sector Scheme of the Ministry has been imple-
Biosphere mented since 1982. The purpose of the scheme is to
integrate country-wide efforts in environmental in-
formation collection, collation, storage, retrieval and
It is a narrow layer around the surface of the earth. If we dissemination through ENVIS websites, which are
visualise the earth to be the size of an apple the biosphere dedicated to different interesting themes.
would be as thick as its skin.
Life in the biosphere is abundant between 200 metres (660
feet) below the surface of the ocean and about 6,000 me- 
tres (20,000 feet) above sea level.

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SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER - 2

FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

T
•
he function of an ecosystem is a broad, vast and
complete dynamic system. It can be studied under
the following three heads.
Energy flow
at each trophic level so that energy level decreases from
the first trophic level upwards.
As a result there are usually four or five trophic levels and
seldom more than six as beyond that very little energy is
• Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) left to support any organism. Trophic levels are numbered
according to the steps an organism is away from the source
• Ecological succession or ecosystem development
of food or energy, that is the producer.
2.1 ENERGY FLOW The trophic level interaction involves three concepts
namely:-
Energy is the basic force responsible for all metabolic ac-
tivities. The flow of energy from producer to top consum- 1. Food Chain
ers is called energy flow which is unidirectional. 2. Food Web
The study of Trophic level interaction in an ecosystem gives 3. Ecological Pyramids
an idea about the energy flow through the ecosystem.
2.2. FOOD CHAIN
2.1.1. Trophic level interaction Organisms in the ecosystem are related to each other
Trophic level interaction deals with how the members of through feeding mechanism or trophic levels, i.e. one or-
an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs. ganism becomes food for the other. A sequence of organ-
isms that feed on one another, form a food chain. A food
Trophic levels (Trophe = nourishment) chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.
I Autotrophs Green plants (producers)
II Heterotrophs Herbivore Do you know?
(primary consumers) Bear hibernation is different than most hibernating
III Heterotrophs Carnivores animals. True hibernation (like we see in ground squir-
(secondary consumers) rels) involves a drastic drop in body temperature but
IV Heterotrophs Carnivore the hibernating animal will awaken occasionally to eat
(tertiary consumers) and defecate before resuming hibernation. When a bear
V Heterotrophs Top carnivores ‘hibernates’ it is really in a deep sleep. It’s body tem-
(Quarternary consumers) perature drops but not drastically and it does not wake
up. The one exception is that a mother bear will wake
Energy flows through the trophic levels: from producers up to give birth in January or February. Since food is
to subsequent trophic levels. This energy always flows from scarce in the winter bears figure that if you can’t eat
lower (producer) to higher (herbivore, carnivore etc.) you might as well sleep. Bears like the Asiatic Bear live
trophic level. It never flows in the reverse direction that is in warmer climates where food is readily available all
from carnivores to herbivores to producers. year long and there is no need to hibernate.
There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
The sequence of eaten and being eaten, produces transfer plant bodies consumed by the micro-organisms and then
of food energy and it is known as food chain. The plant to detritus feeding organism called detrivores or decom-
converts solar energy into chemical energy by poser and to other predators.
photosynthesis.
Litter Earthworms Chicken Hawk
Small herbivores consume the plant matter and convert
them into animal matter. These herbivores are eaten by Detritus food chain
large carnivores.
The distinction between these two food chains is the
2.2.1. Types of Food Chains source of energy for the first level consumers. In the graz-
ing food chain the primary source of energy is living plant
In nature, two main types of food chains have been distin- biomass while in the detritus food chain the source of
guished: energy is dead organic matter or detritus. The two food
i) Grazing food chain chains are linked. The initial energy source for detritus
The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the food chain is the waste materials and dead organic matter
plant or plant part as their food, constitute the grazing from the grazing food chain.
food chain. This food chain begins from green plants at
the base and the primary consumer is herbivore. 2.3. FOOD WEB
A food chain represents only one part of the food or energy
flow through an ecosystem and implies a simple, isolated
relationship, which seldom occurs in the ecosystems.
An ecosystem may consist of several interrelated food
chains. More typically, the same food resource is part of
more than one chain, especially when that resource is at
the lower trophic levels.
“A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and
nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem, whereas
a food chain traces only one pathway of the food”.

Grazing Food Chain

For example, In terestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten up by

caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and lizard is eaten by
If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, the suc-
snake.
ceeding links of the chain will be affected largely. The food
In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplanktons (primary producers) web provides more than one alternative for food to most
is eaten by zoo planktons which is eaten by fishes and of the organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases
fishes are eaten by pelicans. their chance of survival.
ii) Detritus food chain For example, grasses may serve food for rabbit or grass-
It starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and hopper or goat or cow. Similarly a herbivore may be food
source for many carnivorous species.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Also food availability and preferences of food of the organ-
isms may shift seasonally e.g. we eat watermelon in sum-
mer and peaches in the winter. Thus there are
interconnected networks of feeding relationships that take
the form of food webs.

Do you know?
Dolphins, Porpoises and whales are called cetaceans.
A cetacean is a creature belonging to a group of water
living mammals that have no hind limbs and a blow-
hole for breathing. They are not fish!

2.4. ECOLOGICAL PYR AMIDS • The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) be-
cause of their abundance.
The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic
way are referred as ecological pyramids. The food producer • The next higher trophic level is primary consumer -
forms the base of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms herbivore (example – grasshopper).
the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between. • The individual number of grasshopper is less than that
The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars de- of grass. The next energy level is primary carnivore
picting specific trophic levels which are arranged sequen- (example – rat).
tially from primary producer level through herbivore, • The number of rats are less than grasshopper, because,
carnivore onwards. The length of each bar represents the they feed on grasshopper. The next higher trophic level
total number of individuals at each trophic level in an eco- is secondary carnivore (example – snakes). They feed
system. on rats.
The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually • The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore. (Ex.
decrease with each step from the producer level to the Hawk).
consumer level and the diagrammatic representation as- • With each higher trophic level, the number of individual
sumes a pyramid shape. decreases.
The ecological pyramids are of three categories. (b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted
1. Pyramid of numbers,
2. Pyramid of biomass, and
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.

2.4.1. Pyramid of Numbers

This deals with the relationship between the numbers of
primary producers and consumers of different levels. It is
a graphic representation of the total number of individuals
of different species, belonging to each trophic level in an
ecosystem.
Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of
numbers may not always be upright, and may even be
completely inverted.
(a) Pyramid of numbers - upright
• In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased
from lower level to higher trophic level.
• This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland eco­
system.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has
from lower level to higher trophic level. a large base of primary producers with a smaller trophic
• A count in a forest would have a small number of large level perched on top.
producers, for e.g. few number of big trees. The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum.
• This is because the tree (primary producer) being few The biomass of next trophic level i.e primary consumers is
in number and would represent the base of the pyramid less than the producers. The biomass of next higher trophic
and the dependent herbivores (Example - Birds) in the level i.e secondary consumers is less than the primary
next higher trophic level and it is followed by parasites consumers. The top, high trophic level has very less amount
in the next trophic level. Hyper parasites being at higher of biomass.
trophic level represents higher in number. (b) Inverted pyramid
• And the resulting pyramid is in inverted shape. A pyra- In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of
mid of numbers does not take into account the fact that biomass may assume an inverted form.
the size of organisms being counted in each trophic level
can vary.
• It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyra-
mid of numbers and so the pyramid of number does not
completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.

2.4.2. Pyramid of Biomass

In order to overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of num-
bers, the pyramid of biomass is used. In this approach
individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of
being counted. This gives us a pyramid of biomass, i.e., the
total dry weight of all organisms at each trophic level at a
particular time.
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all
organisms occupying each trophic level separately and
measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the size dif-
ference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic
level are weighed. Biomass is measured in g/m2. This is because the producers are tiny phytoplanktons that
(a) Upward pyramid grow and reproduce rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass
has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant
actually exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid
assumes inverted shape.

2.4.3. Pyramid of Energy

To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an
ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. An energy
pyramid, reflects the laws of thermodynamics, with con-
version of solar energy to chemical energy and heat energy
at each trophic level and with loss of energy being depicted
at each transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyra-
mid is always upward, with a large energy base at the
bottom.
Let us explain this with an example. Suppose an ecosys-
tem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day.
Upright Pyramid of Biomass Most of the energy is not absorbed; some is reflected back
to space; of the energy absorbed only a small portion is

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

Do you know?
All snakes smell with their tongues. When a snake sticks out its tongue it smells its surroundings. The moist tongue
collects scents and small organisms from whatever it touches and from the air around it. When the tongue goes back
into the mouth the forks touch a special sensory spot called the Jacobson’s organ on the roof of the mouth and tells
the snake what it smells. Snakes have a small notch in their lips that they can stick their tongues through so they
don’t need to open their mouths. Some snakes can smell with their noses.

utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses up We are concerned about these phenomena because, to-
some for respiration and of the 1000 calories, therefore gether they enable even small concentrations of chemicals
only 100 calories are stored as energy rich materials. in the environment to find their way into organisms in
high enough dosages to cause problems.
Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:
i) Bioaccumulation
ii) Biomagnification.

2.5.1. Bioaccumulation
• It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain.
• In bioaccumulation there is an increase in concentration
of a pollutant from the environment to the first organ-
ism in a food chain.

2.5.2. Biomagnification

Pyramid of energy

Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant contain-

ing 100 cal of food energy. The deer uses some of it for its
own metabolism and stores only 10 cal as food energy. A
lion that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of
energy. Thus usable energy decreases from sunlight to
producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy
pyramid will always be upright.
Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon
of biological magnification-the tendency for toxic sub-
stances to increase in concentration progressively at higher
levels of the food chain.

2.5 POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL

Pollutants especially nondegradable ones move through the
various trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Nondegradable pollutants mean materials, which cannot
be metabolized by the living organisms.
Biomagnification
Example: chlorinated hydrocarbons.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to • Commensalism: one species benefits, the other is unaf-
concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the fected.
next. Example: cow dung provides food and shelter to dung
• Thus in biomagnification there is an increase in con- beetles. The beetles have no effect on the cows.
centration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain • Competition: both species are harmed by the in­
to another. teraction.
In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must Example: if two species eat the same food, and there
be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. isn’t enough for both, both may have access to less food
If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before than they would if alone. They both suffer a shortage
it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile, it will stay in of food
one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms. If
the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the
• Predation and parasitism: one species benefits, the
other is harmed.
organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be
retained for a long time. Example: predation—one fish kills and eats parasitism:
tick gains benefit by sucking blood; host is harmed by
It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in losing blood.
fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, we
often test the milk produced by females, since the milk has • Amensalism: One species is harmed, the other is un­
a lot of fat in it are often more susceptible to damage from affected.
toxins (poisons). If a pollutant is not active biologically, it Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding
may biomagnify, but we really don’t worry about it much, the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no
since it probably won’t cause any problems Examples: DDT. effect on the large tree.
• Neutralism: There is no net benefit or harm to either
2.6. BIOTIC INTER ACTION species. Perhaps in some interspecific interactions, the
• Organisms living in this earth are interlinked to each costs and benefits experienced by each partner are
other in one way or other. The interaction between the exactly the same so that they sum to zero. It is not
organisms is fundamental for its survival and function- clear how often this happens in nature. Neutralism is
ing of ecosystem as a whole. also sometimes described as the relationship between
two species inhabiting the same space and using the
Biotic Interaction same resources, but that have no effect on each other.
S.No. Type Spices 1 Species 2 In this case, one could argue that they aren’t interact-
ing at all.
1. Mutualism (+) (+)
2. Commensalism (+) (0)
2.7. BIO-GEO-CHEMICAL CYCLE
3. Amensalism (–) (0)
The living world depends upon the energy flow and the
4. Competition (–) (–) nutrients circulation that occurs through ecosystem.
5. Predation (+) (–) Both influence the abundance of organisms, the meta-
6. Parasitism (+) (–) bolic rate at which they live, and the complexity of the
ecosystem.
(+) Benefited (–) Harmed
Energy flows through ecosystems enabling the organisms
(0) Neither Benefited nor harmed. to perform various kinds of work and this energy is ulti-
mately lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of
2.6.1. Types of biotic interaction the system. On the other hand, nutrients of food matter
never get used up. They can be recycled again and again
• Mutualism: both species benefit.
indefinitely.
Example: in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets
food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen trans- For e.g. when we breathe we may be inhaling several mil-
ferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (repro- lion atoms of elements that may have been inhaled by our
duction). ancestors or other organisms.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as Types of Nutrient Cycle
elements and compounds make up 97% of the mass of our • Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle is re-
bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living ferred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.
organisms. In addition to these about 15 to 25 other ele-
ments are needed in some form for the survival and good
• A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are
replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most gaseous cycles
health of plants and animals. are generally considered as perfect cycles.
These elements or mineral nutrients are always in cir­ • In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively
culation moving from non-living to living and then back imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from the cycle and
to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more get locked into sediments and so become unavailable
or less circular fashion. This circular fashion is known for immediate cycling.
as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmos-
• Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two
phere). types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary cycle

2.7.1. Nutrient Cycling • Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere
or the hydrosphere, and
The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrients
move from the physical environment to the living organ-
• Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s
crust.
isms, and subsequently recycled back to the physical envi-
ronment.
Do you know?
This movement of nutrients from the environment into
plants and animals and again back to the environment is Spiders can’t chew or swallow inject their prey with
essential for life and it is the vital function of the ecology poison using their fangs. The poison turns the insides
of any region. In any particular environment, to maintain of insect to a watery goop and the spider just sucks
its organism in a sustained manner, the nutrient cycle must it up.
be kept balanced and stable.
Nutrient cycling is typically studied in terms of specific
nutrients, with each nutrient in an environment having 2.7.2. Gaseous Cycles
its own particular pattern of cycling. Among the most Let us first study some of the most important gaseous
important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle cycles; namely – water, carbon and nitrogen.
and the nitrogen nutrient cycle. Both of these cycles make (a) Water Cycle (Hydrologic)
up an essential part of the overall soil nutrient cycle. There
are many other nutrient cycles that are important in ecol-
Water as an important ecological factor de-
ogy, including a large number of trace mineral nutrient
termines the structure and function of the
cycles.
ecosystem. Cycling of all other nutrients is
also dependent upon water as it provides
their transportation during the various steps.
It acts as a solvent medium for their uptake
of nutrients by organisms.

The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water

in the Earth-atmosphere system which is driven by solar
energy. Water on our planet is stored in major reservoirs
like atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snow-
fields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir
to another by the processes of evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration,
and groundwater flow.
Nutrient cycling

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Carbon is present in the atmosphere, mainly in the form
of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon cycle involves a continuous
exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organ-
isms. Carbon from the atmosphere moves to green plants
by the process of photosynthesis, and then to animals. By
process of respiration and decomposition of dead organic
matter it returns back to atmosphere. It is usually a short
term cycle.
Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It accumulates
as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty layers of
marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments
of aquatic systems which take a long time to be released.
In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for mil-
lions of years till geological movement may lift these rocks
above sea level. These rocks may be exposed to erosion,
releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates
Water Cycle into streams and rivers.
Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are or-
(b) The Carbon Cycle ganic compounds that were buried before they could be
decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time
Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as and geological processes into fossil fuels. When they are
compared to oxygen and nitrogen. However, without burned the carbon stored in them is released back into the
carbon dioxide life could not exist, because it is vital atmosphere as carbon-dioxide.
for the production of carbohydrates through photo-
(c) The Nitrogen Cycle
synthesis by plants. It is the element that anchors all
organic substances from coal and oil to DNA (deoxy- Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic
ribonucleic acid: the compound that carries genetic building block of all living tissue. It constitutes nearly 16%
information). by weight of all the proteins.

Nitrogen Cycle

There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmos-

Carbon Cycle phere but the elemental form cannot be used directly by
most of the living organisms. Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’,

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
that is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before ally reach the earth’s surface through precipitation and
it can be taken up by plants. then into the soil to be utilized by plants.
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three differ-
ent ways: Do you know?
(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae) Pythons are constrictors, which mean that they will
(ii) By man using industrial processes (fertilizer factories) ‘squeeze’ the life out of their prey. They coil themselves
and around their prey and with each breathe the creature
(iii) To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomenon such takes the snake will squeeze a little tighter until they
as thunder and lighting stop breathing completely. Once the heart stops the
prey is swallowed whole. The entire animal is digested
in the snake’s stomach except for fur or feathers.
The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man
through industrial process has far exceeded
the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. As a 2.7.3. Sedimentary Cycle
result Nitrogen has become a pollutant which
Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium circulate by means
can disrupt the balance of nitrogen. It may
of the sedimentary cycle. The element involved in the
lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful
sedimentary cycle normally does not cycle through the
Algal Blooms.
atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of flow through
erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activ-
Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric ity and biological transport through the excreta of marine
nitrogen into ammonium ions. These include free living birds.
nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and anaerobic (a) Phosphorus Cycle
Clostridium) and symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in
association with leguminous plants and symbiotic bacte- Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and
ria living in non leguminous root nodule plants (e.g. water quality. Unlike carbon and nitrogen, which come
Rhizobium) as well as blue green algae (e.g. Anabaena, primarily from the atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in
Spirulina). large amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and enters
the cycle from erosion and mining activities. This is the
Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of nutrient considered to be the main cause of excessive
nitrogen by some plants, or are oxidized to nitrites or ni- growth of rooted and free-floating microscopic plants in
trates by two groups of specialised bacteria: Nitrosomonas lakes.
bacteria promote transformation of ammonia into nitrite.
Nitrite is then further transformed into nitrate by the bac-
teria Nitrobacter.
The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil are taken
up by plants and converted into amino acids, which are the
building blocks of proteins. These then go through higher
trophic levels of the ecosystem. During excretion and upon
the death of all organisms nitrogen is returned to the soil
in the form of ammonia.
Certain quantity of soil nitrates, being highly soluble in
water, is lost to the system by being transported away by
surface run-off or ground water. In the soil as well as
oceans there are special denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseu-
domonas), which convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental
nitrogen. This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus
completing the cycle.
The periodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous nitrogen
in the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates which eventu- Phosphorous cycle

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth’s crust. Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is
On land phosphorus is usually found in the form of phos- take up by plants and incorporated through a series of
phates. By the process of weathering and erosion phos- metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which
phates enter rivers and streams that transport them to the is incorporated in the proteins of autotroph tissues. It then
ocean. passes through the grazing food chain.
In the ocean once the phosphorus accumulates on conti- Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the
nental shelves in the form of insoluble deposits. After mil- soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through
lions of years, the crustal plates rise from the sea floor and excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
expose the phosphates on land. After more time, weather- The Bio-geochemical cycles discussed here are only a few
ing will release them from rock and the cycle’s geochemi- of the many cycles present in the ecosystem. These cycles
cal phase begins again. usually do not operate independently but interact with each
(b) Sulphur Cycle other at some point or the other.
The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments where
it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic Do you know?
deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sul- Fur-picking’, the universal habit among the apes and
phates, sulphides and organic sulphur. monkeys is not a hunt for lice or fleas. They are naturally
It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and remarkably free from these vermin. On the contrary it is
decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terres- a means of social communication between members of
trial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. the troop (a group of monkeys) and to develop strong
The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its social bond.
compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2) add a gaseous component to its normal sedimentary
cycle. 2.8. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like Succession is a universal process of directional change in
volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels, from surface vegetation, on an ecological time scale.
of ocean and from gases released by decomposition. At- Succession occurs when a series of communities replace
mospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sul- one another due to large scale destruction either natural
phur dioxide. Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back or manmade. This process continues - one community
to the earth after being dissolved in rainwater as weak replacing another community, until a stable, mature com-
sulphuric acid. munity develops.
Succession is a progressive series of changes which leads
to the establishment of a relatively stable climax com-
munity.

Sulphur Cycle Ecological Succession

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer otic communities after the complete or partial destruction
community. The final stage of succession is called the cli- of the existing community. A mature or intermediate com-
max community. The stage leading to the climax commu- munity may be destroyed by natural events such as floods,
nity are called successional stages or seres. droughts, fires, or storms or by human interventions such
Succession is characterised by the following: increased as deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc
productivity, the shift of nutrients from’ the reservoirs, This abandoned farmland is first invaded by hardy species
increased diversity of organisms with increased niche de- of grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. These
velopment, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food grasses may be soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous
webs. plants. These dominate the ecosystem for some years along
with mice, rabbits, insects and seed-eating birds.
2.8.1. Primary Succession Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which
In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is may be brought by wind or animals. And over the years, a
first colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that are often forest community develops. Thus an abandoned farmland
microbes, lichens and mosses. The pioneers over a few over a period becomes dominated by trees and is trans-
generations alter the habitat conditions by their growth formed into a forest
and development. The differences between primary and secondary succes-
These new conditions may be conducive to the establish- sion, the secondary succession starts on a well developed
ment of additional organisms that may subsequently arrive soil already formed at the site. Thus secondary succession
at the site. The pioneers through their death any decay is relatively faster as compared to primary succession
leave patches of organic matter in which small animals which may often require hundreds of years.
can live.
The organic matter produced by these pioneer species pro- 2.8.2. Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
duce organic acids during decomposition that dissolve and When succession is brought about by living inhabitants of
etch the substratum releasing nutrients to the substratum. that community itself, the process is called autogenic suc-
Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices, pro- cession, while change brought about by outside forces is
viding soil in which seeds can become lodged and grow. known as allogenic succession.
As the community of organisms continues to develop, it
becomes more diverse and competition increases, but at 2.8.3. Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession
the same time new niche opportunities develops. Succession in which, initially the green plants are much
The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions greater is quantity is known as autotrophic succession; and
change and invasion of new species progresses, leading to the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity
the replacement of the preceding community. is known as heterotrophic succession.
Succession would occur faster in area existing in the mid-
2.8.1. Secondary Succession dle of the large continent. This is because, here all prop-
Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize an agules or seeds of plants belonging to the different seres
area in which the climax community has been disturbed. would reach much faster, establish and ultimately result in
climax community.
Secondary succession is the sequential development of bi-

 

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SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER - 3

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

T he interrelations between organisms and environ-

ment on the land constitute “Terrestrial Ecology”.
Due to variation in the topographic features of val-
leys, mountains and slopes, certain differences occur.
body is covered with fur for insulation. Insects have short
life cycles which are completed during favourable period
of the year.

These differences are reflected in both the material and 3.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
biotic diversities. Altitudinal and latitudinal variations The forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of
cause shifts and differences in the climatic patterns. Due
different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum conditions
to varied climate, the plant and animal life existing in dif-
such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible
ferent terrestrial areas vary which result in differentiation
for the establishment of forest communities.
of ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere. The
most important limiting factors of the terrestrial ecosys- The nature of soil, climate and local topography determine
tems are moisture and temperature. the distribution of trees and their abundance in the forest
vegetation. Forests may be evergreen or deciduous. They
3.1. TUNDR A are distinguished on the basis of leaf into broad-leafed or
Tundra means a “barren land” since they are found where needle leafed coniferous forests in the case of temperate
environmental conditions are very severe. There are two areas.
types of tundra- arctic and alpine. The forest ecosystems have been classified into three major
• Distribution: Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt categories: coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical
below the polar ice cap and above the tree line in the forest. All these forest biomes are generally arranged on a
northern hemisphere. It occupies the northern fringe of gradient from north to south latitude or from high to lower
Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia and island altitude.
group of Arctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is very
small since most of it is covered by ocean .
Do you know?
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the with
respect to Arctic mountains are found at all latitudes there- Dart Frogs got their name because hunters would tip
fore alpine tundra shows day and night temperature vari- their arrows in the frog’s poisons. Sadly, because peo-
ations. ple are cutting down rainforests for farming and
ranching, Poison Dart Frogs are at risk. The Blue Poi-
• Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation of arctic tundra is son Dart Frog is the most endangered due to the pet-
cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, willows, birches and shop market.
lichens. Animals of tundra are reindeer, musk ox, arctic
hare, caribous, lemmings and squirrel.
Most of them have long life e.g. arctic willow has a life span 3.2.1. Coniferous forest (boreal forest):
of 150 to 300 years. They are protected from chillness by
the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair. Mammals • Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal cli-
of the tundra region have large body size, small tail and mates with long winters and short summers are char-
small ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The acterised by boreal coniferous forest

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• This is characterised by evergreen plant species such as 3.2.4. Temperate rain forests:
Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and by animals such as
the lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, porcupine, squirrel, and
• The temperate rain forests exhibit a marked seasonality
with regard to temperature and rainfall.
amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc
• Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and • Rainfall is high, and fog may be very heavy. It is the
important source of water than rainfall itself.
are rather poor. Both because, the weathering of rocks
proceeds slowly in cold environments and because the • The biotic diversity of temperate rain forests is high as
litter derived from conifer needle (leaf ) is decomposed compared to other temperate forest. However, the di-
very slowly and is not rich in nutrients. versity of plants and animals is much low as compared
• These soils are acidic and are mineral deficient. This is to the tropical rainforest.
due to movement of large amount of water through the
soil, without a significant counter-upward movement of
Do you know?
evaporation, essential soluble nutrients like calcium,
nitrogen and potassium which are leached sometimes Frog’s tongues are attached to the front of their
beyond the reach of roots. This process leaves no alka- mouths rather than at the back like humans. When a
line oriented cations to encounter the organic acids of frog catches an insect it throws its sticky tongue out
the accumulating litter. of it’s mouth and wraps it around its prey. The frog’s
tongue then snaps back and throws the food down its
• The productivity and community stability of a boreal
throat.
forest are lower than those of any other forest eco­system.

3.2.2. Temperate deciduous forest:

3.2.5. Tropical rain forests:
• The temperate forests are characterised by a moderate
climate and broad-leafed deciduous trees, which shed • Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.
their leaves in fall, are bare over winter and grow new • Tropical rain forests are among the most diverse and
foliage in the spring. rich communities on the earth.
• The precipitation is fairly uniform throughout. • Both temperature and humidity remain high and more
• Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep. or less uniform.
3.2.3. Temperate evergreen forest: • The annual rainfall exceeds 200 cm and is generally
distributed throughout the year.
• Parts of the world that have Mediterranean type of cli-
mate are characterised by warm, dry summers and • The flora is highly diversified
cool, moist winters. • The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical rain for-
• These are commonly inhabitated by low broad leafed ests remains vertically stratified with tall trees often
evergreen trees. covered with vines, creepers, lianas, epiphytic orchids
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem and bromeliads.
and the adaptation of the plants enable them to regener- • The lowest layer is an understory of trees, shrubs,
ate quickly after being burnt. herbs, like ferns and palms.
• Soil of tropical rainforests are red latosols, and they are
Do you know? very thick.
Penguins are warm blooded, Just like whales, penguins have • The high rate of leaching makes these soils virtually
a layer of fat under their skin called “blubber”. Overtop of useless for agricultural purposes, but when left undis-
this they are covered with fluffy “down” feathers and over- turbed, the rapid cycling of nutrients within the litter
top of those they have their outer feathers which overlap to layer, formed due to decomposition can compensate for
seal in warmth. Penguins rub oil from a gland onto their the natural poverty of the soil.
feathers to help make them waterproof and wind proof.
• Undergrowth is restricted in many areas by the lack of
sunlight at ground level.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
3.2.6. Tropical seasonal forests:
Do you know?
• Tropical seasonal forests also known as monsoon forest
occur in regions where total annual rainfall is very high Elephants’ ears act as cooling devices. They can meas-
but segregated into pronounced wet and dry periods. ure up to 2 square metres and they are equipped with
an intricate web of blood vessels. When the animal
• This kind of forest is found in South East Asia, central
flaps its ears, the blood temperature lowers by as
and south America, northern Australia, western Africa
much as 5°C.
and tropical islands of the pacific as well as in India.

3.2.7. Subtropical rain forests: 3.3.3. Tropical Moist deciduous forests

• Broad-leaved evergreen subtropical rain forests are Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except
found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less tem- in the western and the north-western regions. The trees
perature differences between winter and summer are tall, have broad trunks, branching trunks and roots to
• Epiphytes are common here. hold them firmly to the ground. Some of the taller trees
• Animal life of subtropical forest is very similar to that shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of
of tropical rainforests. shorter trees and evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth.
These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with
3.3. INDIAN FOREST TYPES mango, bamboo, and rosewood.
India has a diverse range of forests from the rainforest of
3.3.4. Littoral and swamp
Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures of Ladakh in
the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to Littoral and swamp forests are found along the Andaman
the evergreen forests in the north-east. Climate, soil type, and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the Ganga and
topography, and elevation are the main factors that de- the Brahmaputra. They have roots that consist of soft tis-
termine the type of forest. Forests varied according to sue so that the plant can breathe in the water.
their nature and composition, the type of climate in which
they thrive, and its relationship with the surrounding 3.3.5. Tropical Dry deciduous forest
environment. Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern
part of the country except in the North-East. It is also
Champion and Seth Classification of Forest found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Kar-
Forest types in India are classified by Champion and Seth nataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not
into sixteen types. normally exceed 25 metres. The common trees are the sal,
a variety of acacia, and bamboo.
3.3.1. Tropical Wet evergreen forests
3.3.6. Tropical Thorn forests
Wet evergreen forests are found along the Western Ghats,
the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and all along the north- This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West,
eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight ever- Central, and South India. The trees do not grow beyond 10
green trees. The more common trees that are found here metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.
are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango, and hol-
lock. The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: shrubs
3.3.7. Tropical Dry evergreen forest
cover the layer closer to the ground, followed by the short Dry evergreens are found along Tamil Nadu, Andhra
structured trees and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It is mainly hard-leaved ev-
various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on ergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few de-
the trunks of the trees. ciduous trees.

3.3.2. Tropical Semi-evergreen forests 3.3.8. Sub tropical Broad-leaved forests

Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern Himalayas. and the Western Ghats, along the Silent Valley. There is a
Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and marked difference in the form of vegetation in the two
the moist deciduous trees. The forest is dense and is filled areas. In the Silent Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, rho-
with a large variety of trees of both types.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
dodendron, and fragrant grass are predominant. In the therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There
Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and bam-
the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests boo. Coniferous trees are also found here, some of the
consist mainly of evergreen trees with a sprinkling of de- varieties being different from the ones found in the South.
ciduous here and there. There are oak, alder, chestnut,
birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of or- 3.3.13. Himalayan Dry temperate Forest
chids, bamboo and creepers. This type is found in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim, and other
parts of the Himalayas. There are predominantly conifer-
3.3.9. Sub tropical Pine forests ous trees, along with broad-leaved trees such as the oak,
Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the Shiva- maple, and ash. At higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar,
lik Hills, Western and Central Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and and chilgoza are found.
Manipur Hills. The trees predominantly found in these
areas are the chir, oak, rhododendron, and pine as well as 3.3.14. Sub alpine forest
sal, amla, and laburnum are found in the lower regions. Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres. In the Western
3.3.10. Sub tropical Dry evergreen forests
Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, rho-
Dry evergreen forests normally have a prolonged hot and dodendron, willow, and black currant. In the eastern parts,
dry season and a cold winter. It generally has evergreen red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common
trees with shining leaves that have a varnished look. These trees. Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity the timber-
forests are found in the Shivalik Hills and foothills of the line in this part is higher than that in the West. Rhododen-
Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres. dron of many species covers the hills in these parts.
3.3.11. Montane Wet temperate forests
3.3.15. Moist Alpine scrub
In the North, Montane wet temperate forests are found in
Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the
the region to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh,
higher hills near the Myanmar border. It has a low scrub,
receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. In the North,
dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron
there are three layers of forests: the higher layer has
and birch. Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches.
mainly coniferous, the middle layer has deciduous trees
This region receives heavy snowfall.
such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by rhodo-
dendron and champa.
3.3.16. Dry alpine scrub
In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri Hills, the
Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about
higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in the northern region
4900 metres. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the black
are denser than in the South. Rhododendrons and a variety
juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.
of ground flora can be found here.
Importance of Forest
3.3.12. Himalayan Moist temperate Forest From air we breathe, the food we eat to the paper and
wood we use; we depend on forest directly or indirectly.
Do you know? Without forests most of the areas would have been deserts
All birds have feathers and feathers do many jobs for • Forests keep up the natural balance.
birds. It keeps them warm, wing feathers allow flight • Forests purify the air
and tail feathers are used for steering. The color of the • Forests provide micro climate
feathers can be used to hide the bird or to help the bird
find a mate. • Forests indirectly play a role in precipitation
• Forests prevent floods
• Forests prevent soil erosion
This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the East-
ern Himalayas. The trees found in the western section are • Forests provide medicinal properties
broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut, rhododendron, etc. • Forests provide us fuel and timber
In the Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and • Forests provide raw materials for industries

26 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
3.4. DEFORESTATION • Development projects like the hydroelectric projects,
Indiscriminate felling of trees as a result of urbanization, large dams and reservoirs, laying down of railway lines
industrialization, mining operations, and use of wood for and roads are not only extremely beneficial, but they
domestic and other purposes, have caused heavy depletion are also linked with several environmental problems.
of forests. • Many of these projects require immense deforestation.
3) Fuel Requirements
• The increasing demand for firewood with ever growing
population increases greater pressure on the forests,
which results in increased intensity of deforestation.
4) Raw Material Requirements
• Wood is used as a raw material by various industries
for making paper, plywood, furniture, match sticks,
boxes, crates, packing cases, etc.
• Industries also obtain their raw materials from plants
such as drugs, scents and perfumes, resin, gums, waxes,
turpentine, latex and rubber, tannis, alkaloids, bees wax.
• This exerted tremendous pressure on forest ecosystem
and their unrestricted exploitation for various other raw
materials is the main cause of degradation of the forest
ecosystem.
Causes of Deforestation 5) Other Causes
• Deforestation also results from overgrazing, agricul-
3.4.1. Causes ture, mining, urbanization, flood, fire, pest, diseases,
defence and communication activites.
1) Shifting cultivation
• In this practice a patch of land is cleared, vegetation is 3.4.2. How it affects?
burned and the ash is mixed with the soil thus adding • Closed forests (based on canopy level) have being di-
nutrients to the soil. minished due to deforestation leading to increase in
• This patch of land is used for raising crops for two to degraded forests.
three years, and the yield is modest. • Forests recycle moisture from soil into their immediate
• Then this area is abandoned and is left to recover its atmosphere by transpiration where it again precipitates
fertility, and the same practice is repeated elsewhere on as rain.
a fresh piece of land. • Deforestation results in an immediate lowering of
• All that is required for this method of cultivation is a ground water level and in long-term reduction of pre-
set of simple tools, not high level of mechanisation. cipitation.

2) development project
• Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken
and water is lost through rapid run off.
• The human population have increased considerably, so • Much of the mining activity in India is being carried out
with their requirements. in forest regions. The obvious result is deforestation and
soil erosion.
Do you know? • Underground mining has also significantly denuded
Reptiles are cold-blooded animals that raise their body forests, as timber is used for supporting the roofs of
temperature by lying in the sun or lower it by crawling mine galleries.
into the shade. Their body temperature changes to the • A large number of abandoned mines are lying in bad
temperature of its surroundings. shape and are under extensive gully erosion leading to
degradation of the habitat.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Deforestation affects the biota and neighbouring eco-
systems, soil erosion, land degradation, alteration of
ground water channels, pollution and scarce.

3.5. GR ASSLAND ECOSYTEM

The grasslands are found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm
per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than
that of a true desert.
Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are gen-
erally found in temperate climates.
In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The
rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of steppes
and savannas.
The major difference between steppes and savannas is that
all the forage in the steppe is provided only during the brief
wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from
grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also
from the smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.
Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline
soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid,
average rainfall is less than 200 mm a year with a dry Grassland types of India
season of 10 to 11 months, and a large variation in rainfall.
The soil is always exposed, sometimes rocky but more 1) semi-arid zone
often sandy with fixed or mobile dunes. Forage is available • It covers the northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan
only during the brief wet season. The grass layer is sparse (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and
and consists mainly of annual grass species. Punjab.
In the central and eastern parts of Rajasthan, where the • The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand
rainfall is about 500 mm per year and the dry season is of dunes.
six to eight months, dry savanna grazing ecosystems have
developed. The light shade cast by the sparse population of 2) dry sub humid zone
trees like khetri favours the growth of the grasses. • It covers the whole of peninsular India (except Nilgiri).
3) moist sub humid zone
3.5.1. Types of Grasslands
Based on climatic conditions there are six types of grass-
• It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern India.
lands found in the different regions of the Indian subcon- • The topography is level, low lying and ill-drained.
tinent. Four major types of grasslands are discussed here. 4) Humid montane regions
• This extends to the humid montane regions and moist
sub-humid areas of Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttar
Do you know?
Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
The elephant’s trunk combines both nose and upper Kashmir.
lip and transforms them into a single powerful organ
that is able to touch, grasp and smell. It is strong
• The savanna is derived from the humid forests on ac-
count of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.
enough to uproot a tree, sensitive enough to pick up a
pea-sized fruit from the ground, and long enough to
3.5.2. Economic importance of grasslands
reach foliage high in the trees. The trunk is also used
to drink by sucking up water and squirting it into the • India teems with animals of all shapes and sizes from
mouth. the buffaloes to sheep’s and there are millions of
them.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• The livestock wealth plays a crucial role in Indian life. • The climate of these biomes is modified by altitude and
It is a major source of fuel, draught power, nutrition and latitude. At high altitudes and at greater distance from
raw material for village industries. the equator the deserts are cold and hot near equator
• But only about 13 million hectares in the country are and tropics.
classified as permanent grazing lands. On top of it, they • The perennial plant like creosote bush, cactus are scat-
exist in a highly degraded state. tered throughout the desert biomes.
• Grassland biomes are important to maintain the popu- • In shallow depressed areas with salt deposits geese-
lation of many domesticated and wild herbivores. wood, seepwood and salt grasses are common.
• Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur.
Do you know?
3.5.3. Impact of grazing Sri Venkateshwara Zoological Park located in Tirupati
city in Andhra Pradesh is the largest zoo in the
• Due to heavy grazing pressure, the quality of grasslands
country.
deteriorates rapidly, the mulch cover of the soil reduces,
microclimate becomes more dry and is readily invaded
by xerophytic plants and borrowing animals. • Because water is the dominant limiting factor, the
• Due to absence of humus cover, mineral soil surface is productivity of a given desert is almost directly de-
heavily trampled, when wet it produces puddling of the pendent on the rainfall. Where soils are suitable, ir-
surface layer. In turn it reduces the infiltration of water rigation can convert deserts into productive
into the soil and accelerates run off, resulting in soft agricultural land.
erosion. • As the large volume of water passes through the ir­
• These changes contribute to the reduction of energy rigation system, salts may be left behind that will
flow, and the disruption of the stratification and perio- gradually accumulate over the years until they become
dicity of the primary producers. It results in a break- limiting, unless means of avoiding this difficulty are
down of the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon and devised.
nitrogen.
• Water and wind erosion completely deteriorates dry Do you know?
grassland microclimate. Polar bears are very well adapted to swimming, with a
water-repellent coat and partially webbed feet.
3.5.4. Role of fire
• Fire plays an important role in the management of
grasslands. 3.6.1. Adaptations
• Under moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, Desert plants are under hot and dry conditions.
whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to (i) These plants conserve water by following
maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert methods:
shrubs.
• They are mostly shrubs.
• Burning increases the forage yields.
• Leaves are absent or reduced in size.
3.6. DESERT ECOSYSTEM • Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.
• Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of • In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for
annual rainfall, or sometimes in hot regions where photosynthesis.
there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the • Root system is well developed and spread over large
annual cycle. area.
• Lack of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and
high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often reproduce only during the short rainy season, and not
lie in “rain shadows”, that is, where high mountains in summer and winter. This is an adaption to desert con-
block off moisture from the seas. dition.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
(ii) The animals are physiologically and and root-systems and often large flowers. They appear
behaviorally adapted to desert conditions. almost immediately after rain, develop flowers and
• They are fast runners. fruits in an incredibly short time, and die as soon as the
surface layer of the soil dries up.
• They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat dur-
ing day time. • The rain perennials are visible above the ground only
during the rainy season, but have a perennial under-
• They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine. ground stem.
• Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the • The second group - depending on the presence of sub-
body away from the hot ground.
terranean water
• Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without • By far the largest number of indigenous plants are ca-
drinking water for several days.
pable of absorbing water from deep below the surface
• Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds of the ground by means of a well-developed root system,
which they eat. the main part of which generally consists of a slender,
• Camel is known as the ship of the desert as it can travel woody tap root of extraordinary length.
long distances without drinking water for several days. • Generally, various other xerophilous adaptations are
• Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to deserts but resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy growth,
some species have become secondarily adapted. A few succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected sto-
species of nocturnal rodents can live in the desert with- mata, etc., all having for their object of reduction of
out drinking water. transpiration.
(b) Fauna
3.6.2. Indian Desert – Thar desert (hot)
• It is home to some of India’s most magnificent grass-
• The climate of this region is characterised by excessive lands and sanctuary for the Great Indian Bustard.
drought, the rainfall being scanty and irregular.
• Among the mammal, the blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara,
• The winter rains of northern India rarely penetrate into caracal, Sandgrouse and desert fox inhabit the open
the region. plains, grasslands, and saline depressions.
• November to March is characterized by extreme varia- • The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only known
tions of temperature and the temperature is frequently population of Asiatic wild Ass lies in the remote part of
below freezing point at night. Great Rann, Gujarat.
• During April to June the heat are intense, frequent • It is the migration flyway used by cranes and flamingos.
scorching winds prevail with great desiccating.
• The relative humidity of the atmosphere is always low.
Do you know?
• The climate is hostile to all vegetation, only plants and
animals possessing special adaptations being able to According to Global Forest Resource Assessment Re-
establish themselves. port (Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 2005),
India ranks among the top ten countries in terms of
(a) Flora forest area. India has 1.8 % of the global forest area
The proper desert plants may be divided into two main with per capita forests of 0.08 ha.
groups.
i) depending directly upon on rain and
3.6.3. Cold Desert/ Temperate Desert
ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean
water. Cold desert of India include areas of ladak, leh and kargil
of kashmir and spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and some
The first group consists of two types: parts of northern Uttaranchal and Sikkim. These arid
• depending directly upon on the rain are of two types - areas are not affected by the Indian monsoons because they
the ‘ephernerals’ and the rain perennials’. lie in the rain-shadow of the Himalayan mountain systems.
• The ephernerals are delicate annuals, apparently free Characterised by extreme cold weather and denuded ter-
from any xerophilous adaptations, having slender stems rain they are not suitable for plant growth. Isolated, scat-

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
tered and over grazed herbaceous shrubs are found. The cause of this process is not climatic changes, droughts,
Grazing period is less than 3-4 months. etc. but human actions.
Causes
3.6.4. Characters
• Severe arid conditions - Dry Atmosphere • Population pressure
• Temperature less than 0°C for most of the period, drops • Increase in cattle population, over grazing
to –50°C during winter. • Increased agriculture
• insignificant monsoon - Mean annual rainfall less than • Development activities
400mm • Deforestation
• Heavy snowfall occurs between November and march.
3.7.1. Status of Indian desertification
• Soil type - sandy to sandy loam
As per the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of
• Soil pH - neutral to slight alkaline. India, 2007, the percentage of country under dry lands is
• Soil nutrient - Poor organic matter content 69.6%. The total area undergoing the process of land deg-
• Soil has low water retention capacity. radation in India is 105.48 million hectares, which consti-
tutes 32.07 percentage of India’s total land area.
• Wind erosion is more common.
81.45 million hectares area of the country is under deser-
• Narrow growing period, mostly during the summer.
tification (land degradation within drylands).
• Due to aforesaid extreme cold conditions, growth of
vegetation is slow and of slunted nature. Control measures
Bio-diversity India is a signatory to United Nations Convention to Com-
bat Desertification (UNCCD). The National Action Pro-
• Cold desert is the home of highly adaptive, rare endan- gramme for combating desertification was prepared in
gered fauna, such as Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali,
2001 to take appropriate action in addressing the problems
Ladakh Uriyal, Bharal, Tibetan Antelope (chiru), Ti-
of desertification.
betan Gazelle, Wild Yak, Snow Leopard, Brown Bear,
Tibetan Wolf, Wild Dog and Tibetan Wild Ass (‘Kiang’ Some of the major programmes currently implemented
a close relative of the Indian wild ass) , Woolly hare, that address issues related to land degradation and deser-
Black Necked Crane, etc. tification are
• Cold desert comprises of alpine mesophytes and desert • Integrated Watershed Management Programme
vegetation. • National Afforestation Programme
• Dry temperature zone: Betula, Salix, Juniperus. • National Mission for Green India
• Alphine zone: Junipers, Birch, Rhododendron with • The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
grasses. Guarantee Scheme
• Perpetual snow zone: No vegetation due to permanently • Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Pro-
frozen soil. ject and Flood Prone River
• Oak, pine, deodar, birch and rhododendron are the im- • National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed
portant trees. Areas
• Desert Development Programme
3.7. DESERTIFICATION • Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-component of
It is the destruction of biological potential of the land which Grassland Development including Grass Reserves, Com-
can ultimately lead to desert like conditions. In arid and mand Area Development and Water Management pro-
semiarid regions, the restoration of the fragile ecosystem gramme etc.
is very slow, and issues like deforestation, mining enhances
the desertification. Desertification is a main problem faced 3.7.2. Afforestation
by desert adjoining areas, which stretches across parts of • The desert regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Pun-
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. jab and Trans-Himalayan regions are in scarce of veg-
etation.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. 31
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• People require fire wood, timber and fodder for their • Mizoram, with 88.93 percentage of forest cover has the
domestic consumptions and livestock. highest forest cover in percentage terms, followed by
• Presence of vegetation prevents the soil erosion and Lakshadweep with 84.56 per cent. The ISFR 2015 states
modifies the hostile climate. that 15 States/Union Territories have above 33 per cent
of the geographical area under forest cover.
• Thus desert Afforestation is inevitable in order to mod-
ify the climate, desertification and to meet the demands • Out of these, 7 States/Union Territories – Mizoram, Lak-
of people living in that region. shadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Island, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Manipur have more
3.8 INDIAN STATE OF FOREST REPORT, 2017 than 75 per cent forest cover, while 8 states – Tripura,
Goa, Sikkim, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Dadra & Nagar
• State of Forests Report is published by the Forest Survey
Haveli, Chhattisgarh and Assam have forest cover is
of India (FSI) on a biennial basis since 1987.
between 33 percent to 75 percent.
• The India State of Forest Report 2017 is the 15th report
• “India is ranked 10th in the world in forest cover, with
in the series. It is based on interpretation of LISS III
24.39% of land area under forest and tree cover.
sensor data of indigenous Resourcesat – II satellite. The
satellite data interpretation is followed by extensive and • As per the FAO report, India is placed 8th in the list of
rigorous ground truthing. Top Ten nations reporting the greatest annual net gain
in the forest area.
• The total forest and tree cover is 24.39 percent of the
total geographical area. Forest and Tree Cover of the
country has increased by 8,021 sq km (1 %) as com- Do you know?
pared to the assessment of 2015. The very dense forest
(VDF) has increased by 1.36 % as compared to the last Spider silk is possibly the strongest material in the
assessment. VDF absorbs maximum carbon dioxide world! Scientists believe that if they gathered the same
from the atmosphere. weight of spider web as a piece of steel, the web would
be much stronger than the steel! As hard as scientists
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the try, they cannot match or copy the silk.
country, followed by Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattis-
garh.



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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER - 4

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

E cosystems consisting of water as the main habitat

are known as aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosys-
tems are classified based on their salt content.
i) Fresh water ecosystems- The salt content of fresh
iii) Plankton:
• This group includes both microscopic plants like algae
(phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans and pro-
tozoans (zooplankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems,
bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt (parts per except certain swift moving waters.
thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, • The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so
and rivers that their distribution is controlled, largely, by currents
ii) Marine ecosystems - the water bodies containing salt in the aquatic ecosystems.
concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e.,
iv) Nekton:
35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas and open ocean
iii) Brackish water ecosystems – these water bodies have • This group contains animals which are swimmers.
salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt • The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they
marshes, mangrove swamps and forests. have to overcome the water currents.
• The animals range in size from the swimming insects
4.1. AQUATIC ORGANISMS (about 2 mm long) to the largest animals, the blue
The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis of their whale.
zone of occurrence and their ability to cross these zones. v) Benthos:
The organisms (both flora and fauna) in the aquatic eco- • The benthic organisms are those found living in the
system are unevenly distributed but can be classified on bottom of the water mass.
the basis of their life form or location into five groups • Practically every aquatic ecosystem contains well devel-
i) Neuston: oped benthos.
• These are unattached organisms which live at the air- 4.1.1. Factors Limiting the Productivity of
water interface such as floating plants, etc.
Aquatic Habitats
• Some organisms spend most of their lives on top of the
air-water interface such as water striders, while others
Sunlight and oxygen are most important limiting fac-
spend most of their time just beneath the air-water
tors of the aquatic ecosystems whereas moisture and
interface and obtain most of their food within the water.
temperature are the main limiting factors of terres-
• E.g., beetles and back-swimmers. trial ecosystem.
ii) Periphyton:
• These are organisms which remain attached to stems Sunlight:
and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging • Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes
above the bottom mud such as sessile algae and their down the column of water. The depth to which light pen-
associated group of animals. etrates a lake determines the extent of plant distribution.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Based on light penetration and plant distribution they • Therefore, the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in
are classified as photic and aphotic zones an ecosystem depends on the rate at which the aforesaid
two processes occur.
Photic zone:
• It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to • Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through air-
water interface and through respiration of organisms
which light penetrates and within which photosynthetic
(fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc).
activity is confined.
• The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of • The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is
also influenced by temperature. Oxygen is less soluble
water.
in warm water. Warm water also enhances decomposer
• Both photosynthesis and respiration activity takes activity. Therefore, increasing the temperature of a wa-
place. terbody increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted
• photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the lighted and usually from water.
well-mixed portion that extends from the lake sur- • When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm,
face down to where the light level is 1% of that at the many aquatic organisms are likely to die.
surface.
Other limiting factors which influence on aquatic produc-
Aphotic zone: tivity are
• The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light Transparency:
penetration and plant growth are restricted forms the
aphotic zone. • Transparency affects the extent of light penetration.
• Only respiration activity takes place. • Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phyto-
plankton, etc make the water turbid.
• aphotic zone is positioned below the littoral and photic • Consequently it limits the extent of light penetration
zones to bottom of the lake where light levels are too low
and the photosynthetic activity in a significant way.
for photosynthesis. Respiration occurs at all depths so the
aphotic zone is a region of oxygen consumption. This deep, Temperature:
unlit region is also known as the profundal zone. • The water temperature changes less rapidly than the
temperature of air because water has a considerably
higher specific heat than air, i.e. larger amounts of heat
Winterkill energy must be added to or taken away from water to
Snow cover of ice on water body can effectively cut off raise or lower its temperature.
light, plunging the waters into darkness. Hence pho- • Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the
tosynthesis stops but respiration continues. Thus in aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance
shallow lakes, the oxygen get depleted. Fish die, but limit.
we won’t know it until the ice melts and we find float-
ing fish. This condition is known as winterkill. • As a result, even small changes in water temperature are
a great threat to the survival of aquatic organisms when
compared to the changes in air temperatures in the ter-
Dissolved oxygen: restrial organisms.
• In aquatic ecosystems oxygen is dissolved in water, The classification of organisms and limiting factors dis-
where its concentration varies constantly depending on cussed here apply in general to all aquatic ecosystems -
factors that influence the input and output of oxygen in lakes,Ponds, Rivers, Streams, Estuaries, oceans and seas.
water.
• In fresh water the average concentration of dissolved oxygen Do you know?
is 0.0010 per cent (also expressed as 10 parts per million or
Bats are social animals. They hang UPSIDE DOWN
10 ppm) by weight, which is 150 times lower than the con-
when they sleep. They feed at night (they are “noctur-
centration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air.
nal”) and spend the day sleeping in caves or in tree
• Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air tops. They are the second largest group of mammals
water interface and by the photosynthetic activities of after rodents.
aquatic plants.

34 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
4.2. LAKE ECOLOGY known as Freshwater, Brackish or Saline lakes (similar
Any - body of standing water, generally large enough in to that of classification of aquatic ecosystem).
area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology , ecology, and • On the basis of their nutrient content, they are catego-
other characteristics is generally known as lake. rized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients), Mesotrophic
(moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).
4.2.1. Ageing of Lakes
• Vast majority of lakes in India are either eutrophic or
• Like any organism, lakes are born as they originate by mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their
various geological and geomorphic events, and ‘grow’ surroundings or organic wastes entering them.
with time to change in their various morphological and
functional characteristics and eventually die. 4.2.3. General Characteristics of Oligotrophic
• They receive their water from surface runoff (some- and eutrophic Lakes
times also groundwater discharge) and along with it Type of lake
various chemical substances and mineral matter eroded
from the land. Sl.no Parameter Oligotrophic Eutrophic
• Over periods spanning millennia, ‘ageing’ occurs as the 1. Aquatic plant Low Eliminated
lakes accumulate mineral and organic matter and grad- production due to
ually, get filled up. Eutrophication
2. Aquatic Low Eliminated
The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth animal due to
of algae, aquatic plants and various fauna. This process is production Eutrophication
known as natural eutrophication. 3. Aquatic plant Low High
Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated nutrient flux
rate is caused by human activities (discharge of waste-
4. Oxygen in the Present Absent
waters or agricultural runoff) and the con­sequent age-
hypolimnion
ing phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’.
(bottom layer)
5. Depth Tend to be Tend to be
Do you know? deeper shallower
Poison Dart frogs live in rainforest habitats in Central 6. Water quality Good Poor
and South America. They can be found in trees, as well for domestic &
as under leaves and logs and rocks on the floor of the industrial uses
forest. Because of their size, from ½ to 2 inches long, they
7. Total salts or Usually lower Sometimes
are hard to see. Poison frogs warn predators with bril-
liant colors and patterns. There are many species of poi- conductance higher
son frogs that can be found in every color under the sun! 8. Number of Many Fewer
They prey on invertebrates, especially certain ant species, plant and
which build up really strong poisons in the frog. animal species
4.2.2. In India 4.2.4. Removal of the nutrients from a lake
• In India, natural lakes (relatively few) mostly lie in the • Flushing with nutrient-poor waters.
Himalayan region , the floodplains of Indus, Ganga and • Deep water abstraction.
Brahmaputra.
• On-site P-elimination by flocculation/flotation with water
• In the semi-arid and arid regions of western and pen- backflow, or floating Plant NESSIE with adsorbents.
insular India, tens of thousands of water bodies have
been constructed over millennia. • On-site algae removal by filters and P-adsorbers.
• Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps • On-site algae skimming and separator thickening.
the oldest man-made lake in India, dating back to • Artificial mixing / Destratification (permanent or inter-
300 BC. mittent).
• Lakes are also classified on the basis of their water • Harvest of fishes and macrophytes.
chemistry. Based on the levels of salinity, they are • Sludge removal.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Ameenpur Lake - First Biodiversity Heritage Site • The growth of green algae which we see in the lake
Ameenpur Lake gets the status of the first Biodiversity surface layer is the physical identification of an Eu-
Heritage Site in the country under the biodiversity act, trophication.
2002. it is an ancient man-made lake in a western part of • Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess
Telangana. Biodiversity Heritage Site is areas of biodiver- ions and a population explosion covers almost entire
sity importance, which harbor rich biodiversity, wild rela- surface layer is known as algal bloom. This growth is
tives of crops, or areas, which lie outside the protected area unsustainable, however.
network. Biodiversity Heritage sites are managed by a lo-
cally constituted Biodiversity Management Committee and
• As Algal Bloom covers the surface layer, it restricts the
penetration of sunlight. Diffusion of gas from atom
get funding for its protection.
• Oxygen is required by all respiring animals in the water
Do you know? and it is replenished by diffusion and photosynthesis of
green plants.
Under Green India Mission (GIM), perspective plans and
annual plans of operations of six States have been ap- • The oxygen level is already low because of the popula-
proved in the first sitting of the National Executive Coun- tion explosion and further oxygen is taken up by micro-
cil held in May 2015. organisms which feed off the dead algae during
decomposition process.
4.3. EUTROPHICATION • Due to reduced oxygen level, fishes and other aquatic
organism suffocate and they die.
• Greek word – Eutrophia means adequate & healthy nu-
trition. • The anaerobic conditions can promote growth of bac-
teria which produces toxins deadly to aquatic organ-
• Eutrophication is a syndrome of ecosystem, response to isms, birds and mammals.
the addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as
nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc • All this eventually leads to degradation of aquatic eco-
that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem. system and death of its organisms.
• It is primarily caused by the leaching of phosphate and • It often leads to change in animal and plant population
- or nitrate containing fertilisers from agricultural & degradation of water & habitat quality.
lands into lakes or rivers.

Process of Eutrophication

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
4.3.1. Types 2. Non-point source
1. Natural • Is from various ill-defined and diffuse sources
• Deposition of nutrients [such as depositional environ- • Vary spatially and temporarily and are difficult to
ments. When the nutrients flow into the system on tem- regulate.
poral basics.
• It Occurs over centuries FLOW CHART
• Eg. Seasonally inundated tropical flood plains Agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, etc
2. Manmade
Transportation to the aquatic ecosystem
• Occurs in decades
• These inputs may come from untreated sewage dis- Nutrient accumulation and enrichment
charges, runoff of fertilizer from farm fields, golf
courses, park , etc. & from animal wastes. Overgrowth of Algae
• Combustion of fossil fuel [produces gases – nitrogen
oxides Algal Bloom
• Growing urban population in the coastal areas
Algae covering the aquatic surface layer
4.3.2. Sources
Restricts the sunlight penetration,
1. Point sources Diffusion of D.O.
• Directly attributable to one influence
Underground aquatic Algae, plant’s die
• In point source nutrient waste travels directly from
source to water.
Bacterial Decomposition consumes the available
• Point sources are easy to regulate. oxygen in the aquatic ecosystem

Anoxia condition (Devoid of oxygen)

Trees
T - Timber, the first and the foremost use of trees All aquatic organism die due to lack of D.O

R - Restoration, reclamation and rejuvenation of denuded Degradation of aquatic ecosystem

and disturbed soils by using trees to control soil ero-
sion and desertification, protect watersheds, improve
soil nutrient status (by growing nitrogen-fixing trees) 4.3.2. Effects
and retain moisture in the soil Change in ecosystem:
E - Ecological, eco-developmental and environmental use • Eutrophication eventually create detritus layer in the
of trees for effective and efficient purification of the ponds & lakes and produces successively shallower
environment because trees act as oxygen banks and depth of surface water.
eliminate air pollutants; for abating or moderating • Eventually the water body is reduced into marsh whose
temperature, noise and wind by planting trees as plant community is transformed from an aquatic envi-
environmental screens, thus affecting the microcli- ronment to recognizable terrestrial ecosystem.
mate; for harboring wildlife; for maintaining biodi-
Decreased biodiversity
versity; and for conserving energy
E - E ducational and recreational value in gardening,
• Algal blooms restrict the sunlight to penetrate & affects
the photosynthesizing plants. It causes death of plants.
landscaping, art, culture and religion
• Bacteria consumes all the oxygen on decomposition &
S - Source of sustenance; i.e., food, fuel, fodder, fertilizer, results in devoid of oxygen. Eventually it leads to death
fiber, medicine, tannin, dyes, oils, etc. of all living organism in aquatic ecosystem.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
New species invasion • Treatment of runoff from street & storm drains
• Eutrophication may cause the ecosystem competitive by • Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power
transforming the normal limiting nutrient to abundant plants
level. This cause shifting in species composition of eco- • Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorous re-
system moval from municipal waste water
Toxicity Policies
• Some algal blooms when die or eaten, release neuro & • Multi dimensional in Nature should include
hepatotoxins which can kill aquatic organism & pose
threat to humans. (e.g) Shellfish poisoning.
• Education & awareness
• Depletion of dissolved oxygen level. • Research, monitoring & evaluation
• Increased incidences of fish kills & loss of desirable fish • Regulations.
species & reduction in harvesting • Fiscal & economic incentives
• Loss of coral reefs. • Ecosystem preservation & restoration
• Decrease in water transparency and increased turbidity. 4.4. HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS
• Affects navigation due to increased turbidity. • Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that
• Colour (yellow, green, red), smell and water treatment can be found naturally in coastal waters. They are
problems. major producers of oxygen and food for many of the
• Increased biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton animals that live in these waters.
• Increase in bloom of gelatinous zooplankton • When environmental conditions are favorable for their
• Increased biomass of benthic and epiphytic algae development, these cells may multiply rapidly and form
high numbers of cells and this is called an algal bloom.
• Unsuitable for aesthetic recreation, and reduction in
value of water body • A bloom often results in a color change in the water.
Algal blooms can be any color, but the most common
ones are red or brown. These blooms are commonly
Do you know? referred to as red or brown tides.
The world’s tallest tree is a coast redwood in Califor- • Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produce
nia, measuring more than 360 ft or 110 m. toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine mammals and
humans. The toxins may also make the surrounding air
difficult to breathe. These are known as Harmful Algal
Mitigation
Blooms (HABs).
• Riparian buffer
• Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land 4.4.2. Why Red Tide is a misnomer?
created near the waterways, farms, roads, etc. in an • “Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon
attempt to filter pollution. where certain phytoplankton species contain pigments
• Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the
zones instead of deposition in water. water to be discolored.
• Minimizing the non-point pollution. • Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish
• Nitrogen testing & modeling orange depending upon the type of organism, the type
of water, and the concentration of the organisms.
• N-Testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of
fertilizer required for crop plants. It will reduce the • The term “red tide” is thus a misnomer because blooms
amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area. are not always red, they are not associated with tides,
they are usually not harmful, and some species can be
• Treatment of Industrial effluents harmful or dangerous at low cell concentrations that do
• Organic farming & Integrated Farming System. not discolor the water.
• Reduction in livestock densities • They are scientifically referred as Harmful Algal Blooms
• Improving the efficiency of use of fertilizer (HABs).

38 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
4.4.3. What are the causes of these blooms? habitats, creating a significant impact on local econo-
• Blooms occur when several colonies start combining mies and the livelihood of coastal residents.
rapidly when conditions such as nutrient concentra-
tions, salinity and temperature are optimal. 4.4.6. How do we get exposed to HAB toxins?
• Blooms can be due to a number of reasons. Two com- • Most illness associated with HAB exposure is the result
mon causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters. of consuming toxins that are present in shellfish or
finfish.
• Nutrient enrichment of water, especially phosphates and
nitrogen, is often the result of pollution and can cause • Some HAB toxins can become airborne during a bloom
algal blooms. and people can become ill by inhaling toxins.
• Water temperature has also been related to the occur-
4.4.7. Is it safe to eat seafood?
rence of algal blooms, with unusually warm water being
conducive to blooms. • In general, it is safe to eat seafood.
• However, consuming shellfish that have been harvested
4.4.4. How are HABs dangerous to fish and from waters with high levels of harmful algae and con-
humans? suming fish that have lesions or that were caught in an
• HABs can deplete oxygen in water and lead to low dis- area during an algal bloom can result in illness.
solved oxygen levels.
4.4.8. HABs and Climate Change
• How it depletes oxygen? When masses of algae die and
decompose, the decaying process can deplete oxygen • Because the growth, toxicity, and distribution of harm-
in the water, causing the water to become so low in ful algal bloom (HAB) species are all tied to the environ-
oxygen. ment, changes in climate can change the occurrence,
severity, and impacts of HAB events.
• When oxygen levels become too low, fish suffocate
and die.
4.5. WET LAND ECOSYSTEM
• Some algae species in blooms produce potent neurotox-
• Wetlands are areas intermediate in character between
ins that can be transferred through the food web where
deepwater and terrestrial habitats, also transitional in
they affect and even kill the higher forms of life such as
nature, and often located between them.
zooplankton, shellfish, fish, birds, marine mammals,
and even humans that feed either directly or indirectly • These habitats experience periodic flooding from adja-
on them. cent deepwater habitats and therefore supports plants
and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flood-
ing or water logging of the substrate, were designated
Do you know? as wetlands.
Elephants live in a social hierarchy dominated by older • They included lake littorals (marginal areas between
females. Females travel in long-lasting social units of highest and lowest water level of the lakes), flood-
about half a dozen adult females and their offspring, plains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels be-
with the unit being led by a single older female, the yond the natural levees and periodically flooded
matriarch. during high discharge in the river) and other marshy
or swampy areas where water gets stagnated due to
poor drainage or relatively impervious substrata &
4.4.5. Is HAB’s an environmental hazard? Bogs, fens and mangroves due to similar ecological
• Yes, it is because these events can make people sick characteristics
when contaminated shellfish are eaten, or when people
breathe aerosolized HAB toxins near the beach. 4.5.1. Definition
• In addition, HAB events can result in the closure of • Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural
shellfish beds, massive fish kills, death of marine mam- (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that
mals and seabirds, and alteration of marine habitats. is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including
• As a consequence, HAB events adversely affect com- areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide
mercial and recreational fishing, tourism, and valued does not exceed 6 mtrs.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
4.5.2. Characteristics
• Covered by water (or) has waterlogged soil for atleast seven days during the growing season.
• Adopted plant life (hydrophytes)
• Hydric soils (not enough O2 available for some plants)

4.5.3. Wetlands Classification

WETLAND

INLAND COASTAL
WETLAND WETLAND

Natural Man made Natural Man made

• Lakes / Ponds • Reservoirs • Estuary • Salt pans

• Ox-bow Lakes • Tanks • Lagoon • Aquculture
• Waterlogged • Waterlogged • Creek
• Seasonal • Ash pond • Backwater
• Swamp/marsh • Bay
• Coral reef
• Tidal flat
• Mangroves
• Salt marsh

4.5.4. Functions of Wetlands • Comprise an important resource for sustainable tour-

• Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, as well as numerous ism, recreation and cultural heritage
species of birds, including migratory species. • Stabilization of local climate
• Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface • Source of livelihood to local people
water • Genetic reservoir for various species of plants (espe-
• Nutrients recycling cially rice)
• Water purification • Supporting specific diversity
• Floods mitigation
4.5.5. Reasons for depletion
• Maintenance of stream flow
• Conversion of lands for agriculture
• Ground water recharging
• Overgrazing
• Provide drinking water, fish, fodder, fuel, etc • Removal of sand from beds
• Control rate of runoff in urban areas • Aqua culture
• Buffer shorelines against erosion • Habitat Destruction and Deforestation

40 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Pollution • lakes are generally less important when compared to
• Domestic waste wetland from the viewpoint of ecosystem and biodiver-
sity conservation.
• Agricultural runoff
• Industrial effluents 4.5.8. Comparison between Lake and Wetlands
• Climate change
Sl . Characteristic Lake Wetland
4.5.6. Mitigation no (shallow lake)
• Survey and demarcation 1. Origin various process Fluvial/
• Protection of natural regeneration Geomorphic
processes
• Artificial regeneration
2. Water turnover Permanent Permanent or
• Protective measures
Temporary
• Afforestation (percentage survival to be indicated)
3. Water level relatively small Relatively Large
• Weed control
changes
• Soil conservation measures & afforestation
4. Littoral: Small Large
• Wildlife conservation
Pelagial ratio
• Removal of encroachments
5. Thermal Yes No
• Eutrophication abatement stratification
• Environmental awareness
6. Vertical mixing Thermally Wind regulated
4.5.7. Distinction from Lakes regulated
• Although the Ministry of Environment and Forests has 7. Dominant Phyto plankton Macrophytes
not adopted a clear distinction between lakes and wet- Producer
lands, the National Lake Conservation Programme 8. Food chain Grazing Detritus
(NLCP) considers lakes as standing water bodies which Pathway Pathway
have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a
9. Nutrient Cycles Microbial loops Microbial loop
water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or
less important dominant
very little aquatic vegetation (macrophytes).
• These water bodies are used primarily for drinking
10. Productivity Low High
water supplies, irrigation and/or recreation.
• Excessive growth of macrophytes (both submerged and
11. Trophic status Oligo trophic Mostly Eutrophic
free-floating) generally present in wetland, affects the
(Except desirable
water quality adversely and interfere with the utiliza-
in bogs)
tion of the water body.
12. Biodiversity Generally low Generally high
• However, marginal aquatic vegetation (wetlands), par-
ticularly comprising of emergent plants and those in-
habiting waterlogged soils, is not only desirable but is 13. Functions- Less Significant
to be promoted because it checks erosion, serves habitat Flood control Significant
for wildlife and helps improve water quality. 14. Groundwater Negligible/low Low-high
• Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of recharge
their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from 15. Waste No Yes
surroundings and their sediments) and have abundant treatment
growth of aquatic macrophytes.
16. Management Control of Biodiversity
• They support high densities and diversity of fauna, par- objectives eutrophication conservation
ticularly birds, fish and macro invertebrates, and there- High Specific
fore, have high value for biodiversity conservation. These Water quality Functions
shallow lakes are rightfully categorized as wetlands.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. 41
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
4.5.9. India’s Wetlands • to monitor implementation of the programme; and to
• Wetlands are areas of critical ecological significance: as prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.
they support biodiversity, support millions of people • The Central Government is responsible for overall co-
directly and indirectly, protect from storms, flood con- ordination of wetland conservation programmes and
trol, improve water quality, supply food, fiber and raw initiatives at the international and national levels. It also
materials. provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to
• India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are state govt.
inland wetlands and 3,959 are coastal wetlands. Wet- • Since the land resources belong to them, the State Gov-
lands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% ernments/UT Administration are responsible for man-
are under paddy cultivation. agement of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP
• Natural wetlands in India range from high altitude wet- for ensuring their wise-use.
lands in Himalayas; flood plains of the major river sys-
tems; saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and 4.5.11. Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of
semi-arid regions; coastal wetlands such as lagoons, National Importance
backwaters, estuaries, mangroves, swamps and coral • Criteria for identification of wetlands of national impor-
reefs, and so on. tance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under
the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as given
below:
Do you know?
• Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland
Kannimara teak is one of the largest living teak tree types
in the world. It has an amazing girth of 6.48m and a
(i) If it contains a representative, rare, or unique example
crown height of 48.75m It is believed to be around 400
of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within
years old.
the appropriate biogeographic region.
According to the local tribal belief here when this tree
was tried to cut down, the blood spurted out from the
• Criteria based on species and ecological communities
place of cut. This tree was being since then wor- (ii) If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically en-
shipped by the local tribes in Parambikulam as “Vir- dangered species; or threatened ecological communities.
gin tree”. Kannimara - ‘ Kanni’ means ‘Virgin’. This (iii) If it supports populations of plant and/or animal spe-
tree has been awarded ‘Mahavriksha Puraskar’ by the cies important for maintaining the biological diversity
Government of India. of a particular biogeographic region.
(iv) If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical
stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during
4.5.10. National Wetlands Conservation adverse conditions.
Programme (NWCP)
• Specific criteria based on water birds
• NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
(v) If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
• Under the programme, 115 wetlands (Annexure) have
(vi) If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a pop-
been identified by the Ministry which require urgent
ulation of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.
conservation and management interventions.
Aim
• Specific criteria based on fish
(vii) If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous
• Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further deg- fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,
radation and ensuring their wise use for the benefit species interactions and/or populations that are rep-
of local communities and overall conservation of bio- resentative of wetland benefits and/or values and
diversity. thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
Objectives (viii) If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawn-
• to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and man- ing ground, nursery and/or migration path on which
agement of wetlands in the country. fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere,
• to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive depend. Specific criteria based on water/life and
conservation measures in the identified wetlands. culture

42 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
(ix) If it is an important source of food and water resource, of sunlight (no need of soil). A floating island unit is es-
increased possibilities for recreation and eco-tourism, sentially a platform designed using styrofoam, bamboo,
improved scenic values, educational opportunities, con- gunny bags and coirand it performs the function of a wet-
servation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites). land.

4.5.12. Montreux Record 4.6. ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM

Montreux Record is the principal tool under the Ramsar • Estuaries are located where river meets the sea. Estu-
Convention, is a register of wetland sites on the List of aries are water bodies where the flow of freshwater
Wetlands of International Importance from river mixes with salt water transported, by tide,
It highlights those sites where adverse changes in ecologi- from the ocean. Estuaries are the most productive
cal character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to water bodies in the world. They are located at the lower
occur as a result of technological developments, pollution end of a river and are subject to tidal fluctuations.
or other human interference and which are therefore in • Estuaries are either once or twice, daily washed by the
need of priority conservation attention. It is maintained as seawater.
part of the Ramsar List.
Montreux Record are employed to identify priority sites 4.6.1. Characters
for positive national and international conservation atten- • An Estuary is a semi enclosed coastal body of water
tion. Sites may be added to and removed from the Record with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.
only with the approval of the Contracting Parties in which • It has a free connection with open sea.
they lie.
• The complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt is seen
Montreux Record sites in India from the head (river end) to the mouth (sea end) of an
Chilika lake, Orissa was placed on the Montreux Record in estuary.
1993 due to siltation, which was choking the mouth of the • An estuary has very little wave action, so it provides a
lake. Following the rehabilitation efforts of the government, calm refuge from the open sea. It provides the shelter
it was removed from the Record in 2002. For this achieve- for some of the animals.
ment, the Chilika Development Authority received the • It is the most productive region as it receives the high
Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award for 2002. amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
Loktak lake, Manipur was included on the Montreux Re- • Estuaries are most heavily populated areas throughout
cord in 1993 (signifying habitat degradation), as a result of the world, with about 60% of the world’s population
ecological problems such as deforestation in the catchment living along estuaries and the coast.
area, infestation of water hyacinth and pollution. The con-
struction a hydroelectric power plant has caused the local Coastal lakes which have their connection with the sea
extinction of several native fish species. through small openings are better known as lagoons or
Keoladeo national park, Rajasthan was placed on the backwaters. They exhibit a gradient in salinity from
Montreux Record in 1990 due to water shortage and un- freshwater to marine depending upon the extent of in-
balanced grazing regime around it. The invasive growth fluence of the sea water.
of the grass Paspalum distichum has changed the eco-
logical character of large areas of the site, reducing its Estuary Formation:
suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Sibe- Most estuaries can be grouped into four geomorphic
rian crane. categories based on the physical processes responsible
Loktak lake and keoladeo national park are the two Mon- for their formation:
treux Record sites in India (1) rising sea level; (2) movement of sand and sandbars;
(3) glacial processes; and (4) tectonic processes.
Neknampur Lake - First FTW Lake
The Neknampur Lake, Hyderabad is the largest floating • Estuaries are typically classified by their geomorpho-
treatment wetland in the country. Floating treatment wet- logical features or by water circulation patterns and can
land workson the basis of hydroponics technique. Hydro- be referred to by many different names, such as bays,
ponics permits plants to grow on the water with the help harbors, lagoons, inlets, etc.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. 43
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• The banks of estuarine channels form a favoured loca- • Community values
tion for human settlements, which use the estuaries for • Indigenous values
fishing and commerce, but nowadays also for dumping
civic and industrial waste.
• Recreation values

• Estuaries are usually biologically highly productive

• Knowledge/Research values
zones. • Economic Benefits
• They also act as a filter for some dissolved constituents • Commercial fishing
in river water; these precipitate in the zone where river • Ports and harbours
water meets seawater. • Navigation
• More important is the trapping of suspended mud and • Tourism
sand carried by rivers which leads to delta formations
around estuaries.
• Agriculture, aquaculture and industry
• Storm and erosion protection
4.6.2. A Healthy Estuary 4.6.5. India Estuarine Ecosystem
• A healthy estuary supports a host of plants and animals. • The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor
It stores and recycles Nutrients, traps sediment and rivers drains into the sea through various estuaries.
forms a buffer between coastal catchments and the ma-
rine environment. It also absorbs traps and detoxifies • Estuaries are an important and distinct component of
the coastal landscape with highly complex ecosystems,
pollutants, acting as a natural water filter. When all
varying physical – chemical properties and having
such processes remain functional an estuary is consid-
highly diverse flora and fauna.
ered to be healthy state.
• Estuaries support diverse habitats, such as mangroves,
• Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal. Many estu-
aries are locations of some of the major seaports.
salt marshes, sea-grass, mudflats etc.
• Most of the India’s major estuaries occur on the east
coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast are
4.6.3. Life in Estuary
smaller.
• Only certain types of plants and animals specially
adapted to the “brackish” estuarine waters flourish in 4.6.6. Issues of Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
the estuaries. Factors influencing the growth and dis- • The specific issues which have affected the estuarine
tribution of organism in an estuary are its salinity and environment in the country are:
the amount of flooding.
1. Water flow
• Estuaries are homes to all kind of terrestrial or land-
based plants and animals, such as wood storks, peli- • Changes in water flow in various estuaries, either far
cans, coniferous and deciduous trees and butterflies. in excess or much lower than required (e.g., Hooghly,
Estuaries are also homes to unique aquatic plants and Narmada, Krishna, Godavari, Pulicat etc.)
animals, such as sea turtles and sea lions, sea catfish, • Modifications of the estuarine catchments (e.g Most of
saltworts, eelgrass, saltgrasses, cordgrasses, sea grass, the Indian estuaries)
sedge and bulrush.
2. Pollution & Water Quality
• Predators are important to the estuary because of their
end position in most consumer food chains. • Pollution through industries and combined city sewage
(e.g., all the Indian estuaries)
4.6.4. Benefits of Estuarine Ecosystem 3. Recreation And Tourism
Environmental Benefits • Recreational boating (e g., Hooghly WB; Chilika, Orissa)
• Water quality regulation and groundwater recharge • Recreational fishing kg., Chilika)
• Habitat, breeding and nursery grounds for plants and • Navigation (e g., Hooghly)
animals
4. Ports & Shipping
• Biological productivity
• Social Benefits • Dredging (e.g., Hooghly)

44 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Shipping (r g., Hooghly)
Do you know?
5. Land-use Snakes generally lay eggs, some snakes, such as boas,
• Expansion of urban and rural settlements (e.g, Hooghly, rattlesnakes and garter snakes, give birth to live
Krishna, Cauvery, Pulicat) young.
• Marinas, groynes, land reclamation and other struc-
tures (e.g., Hooghly, Pulicat)
4.7. MANGROVES
• Mining & Industries (e.g., Hooghly, Zuari, Goa)
• Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant forma-
• Agriculture (e.g., all the Estuaries) tion of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.
• Dumping of solid wastes (eg. all the Indian estuaries) Mangroves are trees and bushes growing below the
high water level of spring tides which exhibits remark-
6. Commercial Fishing & Aquaculture able capacity for salt water tolerance. - FAO .
• Over exploitation of target fish stock due to increased
demand (e.g., all the Indian estuaries) 4.7.1. Characteristics of mangroves
• Reclaiming the fringed areas for intensive aquaculture • They are basically evergreen land plants growing on
in pens , sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuar-
ies, bays, creeks and the barrier islands.
• obstructing the migratory routes of fish and prawn re-
cruitment (e.g., Chilika, Pulicat) • The best locations are where abundant silt is brought
down by rivers or on the backshore of accreting sandy
• Polluting the environment through feeding of stocked beaches.
fish and prawn in pens (Chilika)
• Their physiological adaptation to salinity stress and to
• Destruction of biodiversity through prawn seed collec- water logged anaerobic mud is high.
tion and operation of small-meshed nets (e.g., Hooghly,
Chilika, Pulicat) • They require high solar radiation and have the ability
to absorb fresh water from saline/brackish water.
7. Climate Change • It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome
respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.
• Submergence of catchment areas due to rise in water
level (e.g., all the major Indian estuaries)
• Change in biodiversity profile, affecting the production
and productivity (e.g., all the major Indian estuary)

Pneumatophores

• Mangroves occur in variety of configurations. Some

species (e.g. Rhizophora) send arching prop roots down
into the water. While other (e.g. Avicennia) send vertical
“Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.

Mangrove tree
• Most mangrove vegetation has lenticellated bank which
facilitates more water loss, produces coppices. Leaves
are thick and contain salt secreting glands.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. concentration of typical mangrove species and high ge-
seeds germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the netic diversity.
ground). This is an adaptative mechanism to overcome
the problem of germination in saline water.
• Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the intertidal
mudflats on both side of the creeks in the Godavari-
• Some secrete excess salt through their leaves as if you Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
look closely, you can see crystals of salt on the back of
the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots. • Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are de-
graded mainly due to construction of aquaculture ponds
• Adventitious roots which emerged from the main trunk and salt pans.
of a tree above ground level are called stilt roots.

Stilt Roots

Do you know?
The word amphibian means two-lives. Amphibians
spend their lives in the water and on land. All amphib-
ians begin their life in water with gills and tails. As Indian Mangrove Profile
they grow, they develop lungs and legs for their life on
land. Members of this animal class are frogs, toads, • On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby
salamanders, newts, and caecilians or blindworms. and degraded occur along the intertidal region of estu-
Amphibians shed their skin as they grow. Usually the aries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
shed skin is eaten.
• The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala
is very sparse and thin.
4.7.2. Mangrove profile in India • In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia ma-
• The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single rine, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata
block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. The are found mainly in Gulf of Kachchh and the Kori
major species of this dense mangrove forest include creek.
Herritiera fames, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., Ce- • Mangroves are of scrubby type with stunted growth,
riops decandra, Sonneratia spp. and Avicennia spp., forming narrow, discontinuous patches on soft clayey
Nypa fruticans are found along the creeks. This man- mud.
grove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and
crocodiles. Mangrove areas are being cleared for agri- • The condition of the mangroves is improving especially
in the Kori creek region, which is a paleodelta of the
cultural use.
Indus river.
• The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the
second largest in the Indian sub continent, harbour high • In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf

46 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
mangroves found in Gulf of Kuchchh, to taller stands spills, aquacultural (shrimp farming), use of chemical
found in the Sunderbans. pesticides & fertilizers, industrial purposes.
• On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the small tidal
4.8. COR AL REEFS
estuaries, neritic inlets and the lagoons support a dense
and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora. • Coral is actually a living animal. Coral has a symbiotic
relationship (each gives something to the other and gets
4.7.3. Role of mangroves something back in return) with ‘zooxanthellae’ micro-
scopic algae which live on coral [i.e. instead of living on
• Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as
the sea floor, the algae lives up on the coral which is
prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede
closer to the ocean surface and so that the algae gets
water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sedi-
adequate light].
ment in areas (where it is already occurring), stabilize
the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes.
• Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and re-
duce inundation of coastal lowlands.
• It prevents coastal soil erosion.
• It protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and
floods.
• Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
• Mangrove supports numerous flora, avifauna and wild
life.
• Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding,
spawning, rearing of several fishes.
• It protects coastal inland from adverse climatic ele- Coral
ments.
• It supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants and ed- • Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production
ible plants to local people. through its photosynthetic activities. These activities
provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for en-
• It provides numerous employment opportunities to local
ergy, enhance calcification ,and mediate elemental nu-
communities and augments their livelihood.
trient flux.
Do you know? • The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the
The King Cobra is not only an excellent climber but a beautiful colors of the coral reef, but are instead clear
super swimmer as well. They live in forests near (white). The corals receive their coloration from the
streams. zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
• The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthel-
lae with a protected environment to live within, and a
Fine, anoxic sediments deposited under mangroves act steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic
as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which are processes.
scavenged from the overlying seawater by colloidal
particles in the sediments. By cleaning our air, they • There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft cor-
taking in carbon dioxide, storing the carbon in their als, such as sea fans and gorgonians. Only hard corals
roots, leaves, branches and in its surrounding silt, and build reefs.
release oxygen back to the atmosphere, along with a • The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called pol-
little methane gas. yps. As these polyps thrive, grow, then die, they leave
their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons behind.
The limestone is colonized by new polyps. Therefore, a
4.7.4. Threat coral reef is built up of layers of these skeletons covered
• They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricul- ultimately by living polyps.
tural purpose, fuel, fodder and, salinization, minig, oil

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• The reef-building, or hermatypic corals can form a wide • Patch reefs are isolated and discontinuous patches, lying
range of shapes. Coral reefs may be branched, table-like, shoreward of offshore reef structures as seen in the Palk
or look like massive cups, boulders or knobs. bay, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Katchchh.
• While the majority of coral reefs are found in tropical • Barrier reefs are linear offshore reef structures that run
and sub-tropical water, there are also deep water corals parallel to coastlines and arise from submerged shelf
in colder regions. platforms. The water body between the reef and the
shore is termed as lagoon. Barrier reefs are seen in
Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
4.8.1. Cold Water Corals:
• Cold-water corals inhabit deep, cold (39-55 degrees • Atolls are circular or semi circular reefs that arise from
subsiding sea floor platforms as coral reef building
F), water. The United Nations Environment Pro-
keeps ahead of subsidence. The examples are the atolls
gramme reports that there are more cold-water coral
of Lakshadweep and Nicobar.
reefs worldwide than tropical reefs.
• There are only about 6 different coral species associ- • When the reef building do not keep pace with subsid-
ence, reefs become submerged banks as seen in Lak-
ated in building with these reefs. The largest cold-
shadweep.
water coral reef is the Rost Reef off Norway.
• Sea grasses grow on Kavaratti atoll, mangroves are
4.8.2. Features prevalent on Andaman and Nicobar coral reefs.
• They occur in shallow tropical areas where the sea • Among the four major reef areas of India, Andaman and
water is clean, clear and warm. Nicobar Islands are found to be very rich in species
diversity followed by the Lakshadweep Islands, the Gulf
• The coral reef cover in Indian waters is roughly esti-
of Mannar and finally the Gulf of Kachchh.
mated upto 19,000 sq. Km.
• Coral reefs are one of the most productive and complex 4.8.4. Functions of Coral Reefs
coastal ecosystems with high biological diversity.
• Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against ero-
• The high productivity is owing to the combination of its sion and storm surge.
own primary production and support from its sur-
rounding habitat. • The coral animals are highly adapted for capturing
plankton from the water, thereby capturing nutrients
• Reef building corals are a symbolic association of polyps
(coral animals) and ‘zooxanthellae’ (the microscopic • Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer
algae) • They provide substrate for mangroves
• The corals are generally slow growing colonies of ani- • Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of animals
mals while zooxanthellae are fast growing plants. and plants including avifauna.
• Even though corals live in nutrient poor waters, their
4.8.5. Threat
capability to recycle the scarce nutrients (by the whole
nutrient community) is enormous. 1. Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of reef de-
stroying mechanisms, “bleaching” and depletion of es-
• In coral reef ecosystem, many invertebrates, verte-
sential symbiotants.
brates, and plants live in close association to the corals,
with tight resource coupling and recycling, allowing 2. Anthrogenic causes – may be due to chemical pollution
coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and (pesticides, cosmetics, etc), industrial pollution, me-
biodiversity, such that they are referred to as ‘the Trop- chanical damage, nutrient loading or sediment loading,
ical Rainforests of the Oceans’. Dredging, shipping, tourism, mining or collection, ther-
mal pollution, intensive fishimg,etc.
4.8.3. Classification and their location • Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have been subject to
• The coral reefs are classified depending on their loca- unprecedented degradation over the past few decades.
tions into fringing, patch, barrier and atoll. Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic
• The fringing reefs are contiguous with the shore and and natural events. Recent accelerated coral reef decline
they are the most common - by occurring reef form, seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts
found in Andamans. (overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation

48 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
and nutrient overloading. Natural disturbances which 4.8.7. Ecological causes of coral bleaching
cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, • As coral reef bleaching is a general response to stress,
flooding, high and low temperature extremes, El Nino it can be induced by a variety of factors, alone or in
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial expo- combination. It is therefore difficult to unequivocally
sures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics. identify the causes for bleaching events. The following
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of stressors have been implicated in coral reef bleaching
corals to many of the various disturbances mentioned events.
above.
Temperature (Major Cause)
4.8.6. Coral Bleaching • Coral species live within a relatively narrow tempera-
• Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs when ture margin, and anomalously low and high sea tem-
peratures can induce coral bleaching. Bleaching is much
(i) the densities of zooxanthellae decline and / or
more frequently reported from elevated sea water tem-
(ii) the concentration of photosynthetic pigments within perature. Bleaching events also occur during sudden
the zooxanthellae fall. temperature drops accompanying intense upwelling
episodes, seasonal cold-air outbreaks.

Do you know?
All spiders produce silk but not all spiders spin webs.
Silk is used for climbing, to create webs, to build
smooth walls in burrows, build egg sacs, and wrap
prey.

Solar Irradiance

Coral Bleaching • Bleaching during the summer months, during seasonal

temperature and irradiance maxima often occurs dis-
proportionately in shallow-living corals and on the ex-
• When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of
posed summits of colonies. Solar radiation has been
their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthella may lose 50-
80% of its photosynthetic pigments. suspected to play a role in coral bleaching. Both photo-
syntheticaly active radiation (PAR, 400-700nm) and
• If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280-400nm) have been im-
decreases in time, the affected corals usually regain their plicated in bleaching.
symbiotic algae within several weeks or a few months.
• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress con- Subaerial Exposure
tinues and depleted zooxanthellae populations do not • Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere
recover, the coral host eventually dies. during events such as extreme low tides, ENSO-related
• High temperature and irradiance stressors have sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce
been implicated in the disruption of enzyme systems bleaching.
in zooxanthellae that offer protection against oxygen Sedimentation
toxicity.
• Relatively few instances of coral bleaching have been
• Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthallae are impaired linked solely to sediment. It is possible, but has not been
at temperatures above 30 degrees C, this effect could demonstrated, that sediment loading could make zoox-
activate the disassociation of coral / algal symbiosis. anthellate species more likely to bleach.
• Low- or high-temperature shocks results in zooxanthel-
lae low as a result of cell adhesion dysfunction. Fresh Water Dilution
• This involves the detachment of cnidarian endodermal • Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated pre-
cells with their zooxanthellae and the eventual expul- cipitation and runoff has been demonstrated to cause
sion of both cell types. coral reef bleaching. Generally, such bleaching events

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. 49
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
are rare and confined to relatively small, nearshore • The mangroves and coral reefs areas are categorized as
areas. ecological sensitive areas (CRZ-I) where no new con-
structions are permitted except projects relating to De-
Inorganic Nutrients
partment of Atomic Energy; pipelines, conveying
• Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase systems including transmission lines; installation of
in ambient elemental nutrient concentrations (e.g. am- weather radar for monitoring of cyclones movement and
monia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae prediction by Indian Meteorological Department and
densities 2-3 times. Although eutrophication is not di- construction of trans harbour sea link and without af-
rectly involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could cause sec- fecting the tidal flow of water.
ondary adverse affects such as lowering of coral • To enforce and implement the CRZ and IPZ Notifica-
resistance and greater susceptibility to diseases. tions, the Ministry of Environment and Forests has
Xenobiotics constituted the National and State/UT level Coastal
Zone Management Authorities.
• Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to
elevated concentrations of various chemical contami-
nants, such as Cu, herbicides and oil. Because high con- Do you know?
centrations of xenobiotics are required to induce The Ministry has partnered with the United Nations
zooxanthellae loss, bleaching from such sources is usu- Development Programme (UNDP) in a global project
ally extremely localized and / or transitory . on Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN).
Epizootics
• Pathogen induced bleaching is different from other sorts The Ministry of Environment & Forests also provides
of bleaching. Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole financial assistance to Coastal States/Union Territories,
colony death and sloughing of soft tissues, resulting in who so request, under its Centrally Sponsored Scheme
a white skeleton (not to be confused with bleached cor- for conservation and management of mangroves and
als). A few pathogens have been identified the cause coral reef.
translucent white tissues, a protozoan. • In addition Coral reef is included in Schedule I of the
Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 which affords it the high-
est degree of protection.
Do you know?
India updated its National Biodiversity Action Plan • Further Protected Areas, viz.4 National Parks, 96 Sanc-
(NBAP) and also developed 12 National Biodiversity tuaries and 3 Marine Biosphere Reserve have been cre-
Targets in 2014in line with 20 global Aichi biodiversity ated all over the country under the provisions of the
targets. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to conserve marine life
including coral reef.
• The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has also been set up
4.9 G OVERNMENT MEASURES TO to strengthen the enforcement of law for control of
PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST poaching and illegal trade in wildlife and its products.
AND COR AL REEFS (OR COASTAL
ECOSYSTEM) 4.10. K EY INITIATIVES TO PROTECT
• The Government seeks to protect, sustain and augment MARINE AND COASTAL
mangroves and coral reef in the country by both regu- ENVIRONMENTS
latory and promotional measures.
• Under the regulatory measures, the Coastal Regulation 4.10.1. Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction
Zone (CRZ) Notification (2011) and the Island Protection System (COMAPS)
Zone (IPZ) Notification 2011 regulates the development • Being implemented from 1991.
activities along the Sea coast and tidal influenced water • Assesses the health of coastal waters and facilitates
bodies. management of pollution-related issues
50 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Programme was restructured and modified in 2000– to take various measures for protecting and improving
2001 to include pollution monitoring; liaison, regulation the quality of the coastal environment and preventing,
and legislation; and consultancy services. abating and controlling environmental pollution in
coastal areas.
4.10.2. Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
Zone (LOICZ) 4.11. GANGA ACTION PLAN
• Launched in 1995 The Ganga Action Plan was launched on 14th January 1986
• Investigates the effects of global change on the coastal with the main objective of pollution abatement, to improve
zone water quality by interception, diversion and treatment of
• Aims to develop, on a scientific basis, the integrated domestic sewage and toxic and industrial chemical wastes
management of coastal environments present, from identified grossly polluting units entering in
to the river.
Do you know? After reviewing the effectiveness of the “Ganga Action
Male snakes will try to attract a female by doing a type Plan”, the Government announced the “Mission Clean
of ‘play fighting’ with other males to gain female atten- Ganga” project on 31st December, 2009 with the objective
tion. They do not try to kill each other. just win the fight! that by 2020, no municipal sewage and industrial waste
would be released in the river without treatment, with the
4.10.3. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Man- total budget of around Rs.15,000 crore.
agement (ICMAM) The Government also established the National Ganga River
• Launched in 1998 Basin Authority (NGRBA), chaired by the Prime Minister,
with the objective to ensure effective abatement of pollu-
• Aims at integrated management of coastal and marine
tion and conservation of the river Ganga, by adopting a
areas.
river basin approach for comprehensive planning and man-
• Model plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch being agement.
prepared
4.12. NAMAMI GANGA PROGR AM
4.10.4. Society of Integrated Coastal
Accordingly, an Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission
Management (SICOM)
called “NamamiGange” has been proposed to be set up and
• Launched in 2010 a sum of Rs. 2,037 crores has been set aside for the purpose
• Major national initiative to protect coastal ecosystems of conservation and improvement of the Ganga.
• A professional body with experts in various aspects of In addition a sum of Rs. 100 crores has been allocated for
coastal science and management developments of Ghats and beautification of River Fronts
at Kedarnath, Haridwar, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad,
4.10.5. Institutions for Coastal Management Patna and Delhi in the current financial year.
• The Notification on Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 1991 Accordingly, NamamiGange approaches Ganga Rejuvena-
(as amended from time to time) aims at protecting tion by consolidating the existing ongoing efforts and plan-
coastal stretches in India. ning for a concrete action plan for future.
• India has created institutional mechanisms such as The interventions at Ghats and River fronts will facilitate
National Coastal Zone Management Authority (NCZMA) better citizen connect and set the tone for river centric
and State Coastal Zone Management Authority urban planning process.
(SCZMA) for enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ
Notification.
Following are proposed to be taken up under
NamamiGange program:
• These authorities have been delegated powers under
(i) Nirmal Dhara- ensuring sustainable municipal sewage
Section 5 of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986
management

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. 51
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Project prioritization in coordination with Ministry Affairs or Ministry of Finance with focus on funds sourcing
of Urban Development. and corpus management.
• Incentive for states to take up projects on Ganga
Main-stem by providing an additional share of cen- 4.13 CLEAN GANGA FUND
tral grants for sewerage infrastructure. The main features of “Clean Ganga Fund (CGF)” are:
• Uniform standards for both MoUD scheme and Considering that there is a need to increase people’s par-
NamamiGangeprogramme, 10 years mandatory ticipation from across the country and abroad, it is pro-
O&M by the same service provider at par with posed to set up a “Clean Ganga Fund (CGF)” with voluntary
NGRBA programme and PPP, Mandatory reuse of contributions.
treated water
• CGF will have the objective of contributing to the na-
• Expanding coverage of sewerage infrastructure in tional effort of improving the cleanliness of the river
118 urban habitations on banks of Ganga- estimated Ganga with the contributions received from the resi-
cost by MoUD is Rs 51000 Crores
dents of the country, NRIs/ PIO and others.
(ii) Nirmal Dhara- managing sewage from Rural Areas
• CGF will be operated through a bank account by a Trust
• Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation scheme to be headed by the finance minister. The secretariat of
for all Ganga bank Gram Panchayts (1632) free from
the Trust will be set up in Ministry of Water Resources,
open defecation by 2022, at a cost of Rs 1700 Crores
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation under the
as central share
Mission Director, Clean Ganga.
(iii) NirmalDhara- managing Industrial discharge
• Domestic donors to the fund shall be eligible for tax
• Making Zero Liquid Discharge mandatory
benefits as in the case of “Swachch Bharat Kosh”. For-
• Rationalized water tariff to encourage reuse eign donors could get suitable tax exemptions in domes-
• Real time water quality monitoring tic law, wherever permissible.
(iv) AviralDhara • CGF will explore the possibility of setting up daugh-
• Enforcing River Regulatory Zones on Ganga Banks ter funds in other jurisdictions/countries of high
• Rational agricultural practices, efficient irrigation donor interest such as USA, UK, Singapore, UAE, etc.
methods to enable tax benefits to donors in their respective
jurisdictions.
• Restoration and conservation of wetlands
(v) Ensuring ecological rejuvenation by conservation of • CGF will be catalytic in nature and will identify and
aquatic life and biodiversity fund specific projects which could be pilot projects,
(vi) Promotion of Tourism and Shipping in a rational and R&D projects, innovative projects or other focused pro-
sustainable manner jects. The Fund will define specific and measurable
objectives to form the basis for planning, funding, and
(vii) K nowledge Management on Ganga through Ganga
evaluation.
Knowledge Centre leading to a Ganga University of
River Sciences Broad activities that will be financed from the
Clean Ganga Fund (CGF) Fund are:
NRI Ganga Fund
• Activities outlined under the ‘NamamiGange’ pro-
NRIs have been a very important contributor to the devel- gramme for cleaning of river Ganga.
opment process in India, in areas such as education, health
and preservation of culture. In this context, to harness
• Control of non-point pollution from agricultural runoff,
human defecation, cattle wallowing, etc.
their enthusiasm to contribute towards the conservation
of the river Ganga, NRI Fund for Ganga will be set up • Setting up of waste treatment and disposal plants along
which will finance special projects. NRI Ganga Fund could the river around the cities.
be setup under the aegis of Ministry of Overseas Indian • Conservation of the biotic diversity of the river.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Community based activities to reduce polluting human Recent Measures
interface with the river. • Union Environment Ministry has taken up a new strat-
• Development of public amenities including activities egy for conservation and rejuvenation of major river
such as Ghat redevelopment. water systems. The new strategy takes into account the
entire river basin, which is contributing its flow to the
• Research and Development and innovative projects.
particular river stretch for conservation.
• Research and Development projects and innovative pro- • The present strategy for conservation of rivers is limited
jects for new technology and processes for cleaning the only to tackling pollution load from domestic wastewa-
river. ter and regulation of industrial pollution. The new ap-
proach is a holistic one for rejuvenation of rivers,
• Independent oversight through intensive monitoring
wherein water management and environment manage-
and real time reporting. ment are taken together for implementation to restore
• Any other activity as approved by the Trust. the lost ecology of the polluted stretches of the rivers.



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SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

54 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER - 5

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

P o llution is defined as ‘an addition or excessive addi-

tion of certain materials to the physical environ-
ment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or
unfit for life’.
(iv) According to origin
• Natural
• Anthropogenic
5.1. POLLUTANTS 5.1.2. Causes of pollution
• Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause ad- • Uncontrolled growth in human population
verse effect on the natural quality of any component of • Rapid industrialization
the environment. • Urbanization
• For example, smoke from industries and automobiles, • Uncontrolled exploitation of nature.
chemicals from factories, radioactive substances from
nuclear plants, sewage of houses and discarded house- • Forest fires, radioactivity, volcanic eruptions, strong
winds etc.,
hold articles are the common pollutants.

5.1.1. Classifications 5.2. AIR POLLUTION

(i) According to the form in which they persist after re- • Air pollution is aggravated because of four develop-
lease into the environment. ments: increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic
development, and industrialization.
• Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which
they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic. • ‘The presence in the atmosphere of one or more con-
taminants in such quality and for such duration as it is
• Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction
among the primary pollutants. injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or
welfare, animal or plant life.’
• For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by
the interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. • It is the contamination of air by the discharge of harm-
ful substances.
(ii) According to their existence in nature.
• Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and be- • Air pollution can cause health problems, damage the
environment, property and climate change.
come pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond
a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
5.2.1. Major air pollutants and their sources
• Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and
are man-made. E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc. Carbon monoxide (CO)
(iii) According to their nature of disposal. • It is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the
incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including pet-
• Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products, which are
degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage. rol, diesel, and wood.
• Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants, which are not • It is also produced from the combustion of natural and
decomposed by microbial action. E.g. plastics, glass, synthetic products such as cigarettes.
DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive substances etc.,) • It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
sleepy. • It is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in ther-
Carbon dioxide (CO2) mal power plants.
• It is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of • Some industrial processes, such as production of paper
human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide.
natural gases. • It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur
dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
Chloroflorocarbons (CFC)
• These are gases that are released mainly from air-con- 5.2.2. Smog
ditioning systems and refrigeration. • The term smog was first used (1905) by Dr H A Des Voeux
• When released into the air, CFCs rise to the strato- • Smog has been coined from a combination of the words
sphere, where they come in contact with few other fog and smoke. Smog is a condition of fog that had soot
gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that or smoke in it.
protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of
the sun.
The Formation of Smog
• Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe
Lead air pollution that is a result of the interaction of sunlight
• It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
dye products, etc. Lead affects children in particular. • One of the primary components of photochemical smog
• It can cause nervous system damage and digestive prob- is ozone.
lems and, in some cases, cause cancer. • While ozone in the stratosphere protects earth from
Ozone harmful UV radiation, ozone on the ground is hazard-
ous to human health.
• It occurs naturally in the upper layers of the atmos-
phere. • Ground-level ozone is formed when vehicle emissions
containing nitrogen oxides (primarily from vehicle ex-
• This important gas shields the earth from the harmful haust) and volatile organic compounds (from paints,
ultraviolet rays of the sun. solvents, printing inks, petroleum products, vehicles,
• However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant with etc.) interact in the presence of sunlight.
highly toxic effects.
• Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground-
level ozone emissions.
• Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers
our resistance to cold and pneumonia.
• Nitrogen oxide (Nox)
• It causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burn-
ing fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal.
• Nitrogen oxide can make children susceptible to res-
piratory diseases in winters.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
• It consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust,
and vapour that can remain suspended for extended
periods and is also the main source of haze which re- • Smog refers to hazy air that causes difficult breathing
duces visibility. conditions. It is a combination of various gases with
water vapour and dust.
• The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge
in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory • Its occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high
problems. temperatures, and calm winds. During the winter, wind

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to stagnate most serious pollutants are particulates, carbon mon-
near the ground; hence pollution levels can increase oxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde.
near ground level.
(b) Urban
• Smoke particles trapped in the fog gives it a yellow/
• In urban areas, exposure to indoor air pollution has
black colour and this smog often settled over cities for
increased due to a variety of reasons, such as
many days.
• construction of more tightly sealed buildings,
• reduced ventilation,
Ground-level ozone is formed through a com-
plex reaction involving hydrocarbons, nitro-
• the use of synthetic materials for building and furnish-
ing and
gen oxides, and sunlight. It is formed when
pollutants released from gasoline, diesel- • the use of chemical products, pesticides, and household
powered vehicles and oil-based solvents react care products.
with heat and sunlight. • Indoor air pollution can begin within the building or
drawn in from outdoors.
• Other than nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and
The effects of smog lead, there are a number of other pollutants that affect
• It hampers visibility and harms the environment. the air quality.
• respiratory problems Pollutants
• deaths relating to bronchial diseases. i) Volatile organic compounds
• Heavy smog greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation.
• The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays,
• Heavy smog results in the decrease of natural vitamin furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents,
D production leading to a rise in the cases of rickets. wood preservatives, and other products.
5.2.3. Indoor air pollution • Health effect - irritation of the eye, nose and throat,
headaches, nausea and loss of coordination.
• It refers to the physical, chemical, and biological char-
acteristics of air in the indoor environment within a • long term - suspected to damage the liver and other
home, or an institution or commercial facility. parts of the body.
ii) Tobacco
• Indoor air pollution is a concern where energy efficiency
improvements sometimes make houses relatively air- • Smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and
tight, reducing ventilation and raising pollutant levels. is carcinogenic.
• Indoor air problems can be subtle and do not always • Health effect - burning eyes, nose, and throat irritation
produce easily recognized impacts on health. to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in
lung function.
• Different conditions are responsible for indoor air pol-
lution in the rural areas and the urban areas. iii) Biological pollutants
(a) Rural • It includes pollen from plants, mite, and hair from pets,
fungi, parasites, and some bacteria. Most of them are
• It is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from allergens and can cause asthma, hay fever, and other
indoor pollution, where people rely on traditional fuels allergic diseases.
such as firewood, charcoal, and cowdung for cooking
and heating. iv) Formaldehyde

• Burning such fuels produces large amount of smoke and • Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation
other air pollutants in the confined space of the home, foam. It causes irritation to the eyes and nose and al-
resulting in high exposure. Women and children are the lergies.
groups most vulnerable as they spend more time in- v) Radon
doors and are exposed to the smoke. • It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to
• Although many hundreds of separate chemical agents modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined
have been identified in the smoke from biofuels, the four inside the house and causes lung cancers.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

Do you know?
• Trees are an important part of our world. They provide wood for building and pulp for making paper. They pro-
vide habitats (homes) for all sorts of insects, birds and other animals. Many types of fruits and nuts come from
trees -- including apples, oranges, walnuts, pears and peaches. Even the sap of trees is useful as food for insects
and for making maple syrup -- yum!
• Trees also help to keep our air clean and our ecosystems healthy. We breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon
dioxide. Trees breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen. We’re perfect partners!
• Trees do lots for us, our environment and other plants and animals in nature but we don’t just love trees for
practical reasons.

vi) Asbestos Environmental effects?

vii) Pesticides • If fly ash is not captured and disposed off properly, it
can pollute air and water considerably.
5.2.4. Fly Ash • It causes respiratory problems.
• Ash is produced whenever combustion of solid material • Fly ash in the air slowly settles on leaves and crops in
takes place. fields in areas near to thermal power plants and lowers
• Fly ash is one such residue which rises with the gases the plant yield.
into the atmosphere. Fly ash is a very fine powder and Advantages:
tends to travel far in the air. The ash which does not
rise is termed as bottom ash. • Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35%, thus re-
ducing the cost of construction, making roads, etc.
• Nearly 73% of India’s total installed power generation
capacity is thermal, of which 90% is coal-based gen- • Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer high strength
eration, with diesel, wind, gas, and steam making up and durability.
the rest. • Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments
and in concrete roads.
Composition
• Fly ash can be used in reclamation of wastelands.
1. Aluminium silicate (in large amounts)
• Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
2. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
• Fly ash can increase the crop yield and it also enhances
3. Calcium oxide (CaO). water holding capacity of the land .
• Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, Policy measures of MoEF:
alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and
toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper. • The Ministry of Environment and Forests vide its noti-
fication in 2009, has made it mandatory to use Fly Ash
How it is collected? based products in all construction projects, road em-
• Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipita- bankment works and low lying land filling works within
tors or other particle filtration equipments before the 100 kms radius of Thermal Power Station.
flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power • To use Fly Ash in mine filling activities within 50 kms
plants. radius of Thermal Power Stations.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
5.2.5. Effects of air pollution
1. Health effect

Name Of Pollutant Sources Health Effects

Sulphur Oxides Thermal power plants and Eye and throat irritation, cough, allergies, impairs enzyme
industries function in respiratory system. Reduces exchange of gases
from lung surface.
Nitrogen Oxides Thermal power plant, Irritation and inflammation of lungs, breathlessness,
industries and vehicles impairs enzyme function in respiratory system and causes
bronchitis and asthma.
Suspended Particulate Vehicular emissions and Lung irritation reduces development of RBC and cause
Matter (SOM) burning of fossil fuels pulmonary malfunctioning.
Carbon Monoxide Vehicular emissions and Difficulty in breathing, severe headaches, irritation to
burning of fossil fuels mucous membrane, unconsciousness and death
Carbon Dioxide Burning of fossil fuels Impairs reflexes, judgment and vision, severe headaches
and heart strain.
Smog Industries and vehicular Respiratory problems and intense irritation to the eyes.
pollution
Ozone Automobile emissions Breathlessness, asthma, wheezing, chest pain, emphysema
and chronic bronchitis.
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, sprays, Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer, global warming.
emissions from jets
Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil fuels Carcinogenic effect on lungs, kidney damage,
hypertension, respiratory distress, irritation of eyes, nose
and throat, asthma, bronchitis and impairs enzyme
function in respiratory system.
Tobacco Smoke Cigarettes, cigars etc. Chronic bronchitis, asthma and lung cancer, irritation of
eyes, nose and throat.
Mercury Industries Nervous disorders, insomnia, memory loss, excitability,
irritation, tremor, gingivitis and minamata disease.
Lead Leaded petrol emissions Damage to brain and central nervous system, kidneys and
brains, impaired intelligence and interference with
development of RBCs.
Cadmium Industries Affects the heart
Silica dust Silicon quarries Silicosis affects the lungs
Cotton dust Cotton textile factories Byssinosis involves destruction of lung tissues, chronic
cough, bronchitis and emphysema.
Asbestos dust Asbestos mining, asbestos Asbestosis which involves severe respiratory problems and
sheet manufacturing may lead to cancer.
Radioactive pollutants Cosmic rays, x-rays, beta rays, Destroy living tissues and blood cells; affect cell membrane
radon and radium and cell enzyme functions, leukemia, and permanent
genetic changes.
Coal dust and particles Coal mines Black lung cancer, pulmonary fibrosis which lead to
respiratory failure.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
II. Effects on Vegetation ii. Catalytic converter filters in the vehicles can convert
• retard photosynthesis. nitrogen oxide to nitrogen and reduce the potential
hazards of NOx.
• Sulphur dioxide causes chlorosis, plasmolysis, mem-
brane damage and metabolic inhibition. iii. use of good quality automobile fuels
iv. use of lead free petrol.
• Hydrocarbons such as ethylene cause premature leaf
fall, fruit drop, shedding of floral buds, curling of petals v. Use of compressed natural gas (CNG).
and discoloration of sepals.
5.2.7. Government Initiatives
• Ozone damage chlorenchyma and thus destructs the
foliage in large number of plants. (1) National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
III. Effects on Animals • In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has
been executing a nationwide programme of ambient air
IV. Detoriation of materials quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Mon-
V. Aesthetic Loss itoring Programme (NAMP).
• The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
5.2.6. Control Measures (NAMP) is undertaken in India
1. Policy measures (i) to determine status and trends of ambient air quality;
2. Preventive measures: (ii) to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;
• Selection of suitable fuel (e.g.fuel with low sulphur con- (iii) to identify non-attainment cities;
tent) and its efficient utilization (iv) to understand the natural process of cleaning in the
• Modifications in industrial processes and/or equipments atmosphere; and
to reduce emission. (v) to undertake preventive and corrective measures.
• Selection of suitable manufacturing site and zoning. e.g. • Annual average concentration of SOx levels are within
setting of industries at a distance of residential areas, the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards
installation of tall chimneys. (NAAQS).
Control measures: • This reduction from earlier levels is due to various
measures taken, including the use of CNG in public
(i) destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic com- transport in Delhi, the reduction of sulphur in diesel
bustion and use of LPG instead of coal as a domestic fuel.
(ii) conversion of the pollutants to a less toxic form • A mixed trend is observed in NO2 levels due to various
(iii) collection of the pollutant measures taken for vehicular pollution control, such as
• Different types of air pollutants can be eliminated / stricter vehicular emission norms being partially offset
minimised by following methods: by increased NOx levels due to the use of CNG in urban
transport.
a) Control of particulate matter: Two types of devices -
arresters and scrubbers are used to remove particulate • Total suspended particulates, however, are still a matter
pollutants from air. These are arresters and scrubbers. of concern in several urban and semi urban areas.
i. Arresters: These are used to separate particulate mat- (b) National Ambient Air Quality Standards
ters from contaminated air. (NAAQS)
ii. Scrubbers: These are used to clean air for both dusts • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were
and gases by passing it through a dry or wet packing notified in the year 1982, duly revised in 1994 based on
material. health criteria and land uses.
b) Control of Gaseous Pollutants: • The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in Novem-
The gaseous pollutants can be controlled through the tech- ber 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include
niques of Combustion, absorption and adsorption. 1. sulphur dioxide (SO2),
c) Control of Automobile Exhaust 2. nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
i. use of efficient engines (e.g. multipoint fuel injection 3. particulate matter having size less than 10 micron
engine). (PM10),

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
4. particulate matter having size less than 2.5 micron belts. Booming real estate and demand for housing
(PM2.5), units is leading to change of land use and shrinkage of
5. ozone, natural conservation zones such as forests, water bod-
ies, wastelands, sanctuaries, groundwater rechargeable
6. lead,
areas.
7. carbon monoxide (CO),
• Mindless concretisation of ground and green belts and
8. arsenic, booming real estate has led to heat island effect - short-
9. nickel, wave radiations emanate from concrete surfaces at
10. benzene, night time. Concretisation prevents ground water re-
charge thus depleting green cover. Tall buildings also
11. ammonia, and
block winds thereby reducing their cooling effect. Ex-
12. benzopyrene. cessive concretisation also leads to weakening of trees.
(c) National Air Quality Index • The environmental crisis in India is many-sided and
• National Air Quality Index was launched by the Prime multi-faceted which has to be addressed on different
Minister in April, 2015 starting with 14 cities to dis- fronts and by a variety of different actors. We need to
seminate air quality information. The AQI has six cat- harness scientific and social-scientific expertise to de-
egories of air quality, viz Good, Satisfactory, Moderately velop and promote eco-friendly technologies in con-
Polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe with distinct colour struction, energy, water management, industrial
scheme. Each of these categories is associated with production and transportation. Scientific innovation
likely health impacts. AQI considers eight pollutants needs to be complemented by legislative change as well
(PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and Pb) for as by changes in social behaviour.
which (up to 24-hourly averaging period) National Am-
bient Air Quality Standards are prescribed. 5.2.9. Measures to control/ mitigate Delhi Air
pollution
5.2.8. Air Pollution in India • The city needs an implementation strategy to
• India’s air pollution, ranked among the worst in the • Reduce traffic and vehicles,
world is adversely impacting the lifespan of its citizens,
reducing most Indian lives by over three years - WHO.
• Cut dieselization,

• Over half of India’s population – 660 million people –

• Scale up integrated public transport,
live in areas where fine particulate matter pollution is • Facilitate walking and cycling,
above India’s standards for what is considered safe - • Tax polluting modes,
‘Economic & Political Weekly’ • Decide to implement Bharat Stage IV nationwide in 2015
• Of the world’s top 20 polluted cities, 13 are in India. Air and
pollution slashes life expectancy by 3.2 years for the 660 • Euro VI in 2020 and
million Indians who live in cities.
• Put controls on other pollution sources.
• 2014 global analysis of how nations tackle environmen-
tal challenges has ranked India 155 among 177 nations
and labelled the country’s air quality among the worst Do you know?
in the world. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established on 1st
• India is placed as the “bottom performer” on several July 1916 to promote the survey, exploration, research
indicators such as environmental health impact, air and documentation leading to the advancement in our
quality, water and sanitation and india’s environment knowledge on various aspects of animal taxonomy of
health severly lags behind the BRICS nations - Environ- the Indian subcontinent.ZSI is a premier institution
mental Performance Index 2014. on animal taxonomy in India under the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change. ZSI has
• The Ganga and Yamuna are ranked among the world’s
been declared as the designated repository for the
10 most polluted rivers.
National Zoological Collection as per Section 39 of the
• Despite the directives of the National Green Tribunal, National Biodiversity Act, 2002.
civic agencies continue to allow concretisation in green

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
5.3. WATER POLLUTION
Putrescibility is the process of decomposition
• ‘Addition of certain substances to the water such as of organic matter present in water by micro-
organic, inorganic, biological, radiological, heat, which organisms using oxygen.
degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit
for use’. Water pollution is not only confined to surface
water, but it has also spread to ground water, sea and 2) Industrial Wastes: The industries discharge several
ocean. inorganic and organic pollutants, which may prove
highly toxic to the living beings.
5.3.1. Sources
3) Agricultural sources:
Types of sources
• Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as nitro-
1. Point Sources gen, phosphorus and potassium.
• It is directly attributable to one influence. Here pollutant • Excess fertilizers may reach the ground water by leach-
travels directly from source to water. Point sources are ing or may be mixed with surface water of rivers, lakes
easy to regulate. and ponds by runoff and drainage.
2. Diffuse or non-point source. • Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides,
nematicides, rodenticides and soil fumigants.
• It is from various ill defined and diffuse sources. They
vary spatially and temporally and are difficult to regulate. • They contain a wide range of chemicals such as chlorin-
ated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts,
• The main sources of water pollution are as follows: carbonates, thiocarbonates, derivatives of acetic acid etc.
1) Community waste water: Include discharges from Many of the pesticides are non-degradable and their
houses, commercial and industrial establishments con- residues have long life.
nected to public sewerage system. The sewage contains
human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning • The animal excreta such as dung, wastes from poultry
farms, piggeries and slaughter houses etc. reach the
agents, detergents and other wastes.

Type of Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutant

Mining Mine Wastes: Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulphuric acid, hydrogen
sulphide, ferric hydroxide, surface wash offs,
suspended solids, chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and Steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, thiocyanate, Oil, phenol and neptha
sulphides, oxides of copper, chromium,
cadmium, and mercury.
Chemical Plants Various acids and alkalies, chlorides, Aromatic compounds solvents, organic acids,
sulphates, nitrates of metals, phosphorus, nitro compound dyes, etc.
fluorine, silica and suspended particles.
Pharmaceutical - Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvent
intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics
Soap and Detergent Tertiary ammonium compounds alkalies Flats and fatty acids, glycerol,
polyphosphates, sulphonated hydrocarbons.
Food processing - Highly putrescible organic matter and
pathogens
Paper and Pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors. Cellulose fibres, bark, woods sugars organic
acids.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
water though run off and surface leaching during rainy
season. However a few tolerant species like Tubifex (annelid
worm) and some insect larvae may survive in highly
4) Thermal Pollution: polluted water with low DO content. Such species are
• The main sources are the thermal and nuclear power recognised as indicator species for polluted water.
plants. The power plants use water as coolant and re-
lease hot waters to the original source. Sudden rise in
temperature kills fishes and other aquatic animals. ii) Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy
metals directly eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms.
5) Underground water pollution: iii) Hot waters discharged from industries, when added to
• In India at many places, the ground water is threatened water bodies, lowers its DO content.
with contamination due to seepage from industrial and
municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and
agricultural runoff. DO , BOD, COD

6) Marine pollution:
• Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water
decreases the dissolved Oxygen (DO) content of
• Oceans are the ultimate sink of all natural and man- the water. Water having DO content below 8.0 mg
made pollutants. Rivers discharge their pollutants into L-1 may be considered as contaminated. Water
the sea. The sewerage and garbage of coastal cities are having DO content below. 4.0 mg L-1 is considered
also dumped into the sea. The other sources of oceanic to be highly polluted. DO content of water is im-
pollution are navigational discharge of oil, grease, de- portant for the survival of aquatic organisms. A
tergents, sewage, garbage and radioactive wastes, off number of factors like surface turbulence, photo-
shore oil mining, oil spills. synthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms
and decomposition of organic matter are the fac-
Oil Spills tors which determine the amount of DO present
in water.
• Oil spills is one of the most dangerous of all water
pollutants. • The higher amounts of waste increases the rates of
decomposition and O2 consumption, thereby de-
• Oil spills from tankers at sea or leaks from under- creases the DO content of water. The demand for
ground storage tanks on land are very difficult to O2 is directly related to increasing input of organic
control as oil tends to spread very fast, affecting a wastes and is empressed as biological oxygen de-
large area in a very short time. mand (BOD) of water.
• On land crude is transported through pipelines or • Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in
tankers which can get damaged and spew out terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD
crude oil over the land, thereby contaminating it. is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bac-
• Since crude oil is lighter than water, it floats on the teria in decomposing the organic wastes present in
surface and poses the threat of swift-spreading fire. water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per
• Oil spills at sea decrease the oxygen level in the litre of water.
water and cause harm to the organisms. • The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content
• Oil spills are also a source of air and groundwater of water. Since BOD is limited to biodegradable
pollution. materials only. Therefore, it is not a reliable method
of measuring pollution load in water.
• Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better
5.3.2. Effects of Water Pollution mode used to measure pollution load in water. It is
1. Effects on aquatic ecosystem: the measure of oxygen equivalent of the require-
ment of oxidation of total organic matter (i.e. bio-
i) Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content,
degradable and non-biodegradable) present in
thereby, eliminates sensitive organisms like plankton,
water.
molluscs and fish etc.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
2. Effects on human health:
• The polluted water usually contains pathogens like • High concentration of fluoride ions is present in
virus, bacteria, parasitic protozoa and worms, therefore, drinking water in 13 states of India. The maximum
it is a source of water borne diseases like jaundice, chol- level of fluoride, which the human body can toler-
era, typhoid, amoebiasis etc. ate is 1.5 parts per million (mg/1 of water). Long
term ingestion of fluoride ions causes fluorosis.

Do you know?
iii. Over exploitation of ground water may lead to leach-
The Environmental Performance Index, is conducted ing of arsenic from soil and rock sources and con-
and written by environmental research centers at Yale taminate ground water. Chronic exposure to arsenic
and Columbia universities with assistance from out- causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea,
side scientists. peripheral neuritis, hyperkerotosis and also lung and
Different parts of the tree grow at different times of skin cancer.
the year. A typical pattern is for most of the foliage
growth to occur in the spring, followed by trunk
growth in the summer and root growth in the fall and • Arsenic contamination is a serious problem (in
winter. Not all the trees follow the same pattern. tube well dug areas) in the Ganges Delta, west ben-
gal causing serious arsenic poisoning to large num-
bers of people. A 2007 study found that over 137
• Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by million people in more than 70 countries are prob-
bacterial action into extremely toxic methyl mercury, ably affected by arsenic poisoning of drinking
which can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, water.
deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement.
4. Biological Magnification
A cripling deformity called Minamata disease due to 5. Eutrophicaiton
consumption of fish captured from mercury contam-
inated Minamata Bay in Japan was detected in 1952. 5.3.3. Control Measures
1) Riparian buffers
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai 2) Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents
disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful disease should be done before releasing it into water bodies.
of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
3) Hot water should be cooled before release from the
• The compounds of lead cause anaemia, headache, loss power plants
of muscle power and bluish line around the gum.
4) Domestic cleaning in tanks, streams and rivers, which
3. Hazards of ground water pollution: supply drinking water, should be prohibited.
i. Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is danger- 5) Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be
ous for human health and may be fatal for infants. avoided.
6) Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues
• Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with as fertilizers.
hemoglobin to form non-functional methaemo- 7) Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can purify water by
globin, and impairs oxygen transport. This condi- taking some toxic materials and a number of heavy
tion is called methaemoglobinemia or blue baby metals from water.
syndrome.
8) Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of
ii. Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuro-mus- bregoli – a by-product of paper industry resembling
cular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth de- saw dust, oil zapper, micro-organisms.
formity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints The steps taken by the Government to address the issues
(skeletal fluorosis). of water pollution include the following:-

64 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
i. Preparation of action plan for sewage management and 5.4.1. Causes
restoration of water quality in aquatic resources by • Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides
State Governments; and herbicides
ii. Installation of Online Effluent Monitoring System to • Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
check the discharge of effluent directly into the rivers
and water bodies; • Deforestation and soil erosion.

iii. Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of • Pollution Due to Urbanisation

water quality;
5.4.2. Source
iv. Action to comply with effluent standards is taken
by SPCBs / PCCs to improve the water quality of the i. Industrial Wastes:
rivers; • Industrial waste includes chemicals such as mercury,
v. Financial assistance for installation of Common Efflu- lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, cynides, thiocynates, chro-
ent Treatment Plants for cluster of Small Scale Indus- mates, acids, alkalies, organic substances etc.
trial units; ii. Pesticides:
vi. Issuance of directions for implementation of Zero • Pesticides are chemicals that include insecticides, fun-
Liquid Discharge; gicides, algicides, rodenticides, weedicides sprayed in
vii. Issuance of directions under Section 5 of Environment order to improve productivity of agriculture, forestry
(Protection) Act, 1986 to industries and under Section and horticulture.
18(1)(b) of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) iii. Fertilizers and manures:
Act, 1974; • Chemical fertilizers are added to the soil for increasing
viii. Implementation of National Lake Conservation Plan crop yield. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces
(NLCP) and National Wetland Conservation Pro- the population of soil borne organism and the crumb
gramme (NWCP) for conservation and management structure of the soil, productivity of the soil and in-
of identified lakes and wetlands in the country which creases salt content of the soil.
have been merged in February, 2013 into an inte- iv. Discarded materials:
grated scheme of National Plan for Conservation of
Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) to undertake various
• It includes concrete, asphalt, rungs, leather, cans, plas-
tics, glass, discarded food, paper and carcasses.
conservation activities including interception, diver-
sion and treatment of waste water, pollution abate- v. Radioactive wastes:
ment, lake beautification, biodiversity conservation, • Radioactive elements from mining and nuclear power
education and awareness creation, community par- plants, find their way into water and then into the soil.
ticipation etc. vi. Other pollutants:

5.4. SOIL POLLUTION

• Many air pollutants (acid rain) and water pollutants
ultimately become part of the soil and the soil also re-
• Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials ceives some toxic chemicals during weathering of cer-
that covers the Earth’s rocky surface. Soil pollution is tain rocks. [in box]
defined as the ‘addition of substances to the soil, which
adversely affect physical, chemical and biological prop- 5.4.3. Types of Soil Pollution
erties of soil and reduces its productivity.’ I. Agricultural Soil Pollution
• It is build-up of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, II. Pollution due to industrial effluents and solid wastes
salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents
in soil which have adverse effects on plant growth, III. Pollution due to urban activities
human and animal health.
5.4.4. Effects of soil pollution on
• A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the
i) Agriculture
quality, texture and mineral content of the soil or which
disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the • Reduced soil fertility
soil. • Reduced nitrogen fixation

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Increased erosion
• Loss of soil and nutrients Four R’s
• Reduced crop yield 1. Refuse
• Increased salinity • Instead of buying new containers from the market,
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs use the ones that are in the house. Refuse to buy
ii) Health new items though you may think they are prettier
than the ones you already have.
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
2. Reuse
• Bio magnification
• Do not throw away the soft drink cans or the bot-
• Release of pollutant gases
tles; cover them with homemade paper or paint on
• Release of radioactive rays causing health problems them and use them as pencil stands or small vases.
iii) Environment 3. Recycle
• Reduced vegetation • Use shopping bags made of cloth or jute, which can
• Ecological imbalance be used over and over again. Segregate your waste
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora to make sure that it is collected and taken for re-
cycling.
iv) Urban areas
4. Reduce
• Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Reduce the generation of unnecessary waste, e.g.
carry your own shopping bag when you go to the
• Foul smell and release of gases market and put all your purchases directly into it.
• Waste management problems
• Control measures
5.5. NOISE POLLUTION
• Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
• Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers.
• Noise pollution is an unpleasant noise created by people
or machines that can be annoying, distracting, intru-
• Organic farming sive, and/or physically painful.
• Four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle • Noise pollution comes from sources such as “road traf-
• Afforestation and Reforestation fic, jet planes, garbage trucks, construction equipment,
manufacturing processes, leaf blowers, and boom
• Solid waste treatment
boxes.”
• Reduction of waste from construction areas
• Sound is measured in decibels (dB). An increase of
about 10 dB is approximately double the increase in
Do you know? loudness.
Amur Falcons, which come to roost every year at Doy- • A person’s hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise
anglake during their flight from Mongolia to South levels over 75 dB over a prolonged period of time. The
Africa. Amur falcons are the longest travelling raptors World Health Organization recommends that the sound
in the world. World has recognized Pangti village in level indoors should be less than 30 dB.
Nagaland as the world’s Amur Falcon capital, as more
than one million birds can be seen in just 30 minutes.
Do you know?
Until recently, Naga tribesmen used to hunt thousands
of Amur falcons for meat. But last year, after a vigor- The Indian Resource Panel shall prepare a strategic
ous campaign by wildlife activists, they pledged to roadmap for utilisation of secondary resources for
protect the bird and since then, not a single bird has meeting the developmental needs. India is the first
been hunted in the area. country to constitute a National Resource Panel.

66 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
5.5.1. Ambient Noise Level Monitoring • Nervous system: It causes pain, ringing in the ears,
• Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 2000 feeling of tiredness, thereby effecting the functioning of
define ambient noise levels for various areas as follows: human system.
• Sleeplessness: It affects the sleeping there by inducing
Category of Limits in people to become restless and loose concentration and
Area/Zone dB(A) Leq presence of mind during their activities
Day Time Night Time • Damage to material: The buildings and materials may
6 a.m. to 10 10 p.m to 6 get damaged by exposure to infrasonic / ultrasonic
p.m. a.m waves and even get collapsed.
A. Industrial Area 75 70
5.5.3. Control
B. Commercial Area 65 55 • The techniques employed for noise control can be
C. Residential Area 55 45 broadly classified as
D. Silence Zone 50 40 1. Control at source
• Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors
• The Government of India on Mar 2011 launched a Real • Maintenance of automobiles
time Ambient Noise Monitoring Network. Under this
network, in phase- I, five Remote Noise Monitoring Ter- • Control over vibration
minals each have been installed in different noise zones • Prohibition on usage of loud speakers
in seven metros (Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, • Selection and maintenance of machinery
Bangalore, Chennai and Lucknow).
2. Control in the transmission path
• In Phase II another 35 monitoring stations will be in-
• Installation of barriers
stalled in the same seven cities. Phase III will cover
installing 90 stations in 18 other cities. • Design of building
• Phase-III cities are Kanpur, Pune, Surat, Ahmedabad, • Green belt development (planting of trees)
Nagpur, Jaipur, Indore, Bhopal, Ludhiana, Guwahati, 3. Using protective equipment.
Dehradun, Thiruvananthpuram, Bhubaneswar, Patna,
Gandhinagar, Ranchi, Amritsar and Raipur. • Job rotation
• Silence Zone is an area comprising not less than 100 • Reduced Exposure time
metres around hospitals, educational institutions, • Hearing protection
courts, religious places or any other area declared as • Documentation of noise measurements, continuous
such by a competent authority. monitoring and awareness are the need of the hour.

5.5.2. Impacts of noise

Do you know?
• Annoyance: It creates annoyance to the receptors due
to sound level fluctuations. The a-periodic sound due to The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
its irregular occurrences causes displeasure to hearing Change has urged Chief Secretaries of Haryana, Uttar
and causes annoyance. Pradesh and National Capital Territory of Delhi to take
effective steps to enforce the ban on burning of all
• Physiological effects: The physiological features like
types of waste in urban areas.
breathing amplitude, blood pressure, heart-beat rate,
pulse rate, blood cholesterol are affected.
• Loss of hearing: Long exposure to high sound levels 5.6. R ADIO ACTIVE POLLUTION
cause loss of hearing. This is mostly unnoticed, but has
an adverse impact on hearing function. 5.6.1. Radioactive Pollution
• Human performance: The working performance of • Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission
workers/human will be affected as it distracts the con- of proton (a-particles), electrons (ß-particles) and
centration. gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. These • Nuclear power plants
cause radioactive pollution. • Nuclear weapon
• Transportation of nuclear material
Radioactivity: • Disposal of nuclear waste
Radioactivity is a property of certain elements (ra- • Uranium mining
dium, thorium, uranium etc.) to spontaneously emit • Radiation therapy
protons (alpha particles) electrons (beta particles) and
gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic wave) by 5.6.5. Effects
disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides). • The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon
i. half-life
5.6.2. Types of Radiations ii. energy releasing capacity
1. Non-ionising radiations affect only those components iii. rate of diffusion and
which absorb them and have low penetrability. iv. rate of deposition of the pollutant.
2. Ionising radiations have high penetration power and v. Various environmental factors such as wind, tempera-
cause breakage of macro molecules. ture, rainfall also influence their effects.

5.6.3. Types of radiation particles Period of Radioactivity

1. Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and • Each radioactive nuclide has a constant decay rate.
human skin. Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to
2. Beta particles can penetrate through skin, while can be decay. Half-life of a radio nuclide refers to its period
blocked by some pieces of glass and metal. of radioactivity. The half-life may vary from a frac-
3. Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and tion of a second to thousands of years. The radio
damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and can nuclides with long half-time are the chief source of
only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece environmental radioactive pollution.
of concrete.
• Radiations are of two types with regard to the mode of
5.6.4. Sources their action on cells.
Natural 1. Non-ionising radiations:
• They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial • They include short-wave radiations such as ultraviolet
radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth’s crust rays, which forms a part of solar radiation.
such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potas- • They have low penetrating power and affect the cells
sium-40, carbon-14, etc. and molecules which absorb them.
Man – made • They damage eyes which may be caused by reflections
from coastal sand, snow (snow blindness) directly look-
Atomic explosion (Nuclear fallout): ing towards sun during eclipse.
• The nuclear arms use uranium-235 and pluto- • They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries pro-
nium-239 for fission and hydrogen or lithium as ducing blisters and reddening called sunburns.
fusion material. Atomic explosions produce radio- 2. Ionising radiations.
active particles that are thrown high up into the
air as huge clouds. These particles are carried to
• They include X-rays, cosmic rays and atomic radiations
(radiations emitted by radioactive elements).
long distances by wind and gradually settle over
the earth as fall out or are brought down by rain. • Ionising radiations have high penetration power and
The fall out contains radioactive substances such cause breakage of macro molecules.
as strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine – 131, etc. • The molecular damage may produce short range (im-
mediate) or long range (delayed) effects.

68 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
i. Short range effects include burns, impaired metabo-
lism, dead tissues and death of the organisms. Do you know?
ii. Long range effects are mutations increased incidence solar power panels installed overhead of arail coach
of tumors and cancer, shortening of life-span and de- will save 1700 litres of diesel per year and if these
velopmental changes. techniques are adopted, 100 million litres of diesel can
iii. The mutated gene can persist in living organisms and be saved by the Railways every year.
may affect their progeny.
• The actively dividing cells such as Embryo, foetus, cells
5.7. E – WASTE
of skin, intestinal lining, bone marrow and gamete
forming cells are more sensitive to radiations. • The discarded and end-of-life electronic products rang-
ing from computers, equipment used in Information
• Some species of animals and plants preferentially ac- and Communication Technology (ICT), home appli-
cumulate specific radioactive materials. For example,
ances, audio and video products and all of their periph-
oysters deposit 65Zn, fish accumulate 55Fe, marine
erals are popularly known as Electronic waste
animals selectively deposit 90Sr.
(E-waste).
5.6.6. Control Measures • E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage
or recycled by scientific methods or transported from
• Prevention is the best control measure as there is no
one place to the other in parts or in totality in the for-
cure available for radiation damage.
mal sector. The e-waste can, however, be considered
i. All safety measures should be strictly enforced. Leak- hazardous if recycled by primitive methods.
age of radioactive elements should be totally checked.
ii. Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
Do you know?
iii. Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and
quantitative analysis. The sex of crocodilians is determined by the incubation
conditions, particularly the temperature. Incubation at
iv. Safety measures against nuclear accidents. 30°C or less gives exclusively females, incubation at
v. Nuclear explosions and use of nuclear weapons should around 31°C gives both sexes, whereas incubation be-
be completely banned. tween 32°C and 33°C gives mostly males. Incubation
vi. Appropriate steps should be taken to protect from oc- at temperatures above 33°C gives males in some spe-
cupational exposure. cies, whereas in others, the sex reverts to females

5.7.1. Source and its health effects

S.NO PARTICULARS SOURCE HEALTH EFFECTS
1. Lead Used in glass panels and gaskets in Lead causes damage to the central and
computer monitors peripheral nervous systems, blood systems,
Solder in printed circuit boards and kidney and reproductive system in humans. It
other Components also effects the endocrine system, and
impedes brain development among children.
Lead tends to accumulate in the environment
and has high acute and chronic effects on
plants, animals and microorganisms.
2. Cadmium Occurs in SMD chip resistors, Toxic cadmium compounds accumulate in the
infra-red detectors, and human body, especially the kidneys.
semiconductor chips
Some older cathode ray tubes
contain cadmium

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
3. Mercury It is estimated that 22 % of the Mercury can cause damage to organs
yearly world consumption of including the brain and kidneys, as well as the
mercury is used in electrical and foetus. The developing foetus is highly
electronic equipment vulnerable to mercury exposure. When
Mercury is used in thermostats, inorganic mercury spreads out in the water, it
sensors, relays, switches, medical is transformed to methylated mercury which
equipment, lamps, mobile phones bio-accumulates in living organisms and
and in batteries concentrates through the food chain,
particularly via fish.
Mercury, used in flat panel displays,
will likely increase as their use
replaces cathode ray tubes
4. Hexavalent Chromium VI is used as corrosion Chromium VI can cause damage to DNA and
Chromium/ protector of untreated and is extremely toxic in the environment.
Chromium VI 29 galvanized steel plates and as a
decorative or hardener for steel
housings Plastics (including PVC):
Dioxin is released when PVC is
burned.
The largest volume of plastics
(26%) used in electronics has been
PVC. PVC elements are found in
cabling and computer housings.
Many computer moldings are now
made with the somewhat more
benign ABS plastics
5. Brominated flame BFRs are used in the plastic
retardants (BFRs): housings of electronic equipment
and in circuit boards to prevent
flammability
6. Barium Barium is a soft silvery-white metal Studies have shown that short-term exposure
that is used in computers in the to barium causes brain swelling, muscle
front panel of a CRT, to protect weakness, damage to the heart, liver, and
users from radiation spleen.
7. Beryllium Beryllium is commonly found on Exposure to beryllium can cause lung cancer.
motherboards and finger clips Beryllium also causes a skin disease that is
It is used as a copper-beryllium characterised by poor wound healing and
alloy to strengthen connectors and wartlike bumps. Studies have shown that
tinyplugs while maintaining people can develop beryllium disease many
electrical conductivity years following the last exposure.

8. Toners Found in the plastic printer Inhalation is the primary exposure pathway,
cartridge containing black and color and acute exposure may lead to respiratory
toners. tract irritation. Carbon black has been
classified as a class 2B carcinogen, possibly
carcinogenic to humans. Reports indicate that
colour toners (cyan, magenta and yellow)
contain heavy metals.

70 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
9. Phosphor and Phosphor is an inorganic chemical The phosphor coating on cathode ray tubes
additives compound that is applied as a coat contains heavy metals, such as cadmium, and
on the interior of the CRT faceplate. other rare earth metals, for example, zinc,
vanadium as additives. These metals and their
compounds are very toxic. This is a serious
hazard posed for those who dismantle CRTs
by hand.

5.7.2. E – Waste in India commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and

• “The Global E-Waste Monitor 2014”, 17 lakh tonnes of from community activities. But it does not include solid
e-waste generation was reported in the country in 2014. or dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or
No comprehensive State-wise inventorization of e-waste dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or indus-
generation in the country has been done. trial discharges.
• In India, among top ten cities, Mumbai ranks first in
5.8.1. Plastic Waste
generating e-waste followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chen-
nai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and • Plastics are considered to be one of the wonderful inven-
Nagpur. tions of 20th Century. They are widely used as packing
and carry bags because of cost and convenience. But
• The 65 cities generate more than 60% of the total gen-
plastics are now considered as environmental hazard
erated e-waste, whereas, 10 states generate 70% of the
due to the “Throw away culture”.
total e-waste.
• Most of the e-waste is recycled in India in unorganized 5.8.2. Source of generation of waste plastics
units, which engage significant number of manpower.
Recovery of metals by primitive means is a most haz-
• Household
ardous act. • Health and medicare
• The recycling process, if not carried out properly, can • Hotel and catering
cause damage to human being through inhalation of • Air/rail travel
gases during recycling, contact of the skin with hazard-
ous substances and contact during acid treatment used 5.8.3. Effects
in recovery process. • The land gets littered by plastic bag garbage and be-
• Proper education, awareness and most importantly al- comes ugly and unhygienic.
ternative cost effective technology need to be provided • Conventional plastics have been associated with repro-
so that better means can be provided to those who earn ductive problems in both humans and wildlife.
the livelihood from this.
• Dioxin (highly carcinogenic and toxic) by-product of the
• A holistic approach is needed to address the challenges manufacturing process is one of the chemicals believed
faced by India in e-waste management. A suitable mech- to be passed on through breast milk to the nursing
anism needs to be evolved to include small units in infant.
unorganized sector and large units in organized sector
into a single value chain.
• Burning of plastics, especially PVC releases this dioxin
and also furan into the atmosphere. Thus, conventional
plastics, right from their manufacture to their disposal
5.8. SOLID WASTE are a major problem to the environment.
• Solid wastes are the discarded (abandoned or consid-
• Plastic bags can also contaminate foodstuffs due to
ered waste-like) materials. Solid waste means any gar-
leaching of toxic dyes and transfer of pathogens.
bage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant,
or air pollution control facility and other discarded • Careless disposal of plastic bags chokes drains, blocks
materials including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or con- the porosity of the soil and causes problems for ground-
tained gaseous material, resulting from industrial, water recharge.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. 71
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Plastic disturbs the soil microbe activity. The terrestrial states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil
and aquatic animals misunderstand plastic garbage as Nadu.
food items, swallow them and die. • Household waste that can be categorized as hazardous
• Plastic bags deteriorates soil fertility as it forms part of waste include old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old
manure and remains in the soil for years. medicines, and medicine bottles.
• These bags finding their way in to the city drainage • In the industrial sector, the major generators of hazard-
system results in blockage causing inconvenience, dif- ous waste are the metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye,
ficult in maintenance, creates unhygienic environment refining, and rubber goods industries.
resulting in health hazard and spreading of water borne • Direct exposure to chemicals in hazardous waste such
diseases. as mercury and cyanide can be fatal.
• Designing eco-friendly, biodegradable plastics are the
c. Hospital waste
need of the hour.
• Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treat-
5.8.4. Types ment, or immunization of human beings or animals or
• Solid wastes are classified depending on their source: in research activities or in the production or testing of
biologicals.
a) Municipal waste,
b) Hazardous waste and • These chemicals include formaldehyde and phenols,
which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which is
c) Biomedical waste or hospital waste. used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood
a) Municipal solid waste pressure.
• Municipal solid waste consists of household waste, con- • It may include wastes like soiled waste, disposables,
struction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chem-
waste from streets. ical wastes, disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body
fluids, human excreta, etc.
• With rising urbanization and change in lifestyle and
food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste has • These are highly infectious and can be a serious threat
been increasing rapidly and its composition changing. to human health if not managed in a scientific and dis-
criminate manner.
• In 1947 cities and towns in India generated an estimated
6 million tonnes of solid waste, in 1997 it was about 48 • Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the
million tonnes. More than 25% of the municipal solid health care establishments in India are not giving due
waste is not collected at all. attention to their waste management.
• 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to trans- • After the notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Han-
port it and there are no sanitary landfills to dispose of dling and Management) Rules, 1998, these establish-
the waste. The existing landfills are neither well ments are slowly streamlining the process of waste
equipped and are not lined properly to protect against segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal.
contamination of soil and groundwater.
5.8.5. Treatment and disposal of solid waste
• Over the last few years, the consumer market has
grown rapidly leading to products being packed in cans, i) Open dumps
aluminium foils, plastics, and other such nonbiode- • Open dumps refer to uncovered areas that are used to
gradable items that cause incalculable harm to the en- dump solid waste of all kinds. The waste is untreated,
vironment. uncovered, and not segregated. It is the breeding ground
b) Hazardous waste for flies, rats, and other insects that spread disease. The
rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates
• Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous nearby land and water thereby spreading disease. Treat-
as they contain toxic substances. Hazardous wastes
ment by open dumps is to be phased out.
could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants
and are corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive. ii) Landfills
• India generates around 7 million tonnes of hazardous • Landfills are generally located in urban areas. It is a pit
wastes every year, most of which is concentrated in four that is dug in the ground. The garbage is dumped and

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
the pit is covered with soil everyday thus preventing the • It recycles the nutrients and returns them back to soil
breeding of flies and rats. Thus, every day, garbage is as nutrients.
dumped and sealed. After the landfill is full, the area is • Apart from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting
covered with a thick layer of mud and the site can there- can significantly reduce the amount of disposable
after be developed as a parking lot or a park. garbage.
• Problems - All types of waste are dumped in landfills
vii) Vermiculture
and when water seeps through them it gets contami-
nated and in turn pollutes the surrounding area. This • It is also known as earthworm farming. In this method,
contamination of groundwater and soil through land- Earth worms are added to the compost. These worms
fills is known as leaching. break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost very rich in nutrients.
iii) Sanitary landfills
viii) Four R’s
• Sanitary landfill is more hygienic and built in a me-
thodical manner to solve the problem of leaching. These
5.8.6. Waste Minimization Circles (WMC)
are lined with materials that are impermeable such as
plastics and clay, and are also built over impermeable WMC helps Small and Medium Industrial Clusters in waste
soil. Constructing sanitary landfills is very costly minimization in their industrial plants.
iv) Incineration plants • This is assisted by the World Bank with the Ministry of
Environment and Forests acting as the nodal ministry.
• The process of burning waste in large furnaces at high The project is being implemented with the assistance of
temperature is known as incineration. In these plants National Productivity Council (NPC), New Delhi.
the recyclable material is segregated and the rest of the
material is burnt and ash is produced. • The initiative also aims to realize the objectives of the
Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution (1992),
• Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces which states that the government should educate citi-
tonnes of toxic ash and pollutes the air and water. A zens about environmental risks, the economic and
large amount of the waste that is burnt here can be health dangers of resource degradation and the real
recovered and recycled. In fact, at present, incineration economic cost of natural resources.
is kept as the last resort and is used mainly for treating
the infectious waste. • The policy also recognizes that citizens and non-gov-
ernmental organizations play a role in environmental
v) Pyrolysis monitoring, therefore, enabling them to supplement the
• It is a process of combustion in absence of oxygen or the regulatory system and recognizing their expertise
material burnt under controlled atmosphere of oxygen. where such exists and where their commitments and
It is an alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid vigilance would be cost effective.
thus obtained can be used as fuels. Pyrolysis of carbo-
naceous wastes like firewood, coconut, palm waste, 5.9 THERMAL POLLUTION
corn combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of
saw dust, yields charcoal along with products like tar, a natural aquatic environment caused by human influence.
methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and a fuel gas. This has become an increasing and the most current pol-
vi) Composting lution, owing to the increasing call of globalization every-
• Composting is a biological process in which micro-or- where.
ganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, decompose degra- Thermal pollution is caused by either dumping hot water
dable organic waste into humus like substance in the from factories and power plants or removing trees and
presence of oxygen. vegetation that shade streams, permitting sunlight to raise
• This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in the temperature of these waters, release of cold water
carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for which lowers the temperature. Like other forms of water
growing plants. pollution, thermal pollution is widespread, affecting many
lakes and vast numbers of streams and rivers in various
• It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes parts of the world.
the soil easier to cultivate. It helps the soil retain more
plant nutrients.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Major sources the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic organ-
• power plants creating electricity from fossil fuel isms can cause problems such as the inability to break
down lipids, which leads to malnutrition.
• water as a cooling agent in industrial facilities
• deforestation of the shoreline Ecological Effects — Cold Water
• soil erosion Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very
cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.
Ecological Effects — Warm Water This affects fish (particularly their eggs and larvae), mac-
The change in temperature impacts organisms by roinvertebrates and river productivity.
(a) decreasing oxygen supply, and Control Measures
(b) affecting ecosystem composition. Instead of discharging heated water into lakes and streams,
Warm water contains less oxygen. Elevated temperature power plants and factories can pass the heated water
typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in through cooling towers or cooling ponds, where evapora-
water. So there is decrease in rate of decomposition of tion cools the water before it is discharged.
organic matter. Green algae are replaced by less desirable Alternatively, power plants can be designed or refitted to
blue green algae. Many animals fail to multiply. be more efficient and to produce less waste heat in the first
It also increases the metabolic rate of aquatic animals re- place.
sults in consumption of more food in a shorter time than Cogeneration - process through which, the excess heat
if their environment were not changed. An increased met- energy from generating electricity can be used in another
abolic rate may result in food source shortages, causing a manufacturing process that needs such energy. Where
sharp decrease in a population. homes or other buildings are located near industrial plants,
Changes in the environment may also result in a migration waste hot water can be used for heating—an arrangement
of organisms to another, more suitable environment and often found in Scandinavian towns and cities, and pro-
to in-migration of fishes that normally only live in warmer posed for use in China.
waters elsewhere. This leads to competition for fewer re- To prevent thermal pollution due to devegetation, the pre-
sources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have scription is simple: do not devegetate and leave strips of
an advantage over organisms that are not used to the trees and vegetation along streams and shorelines.
warmer temperature. As a result one has the problem of All efforts to control erosion also have the effect of keeping
compromising food chains of the old and new environ- water clearer and, thus, cooler.
ments. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.
Temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius
can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and Do you know?
other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse The Wildlife Week is celebrated in the first week of
changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable to October, with an aim to create awareness and sympa-
necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and al- thy for wildlife. Wildlife Week is being celebrated since
teration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effects the inception of National Zoological Park in 1957.
can adversely affect mortality and reproduction.
Primary producers are affected by warm water because
higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, 5.10 PLASTIC POLLUTION
resulting in a shorter life span and species overpopulation. The marine resource covering 70 percent of the earth’s
This can cause an algae bloom which reduces the oxygen surface is a key asset in the biosphere. Of the nearly 1.5
levels in the water. The higher plant density results in re- million species known, nearly a quarter million live in the
duced light intensity, decreases photosynthesis and leads world’s oceans. More importantly, nearly 50 percent of the
to an increased plant respiration rate. This is similar to the global primary production takes place in the upper stratum
eutrophication. of sea water. Seafood presently represents 20% of the pro-
A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing tein in global diet.
of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen- The health of the marine food web and the fisheries re-
and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of sources invariably depend upon the long-term viability of

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
the autotrophic algae (phytoplankton – primary producer) The plastic waste that has been introduced into the world’s
and the zooplankton (primary consumers) in the marine oceans must accumulate for the most part intact and un-
food pyramid. mineralized in the marine environment. While the fate of
Plastics represent the latest contaminant in the marine such plastics is not clear, it is reasonable to expect at least
environment; the increased use of plastics has lead to some of it to continue disintegrating into microparticulate
negative environmental impacts. debris. Recent reports even indicate an increase in their
counts over the last two decades.
Plastics pollution can interfere with the plankton species
that form the foundation of the food web, and other organ-
Impact of Microparticles
isms adversely affecting the delicate balance in the marine
ecosystem. Challenging the Antarctic krill and other zooplankton with
plastic beads that are about 20 microns or so in size has
demonstrated that these microparticulates are readily in-
Do you know? gested by these organisms. They appear to ingest the par-
“Science Express” is an innovative mobile science ex- ticles unselectively, and the ingestion rates depend on the
hibition mounted on a 16-coach AC train, which has concentration of particles in the environment.
been custom-built for Department of Science & Tech- Plastics are bio-inert and are not expected to be toxic to
nology (DST) by Indian Railway. The Express is a the animal in the conventional sense. While physical ob-
unique collaborative initiative of Department of Science struction or indirect interference with physiology is always
and Technology, Ministry of Environment, Forest and possible (as with sea birds showing satiation on ingesting
Climate Change (MoEFCC) and Ministry of Railway. plastics) the material will pass through the animal virtu-
The unique mobile expo was launched in October 2007 ally unchanged.
by DST. The 2012, 2013 and 2014, three phases/runs of The concern, however, is that plastics exposed to sea water
“Science Express” were rolled out as a joint initiative tends to concentrate toxic and non-toxic organic com-
of DST and MoEFCC as Biodiversity Special and show- pounds present in the sea water at low concentrations.
cased the myriad “Biodiversity of India”. 2015 run with These, including PCBs, DDT, and nonylphenols, have very
the focus to the theme “Climate Change” and run it as high partition coefficients and are very efficiently concen-
“”Science Express Climate Action Special (SECAS). trated in the plastic material.
Plastic-related distress to over 250 species has been docu-
mented worldwide. The focus has very much been on larger
Plastics as a Waste Material- in Marine species in surface waters or beaches, despite the fact that
Environment 99 percent of marine species live in the benthos. The im-
The amount of plastic waste estimation annually intro- pact of negatively buoyant plastic waste (such as nylon net
duced into the marine environment is not available. But, fragments) on benthic species has remained virtually un-
plastic waste is well known to result primarily from fish- addressed.
ing-related activities, and from non-point source influx Despite years of interest on the topic little research has
from beaches. been carried out by the government agencies or the plastics
There are two clear differences between the fate of plastics industry to address the key issues relating to plastics in the
debris in the ocean environment as opposed to on land marine environment.
environments.
Plastics as a Waste Material- in Land Environment
a) The rate of UV-induced photo-oxidative degradation of
plastics floating or submerged at sea is very much Problems with the uncollected plastic waste, include
slower than that exposed to the same solar radiation (i) Choking of drains by plastic carry bags which may lead
on land. to unhygienic environment and water borne diseases,
b) Unlike on land there is no easy means of retrieval, (ii) Causing of illness and possible death of animals that
sorting and recycling of plastic waste that enters into may feed on plastics from garbage bins,
the ocean environment. (iii) Non-biodegradable and impervious nature of plastics
These two factors generally result in extended lifetimes for disposed on soil which may arrest recharge of ground
plastics at sea. water aquifers,

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
(iv) presence of additives and plasticizers, fillers, flame (b) Ex situ bioremediation techniques
retardants and pigments used in the plastic products • Ex situ -involves the removal of the contaminated mate-
which have potential to cause adverse health impact rial to be treated elsewhere.
and ground water pollution.
• Landfarming - contaminated soil is excavated and
spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled []
5.11. BIOREMEDIATION until pollutants are degraded.The goal is to stimulate
• Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and fa-
and fungi) to degrade the environmental contaminants cilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
into less toxic forms. • Biopiles - it is a hybrid of landfarming and compost-
• The microorganisms may be indigenous to a contami- ing. Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as
nated area or they may be isolated from elsewhere and aerated composted piles. Typically used for treat-
brought to the contaminated site. ment of surface contamination with petroleum hy-
drocarbons.
The process of bioremediation can be monitored in- • Bioreactors – it involves the processing of contami-
directly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction Poten- nated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water
tial or redox in soil and groundwater, together with through an engineered containment system.
pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/ • Composting – dealt earlier in solid waste management
donor concentrations, and concentration of break-
down products (e.g. carbon dioxide)
Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has devel-
oped a mixture of bacteria called ‘oilzapper’ which
5.11.1. Bioremediation Strategies degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated sites,
leaving behind no harmful residues. This technique
(a) In situ bioremediation techniques is not only environment friendly, but also highly cost-
• It involves treatment of the contaminated material at effective.
the site.
• Bioventing – supply of air and nutrients through 5.11.2. Genetic engineering approaches
wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth
of indigenous bacteria. It is used for simple hydro- Phytoremediation
carbons and can be used where the contamination • Phytoremediation is use of plants to remove contami-
is deep under the surface. nants from soil and water .
• Biosparging - Injection of air under pressure below Types
the water table to increase groundwater oxygen con-
centrations and enhance the rate of biological deg-
• Phytoextraction / phytoaccumulation is the process
by which plants accumulate contaminants into the roots
radation of contaminants by naturally occurring and above ground shoots or leaves.
bacteria
• Phytotransformation or phytodegradation refers to
• Bioaugmentation - Microorganisms are imported the uptake of organic contaminants from soil, sedi-
to a contaminated site to enhance degradation ments, or water and their transformation to more sta-
process. ble, less toxic, less mobile form.
• Phytostabilization is a technique in which plants re-
Do you know? duce the mobility and migration of contaminated soil.
The jaws of the snakes are not fused together. That Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into
means that unlike our jaws, snakes jaws are not the plant structure so that they form unstable mass of
hooked up at the back of their mouths. This makes it plant from which the contaminants will not re-enter
possible for them to eat very big meals, bigger than the environment.
their own heads! • Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the break-
down of contaminants through the activity existing in

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
the rhizosphere. This activity is due to the presence of • It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot-scale
proteins and enzymes produced by the plants or by soil studies to full-scale field operations.
organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi. • Bioremediation often takes longer time than other treat-
• Rhizofiltration is a water remediation technique that ment process.
involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots.
Rhizofiltration is used to reduce contamination in nat- 5.12. E NVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND
ural wetlands and estuary areas. HEALTH

First
The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans has been
used to de toxify toluene and ionic mercury which are • Pollution inventory and apportionment studies that as-
released from radioactive nuclear waste. sess relative contribution of different sources are looked
at in isolation and not within a coherent framework of
health protection.
Mycoremediation • What ultimately should drive policy is not just what
• is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to source is emitting more but which source is likely to lead
decontaminate the area. to a greater exposure to health damaging pollutants.
Mycofiltration • Globally, studies show vehicles contribute from a quar-
ter to close to half of the particulates in cities.
• is a similar process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic
waste and microorganisms from water in soil. Second
Advantages of bioremediation • Our scientists do not say that people are exposed to
• Useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of much higher health damaging pollutants than what
contaminants. occurs in ambient conditions.
• The complete destruction of target pollutants is possible. • With each breath we inhale three-four times more pol-
lutants than the ambient air concentration.
• Less expensive.
• Environment friendly • Exposure to vehicular fumes is highest on road and up
to 500 metres from there. The majority in our cities
Disadvantages of bioremediation lives in that zone.

Do you know? Third

Rattlesnakes are easily recognized by, their rattle. The • People are exposed to a mixture of pollutants whose
rattlesnake babies are born with what is called a pre- combined effect has serious health impact. The benefits
button. The baby snake loses this piece when it sheds are greater when pollution sources are regulated for
its skin for the first time. With the shedding a new multi-pollutants.
button appears. With every shedding after that an- • Delhi’s air is thick with particulate matter, nitrogen
other button, or rattle, will be added. These buttons oxides, ozone and air toxins.
are made up of a material called Keratin. The rattles • There is merit in NGT’s focus on diesel emissions which
are empty. The noise comes from each segment is a multi-pollutant mixture classified as a class one
knocking together, so until a rattlesnake has two or carcinogen for its strong link with lung cancer. Expo-
more pieces it isn’t going to make a sound! But when sure to toxins should be eliminated.
it does…you WILL hear it…and you WILL RUN!
Fourth
• Our air quality policies are cut off from the reported
• Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are reality in the health sector.
biodegradable. Not all compounds are susceptible to
rapid and complete degradation. • India is experiencing a rapid health transition, with a
large and rising burden of chronic diseases, estimated to
• Biological processes are often highly specific. be more than half of all deaths and years lost to illness.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Cancer, stroke, and chronic lung diseases are now major • Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from
public health problems that are strongly influenced by these surfaces by rainstorms, through runoff.
air pollution. • This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more
acidic.
5.13 ACID R AIN
• About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to
Acid rain is the rainfall that has been acidified. It is formed earth through dry deposition.
when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen react with the moisture
in the atmosphere. It is rain with a pH of less than 5.6. Acid
rain is particularly damaging to lakes, streams, and forests The pH scale
and the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems. • The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic
(alkaline) a solution is.
5.14. TYPES OF ACID DEPOSITION • It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral.
“Acid rain” is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet • A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7
and dry deposition (form of deposition material) from the is basic.
atmosphere
• It was devised in 1909 and it is a logarithmic index
for the hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous
(a) Wet Deposition
solution.
• If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas
• pH values decreases as hydrogen ion levels in-
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the
creases.
ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
• As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, • A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic than
solution with pH 5, and a hundred times more
it affects a variety of plants and animals.
acidic than solution with pH 6.
• The strength of the effects depends on several factors, • Whilst the pH range is usually given as 0 to 14,
including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and
lower and higher values are theoretically possible.
buffering capacity of the soils involved; and the types of
fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water.
• Precipitation removes gases and particles from the at- 5.14.1. Sources of compounds causing acid rain
mosphere by two processes:
(a) Sulphur
(i) rain-out which is the incorporation of particles into
(i) Natural sources:
cloud drops which fall to the ground, and
(ii) washout which occurs when materials below the cloud • seas and oceans,
is swept down by rain or snow it falls. • volcanic eruptions,
• Biological processes in the soil e.g., Decomposition
of organic matter.
Do you know?
(ii) Man-made sources:
Gharial crocodile counts amongst the largest crocodile
species in the world. It is also one of two surviving • burning of coal (60% of SO2) and
members of the Gavialidae family. Gharial Crocodiles • petroleum products (30% of SO2), and
of India have an elongated and narrow snout. It is • The smelting of metal sulfide ores to obtain the pure
mainly found in the river systems of Indus, Brahma- metals.
putra, Ganges, Mahanadi, Kaladan and Ayeyarwady • Industrial production of Sulfuric acid in metallurgi-
cal, chemical and fertilizer industries.
(b) Nitrogen
(b) Dry Deposition
Natural sources:
• In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals
may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall • lightening,
to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the • volcanic eruption, and
ground, buildings, vegetation, cars, etc. • Biological activity.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Anthropogenic sources: • Due to the abundance of water, they possess numerous
• Forest fires lakes and streams and also have more land covered
with vegetation.
• Combustion of oil, coal, and gas
(c) Formic acid • Being upland, they often have thin soils and glaciated
bedrock.
• Biomass burning due to forest fires causes emission
of formic acid (HCOOH) and formaldehyde (HCHO) World scenario
into the atmosphere. Many parts of Scandinavia, Canada, the North and North-
• Large fraction formaldehyde gets photo – oxidation east United States and Northern Europe (particularly West
and forms formic acid in the atmosphere. Germany and upland Britain) share these features. Across
the Atlantic there are number of acid rain hot spots includ-
These are three main compounds that cause acidification
ing Nova Scotia, Southern Ontario and Quebec in Canada,
of rain in the atmosphere.
the Adirondack Mountains in New York, Great Smoky
(d) Other Acids: mountains, parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Colo-
• Chlorine rado Rockies of the US.
• Phosphoric acid In India
• Hydrochloric acid (smokestacks). In India, the first report of acid rain came from Bombay in
• Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (automobiles). 1974. Instances of acid rain are being reported from met-
These become carbonic acid. ropolitan cities.
In India, the annual SO2 emission has almost doubled in
the last decade due to increased fossil fuel consumption.
Does it occurs only in industrial areas alone? Lowering of soil pH is reported from north-eastern India,
SOX and NOX that create Acid Rain are often trans- coastal Karnataka and Kerala, parts of Orissa, West Bengal
ported to distances far away from their points of ori- and Bihar.
gin by the wind so that the adverse effects of pollution
are also experienced at place remote from the place of
genesis. The problem is further compounded as the Indicators
environmental damage caused by acid rain is not uni- Lichens serve as good bio-indicators for air pollution.
form, but is area-specific. In the variety of pH around 6.0, several animals, those
are important food items for fish decline. These in-
clude the freshwater shrimp, crayfish, snails and some
5.14.2. Common characteristics of acid rain small mussels.
areas:
Areas which are prone to acid-rain attacks have some com-
mon characteristics: 5.14.3. Chemistry of Acid Rain
Six basic steps are involved in the formation of acid rain:
Do you know? 1. The atmosphere receives oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
The banana tree (plant) has only a thick false stem from natural and man-made sources.
(pseudostem), which is not woody but made up of a 2. Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as
central core of soft tissues concealed by the fibrous dry deposition, either close to the place of origin or
and sheathing bases of large leaves. Strictly speaking, some distance away.
the banana plant is a giant herb.
3. Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-oxidants
(such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
• They are concentrated in the industrialized belt of the 4. These photo-oxidants interact with the oxides of sulfur
northern hemisphere. and nitrogen to produce H2SO4 and HNO3 by oxidation.
• They are often upland and / or mountainous areas, 5. The oxides are of sulfur and nitrogen, photo-oxidants,
which are well-watered by rain and snow. and other gases (like NH3)

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
6. Acid rain containing ions of sulfate, nitrate, ammonium • The impact of acid rain on soil is less in India; be-
and hydrogen falls as wet deposition. cause Indian soils are mostly alkaline, with good
buffering ability.
Difference between normally and (b) Vegetation
anthropogenically acidified lakes
Acid rains affect trees and undergrowth in forest in several
Naturally acidic lakes Anthropogenically ways, causing reduced growth or abnormal growth:
acidified lakes • The typical growth-decreasing symptoms are:
Brown to yellow colour Very clear water caused • Discoloration and loss of foliar biomass
caused by humic by reduced primary • Loss of feeder-root biomass, especially in conifers
substances productivity • Premature senescence (aging) of older needles in
Concentrations of Dissolved organic carbon conifers
dissolved organic carbon concentrations are low. • Increase in susceptibility of damage to secondary
are high while Whereas the transparency root and foliar pathogens
transparency is low is high.
• Death of herbaceous vegetation beneath affected
Low pH but well buffered. Poorly buffered trees
Abound with aquatic life. Some of the more • Prodigious production of lichens on affected trees.
sensitive taxa, such as
blue-green algae, some
• Death of affected trees.
bacteria, snails, mussels (c) Micro organisms
crustaceans, mayflies and • pH determines the proliferation of any microbial
fish either decrease or / species in a particular environment and the rate at
are eliminated. which it can produce.
• The optimum pH of most bacteria and protozoa is
near neutrality; most fungi prefer an acidic environ-
ment, most blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline
Do you know?
environment.
The Indian giant squirrel is a large-bodied diurnal,
arboreal, and herbivorous squirrel. The species is en-
• So after a long run of acid rain, microbial species in
the soil and water shift from bacteria-bound to
demic to deciduous, mixed deciduous, and moist ev-
fungi-bound and cause an imbalance in the micro-
ergreen forests of peninsular India, reaching as far
flora.
north as the Satpura hill range of Madhya Pradesh.
IUCN Status – least concern. • This causes a delay in the decomposition of soil or-
ganic material, and an increase in fungal disease in
aquatic life and forests.
(d) Wild life
5.14.4. Impact Of Acid Rain
The effects of acid rain on wild life are not very obvious
(a) Soil
and are therefore, difficult to document. Nevertheless, sev-
• The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutri- eral direct and indirect effects of acid rain on the produc-
ent cations like potassium and magnesium in the soil tivity and survival of wildlife populations have been
cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil in- reported.
fertile.
• Acid rain can directly affect the eggs and tadpoles of
• This is accompanied by a decrease in the respiration frogs and salamanders that breed in small forest
of soil organisms. ponds.
• An increase in ammonia in the soil due to a decrease • It has been postulated that acid rain can indirectly
in other nutrients decreases the rate of decomposi- affect wildlife by allowing metals bound on soils
tion. and sediments to be released into the aquatic en-
• The nitrate level of the soil is also found to decrease. vironment, where toxic substances may be ingested

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
by animals, like birds, that feed in such an en­ (f) Acid rain damage on Materials
vironment.
Material Type of Impact Principal Air
• Other indirect effects of acid rain on wildlife are loss Pollutants
or alteration of food and habitat resources.
Metals Corrosion, Sulphur Oxides
(e) Humans tarnishing and other acid
Acid rain affects human health is a number of ways. gases
• The obvious ones are bad smells, reduced visibility; Building stone Surface erosion Sulphur Oxides
irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory tract. soiling, black and other acid
• Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pul- crust formation gases
monary emphysema and cancer. Ceramics and Surface erosion, Acid gases,
• Some indirect effects include food poisoning vis a vis glass surface crust especially
drinking water and food. formation fluoride-
containing
• An increase in the levels of toxic heavy-metals like
manganese, copper, cadmium and aluminium also Paints and Surface erosion, Sulphur dioxides,
contribute to the detrimental effects on human organic discolouration, hydrogen sulphide
health. coatings soiling
Paper Embrittlement, Sulphur Oxides
discolouration
Do you know?
Photographic Micro-blemishes Sulphur Oxides
• Bonsai—i.e., tailored or human-made miniature or Materials
dwarfed living trees that have been prevented from Textiles Fading, colour Nitrogen oxides,
reaching their normal size—are grown in pots and change ozone
kept in greenhouses, drawing rooms, etc. This
Leather Weakening, Sulphur oxides
technique was first perfected by the Japanese. powdered
• Bamboos are trees without a main trunk but with surface
a cluster of culms arising from the underground Rubber Cracking Ozone
rhizome. These culms are unbranched, with dis-
tinct nodes and internodes that give them a jointed (g) Socio-economic impacts of acid rain:
appearance. The adverse impact of acid rain on farming and fishing
leads to the deterioration of life quality indices like GNP
• Trees reduce oxides of carbon in the air, can also
and per capita income, especially in the predominantly
fix atmospheric nitrogen, disintegrate waste and
agricultural and developing countries like India
act as sinks of pollution
• Sometimes seeds of a plant are formed without 5.14.5. Trigger Effect of Acid Rain on Pollutants:
fertilization. This phenomenon is called “agamos- A low pH of the rainwater and subsequent increased acid-
permy,” a kind of parthenogenesis. A fruit that ity in the environment can trigger off or aggravate the
matures without seed formation is called “parthe- effects of certain harmful pollutants.
nocarpic fruit.” (i) Mercury:
• Beverage plants are those plants which yield bever- • Methyl mercury and related short chain alkyl mercu-
ages or drinks—nonalcoholic or alcoholic—that are rial compounds are most dangerous to humans, as
palatable and refreshing. Nonalcoholic beverages they accumulate in edible fish tissue.
usually contain caffeine, an alkaloid, which has • Although acid deposition may not increase the pro-
stimulating and refreshing qualities. Alcoholic bev- duction of methyl mercury, it may increase the par-
erages are those that contain one or more hydroxyl titioning of methyl mercury into the water column.
(–OH) groups; e.g., ethanol • The use of lime has helped in reducing the mercury
levels in fish.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
(ii) Aluminium: • Reducing the emission of SO2 from power stations by
• Acidified waters are known to leach substantial burning less fossil fuel, using alternate energy sources
amounts of aluminium from watersheds. like tidal, wind, hydropower etc.,
• Even at relatively low levels, aluminium has been • using low sulphur fuel;
implicated in dialysis dementia, a disorder of the
central nervous system, which may be toxic to indi- • desulphurization
viduals with impaired kidney function. • decreasing emission of NOx from power stations and
(iii) Cadmium: • Modification of engines.
• Cadmium can enter the drinking water supply • Emissions of SOx can be controlled by
through corrosion of galvanized pipe or from the
copper-zinc through corrosion of galvanized piper or • Converting to sulphuric acid.
from the copper-zinc solder used in the distribution • Converting it to elemental sulphur.
systems. • Neutralizing it and using it in the manufacture of
• A decrease in water pH from 6.5 to 4.5 can result in other products.
a fivefold increase in cadmium and could cause renal
tubular damage. 5.15 C
 ATEGORIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL
(iv) Lead: SECTORS
• Foetuses and infants are highly susceptible to drink- • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
ing water lead contamination. Change (MoEFCC) has developed the criteria of catego-
• High blood lead levels in children (>30 mug/Ml) are rization of industrial sectors, Red, Orange, Green and
believed to induce biochemical and neurophysiolog- White categories based on the Pollution Index which is
ical dysfunction. a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents
• However, lower than normal blood levels of lead can (water pollutants), hazardous wastes generated and
cause mental deficiencies and behavioural problems. consumption of resources. The Pollution Index PI of any
(v) Asbestos: industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the
Asbestos in natural rock can be released by acidic waters. increasing value of PI denotes the increasing degree of
pollution load from the industrial sector.
Do you know? • “Re-categorization of industries based on their pollu-
Tree ferns like Cyathaea and Alsophila have erect rhi- tion load is a scientific exercise. The old system of cat-
zomes with generally unbranched trunks, topped by egorization was creating problems for many industries
a crown of graceful, feathery fronds that form a ro- and was not reflecting the pollution of the industries.
sette at the apex. The new categories will remove this lacuna and will
give clear picture to everyone. “The new category of
White industries which is practically non-polluting
5.14.5. Control Measures:
will not require Environmental Clearance (EC) and
Reducing or eliminating the sources of pollution by Consent and will help in getting finance from lending
• Buffering- the practice of adding a neutralizing agent to institutions. No Red category of industries shall nor-
the acidified water to increase the pH is one of the im- mally be permitted in the ecologically fragile area /
portant control measures. Usually lime in the form of protected area.
calcium oxide and calcium carbonate is used.



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 CHAPTER - 17

CLIMATE CHANGE

C limate is the long-term average of a region’s weather

events. The Earth’s climate is not static. Over the
billions of years of earth’s existence, it has changed
many times in response to natural causes like sun spot, ice
age glaciations, etc.
on record. 2016 was the hottest year on record, worldwide.
An upsurge in the amount of extreme weather events, such
as wildfires, heat waves, and strong tropical storms, is also
attributed
“Global warming is an average increase in the temperature
“Climate change” means a change of climate which is at- of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the
tributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global
the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in climate patterns. Global warming can occur from a variety
addition to natural climate variability observed over com- of causes, both natural and human induced. In common
parable time periods. usage, “global warming” often refers to the warming that
However, when today people talk about ‘climate change’, can occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse
they mean the changes in climate over the last 100 years gases from human activities.”
which is caused predominantly by human activity.
17.1.1. Global Warming - Impacts
The phrase ‘climate change’ represents a change in the
long-term weather patterns. Climate change is not a • Rise in Sea level
change of weather in a particular day; it is the cumulative • Changes in rainfall patterns.
change of long term weather pattern i.e. changes in cli- • Increased likelihood of extreme events such as heat
mate. For example, it’s possible that a winter day in Jammu, wave, flooding, hurricanes, etc.
could be sunny and mild, but the average weather, the • Melting of the ice caps.
climate, tells us that Jammu’s winters will mainly be cold
and include snow and rain. The change in the pattern of
• Melting of glaciers.
Jammu’s winters from the normal winter pattern repre- • Widespread vanishing of animal populations due to
habitat loss.
sents an epitome of climate change.
Climate change is the measurable effects of the continual • Spread of disease (like malaria, etc).
warming trend. Climate change is usually measured in • Bleaching of Coral Reefs.
major shifts in temperature, rainfall, snow, and wind pat- • Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.
terns lasting decades or more.
Humans are creating climate change by burning large Do you know?
amounts of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), deforestation Black Panther is not a separate species. Blackness, the
(when forests are cut down or burned, they can no longer general darkening of colour is due to the excessive pres-
store carbon, and the carbon is released to the atmosphere). ence of a substance called Melanin which intensifies
pigmentation. The production of melanin is increased
17.1. GLOBAL WARMING where there is a combination of high temperature,
Earth has warmed at an unprecedented rate over the last humidity and reduced light. Both black and normal-
hundred years and particularly over the last two decades. coloured cubs may be produced in the same litter.
Since 1992, each year has been one of the warmest years

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
17.2. GREENHOUSE EFFECT 17.2.1. What is the Greenhouse Effect?
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenome-
non that blankets the earth lower atmosphere and warms
it, maintaining the temperature suitable for living things
to survive.
Just as greenhouses, that keeps the air warm inside its
chamber, water vapor and green house gases warms the
Earth. Greenhouse gases play an important role in the
balance of Earth’s cooling and warming.
According to one estimate, in the absence of naturally oc-
curring green house effect, the average temperature of the
earth surface would be -19°C instead of present value of
15°C and the earth would be a frozen lifeless planet.

The greenhouse effect is a process (similar to green house)

caused by greenhouse gases, which occur naturally in the
atmosphere. This process plays a crucial role in warming
the Earth’s surface, making it habitable.
However, human-generated greenhouse gas emissions
upset the natural balance and lead to increased warmth.

Green House

A greenhouse/ glasshouse is a building made of glass

chambers in which plants are grown in cold countries or
in cold climate areas. There is a continued increase in tem-
perature in green house even when the outside tempera-
ture remained low. It protects plants from frost.

Do you know?
• Tree rings provide precise information about envi-
ronmental events, including volcanic eruptions.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Incoming Energy 17.3. GREEN HOUSE GASES
• The Sun emits energy that is transmitted to Earth. Be- • Greenhouse gases means those gaseous constituents of
cause the Sun is very hot, the energy is emitted in high- the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that
energy short wavelengths that penetrate the Earth’s absorbs and re-emit infrared radiation.
atmosphere.
17.3.1. Water vapour
Absorption
Water vapour is the biggest overall contributor to the
• About 30% of the Sun’s energy is reflected directly back greenhouse effect and humans are not directly responsible
into space by the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the for emitting this gas in quantities sufficient to change its
Earth. The rest of the Sun’s energy is absorbed into the concentration in the atmosphere. However, CO2 and other
Earth’s system. greenhouse gases is increasing the amount of water vapour
Emission in the air by boosting the rate of evaporation.
• The Earth re-emits energy back into the atmosphere. Unlike CO2, which can persist in the air for centuries, water
Because the Earth is cooler than the Sun, the energy is vapour cycles through the atmosphere quickly, evaporating
emitted in the form of infrared radiation, at wave- from the oceans and elsewhere before coming back down
lengths longer than the incoming solar energy. as rain or snow.
Since the rate of evaporation rises with temperature, the
Role of Greenhouse Gases amount of water vapour in the air at any one time (and the
• Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb much of amount of warming it causes) is strongly related to the
the long-wave energy (infrared radiation) emitted from amount of other greenhouse gases in the air.
the Earth’s surface, preventing it from escaping from
17.3.2. CARBON DIOXIDE
the Earth’s system. The greenhouse gases then re-emit
this energy in all directions, warming the Earth’s sur-
face and lower atmosphere.
Human Role
• The atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has
increased significantly over the past two centuries,
largely due to human-generated carbon dioxide emis-
sions from burning fossil fuels, deforestation.
• This increase has amplified the natural greenhouse ef- • Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas
emitted through human activities. Carbon dioxide
fect by trapping more of the energy emitted by the is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the
Earth. This change causes Earth’s surface temperature Earth’s carbon cycle (the natural circulation of car-
to increase. bon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and
animals).
Do you know? • Human activities are altering the carbon cycle both by
adding more CO2 to the atmosphere and by reducing
• No tree dies of old age. They are generally killed by the natural sinks, like deforestation, to remove CO2
insects, disease or by people.
from the atmosphere.
• Trees grow from the top, not from the bottom as • While CO2 emissions come from a variety of natural
is commonly believed. sources, human-related emissions are responsible for
• Tree leaves help trap and remove tiny particles of the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since
soot and dust which otherwise damages human the industrial revolution.
lungs.
The main sources
• Tree root networks filter contaminants in soils pro- i. The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
ducing clean water.
ii. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and
• Trees prevent erosion by trapping soil that would diesel used for transportation.
otherwise become silt
iii. Many industrial processes emit CO2 through fossil fuel
combustion.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
iv. Several processes also produce CO2 emissions through • Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments,
chemical reactions that do not involve combustion, for volcanoes, and wildfires.
example, the production and consumption of mineral
Human induced:
products such as cement, the production of metals such
as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals, etc. • Agriculture: Domestic livestock such as cattle, buffalo,
sheep, goats, and camels produce large amounts of CH4
Emissions and Trends as part of their normal digestive process. Also, when
• Changes in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion animals’ manure is stored or managed in lagoons or
are influenced by many factors, including population holding tanks, CH4 is produced. Because humans raise
growth, economic growth, changing energy prices, new these animals for food, the emissions are considered
technologies, changing behavior, and seasonal temper- human-related. Globally, the Agriculture sector is the
atures. primary source of CH4 emissions
• Between 1990 and 2010, the increase in CO2 emissions • Industry: Methane is the primary component of natural
corresponded with increased energy use by an expand- gas. Some amount of CH4 is emitted to the atmosphere
ing economy and population. during the production, processing, storage, transmis-
sion, and distribution of crude oil & natural gas.
Do you know? • Waste from Homes and Businesses: Methane is gener-
USA is the second largest Greenhouse Gas emitter ated in landfills as waste decomposes and from the
presently. However, if cumulative historical emission treatment of wastewater.
is considered, USA would be a largest GHG emitter.
So, its withdrawal will affect control of cumulative
Do you know?
global GHG emissions. It will also affect the availabil-
ity of international funds for climate change, as USA Polar bears are the largest living carnivorous quadru-
was a contributor to climate finance. ped (animals with four legs).

Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions 17.3.4. NITROUS OXIDE

• The most effective way to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) • Nitrous oxide (N2O) is naturally present in the atmos-
emissions is to reduce fossil fuel consumption. Other phere as part of the Earth’s nitrogen cycle, and has a
strategies include Energy Efficiency, Energy Conserva- variety of natural sources.
tion, Carbon Capture and Sequestration. • However, human activities such as agriculture, fossil
fuel combustion, wastewater management, and indus-
Do you know? trial processes are increasing the amount of N2O in the
The pesticide industry in India, which is the fourth atmosphere.
largest in the world and second largest in the Asia-
Pacific region, only after China. Sources
Natural sources:
17.3.3. METHANE • Natural emissions of N2O are mainly from bacteria
breaking down nitrogen in soils and the oceans.
• Methane (CH4) is emitted by natural sources such as
wetlands, as well as human activities such as leakage Human induced:
from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock. • Agriculture. Nitrous oxide is emitted when people add
• Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions in the nitrogen to the soil through the use of synthetic fertiliz-
atmosphere help remove CH4 from the atmosphere. ers. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the breakdown
of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine, which con-
Source tributed to 6% of N2O emissions in 2010.
Natural sources: • Transportation. Nitrous oxide is emitted when trans-
portation fuels are burned.
• Wetlands are the largest source, emitting CH4 from bac-
teria that decompose organic materials in the absence • Industry. Nitrous oxide is generated as a byproduct dur-
of oxygen. ing the production of nitric acid, which is used to make

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production • Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric life-
of adipic acid, which is used to make fibers, like nylon, times and high GWPs.
and other synthetic products. • Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing
• Removal: Nitrous oxide is removed from the atmos- and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer
phere when it is absorbed by certain types of bacteria gas for leak detection. HFC-23 is produced as a by-prod-
or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical re­ uct of HCFC-22 production.
actions.
Transmission and Distribution of Electricity:
Do you know? • Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission
equipment, including circuit breakers.
Telecoeras, a single-horned, hippo-like grazer, once
common in North America.
Do you know?
Planting trees on denuded and waste land, along
17.3.5. FLUORINATED GASES roads, railway tracks, deserted areas, watersheds, etc.
• They are emitted through a variety of industrial pro- protects soil from erosion by wind or water by firmly
cesses such as aluminum and semiconductor manu­ binding it with roots and by diverting runoff during
facturing & Substitution for Ozone-Depleting rains
Substances.
• Many fluorinated gases have very high global warming 17.3.6. BLACK CARBON
potentials (GWPs) relative to other greenhouse gases.
Fluorinated gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere, • Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol, (though
not a gas) contributes to warming of the atmosphere.
spreading around the world after they’re emitted.
• Fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere • Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a form of
particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete
only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the far
combustion. It consists of pure carbon in several linked
upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the
forms.
most potent and longest lasting type of greenhouse
gases emitted by human activities. Source
• There are three main categories of fluorinated gases— • biomass burning,
1. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), • cooking with solid fuels, and
2. perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and • diesel exhaust,etc.
3. sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). What does BC do?
Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances: • Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing heat in the
• Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol atmosphere and by reducing albedo, (the ability to re-
propellants, solvents, and fire retardants. These chem- flect sunlight) when deposited on snow and ice.
icals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluoro- • BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the
carbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) air directly. In addition, it darkens snow packs and gla-
because they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone ciers through deposition and leads to melting of ice and
layer. snow.
• Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with • Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall
long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs, and they are and accelerates melting of mountain glaciers such as
released into the atmosphere through leaks, servicing, the Hindu Kush-Himalayan glaciers.
and disposal of equipment in which they are used.
Life time
Industry: • Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several
• Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by- days to weeks.
product of various industrial processes associated with • Thus the effects of BC on the atmospheric warming and
aluminum production and the manufacturing of semi- glacier retreat disappear within months of reducing
conductors. emissions.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
How far India contributes to globe? • Dark carbon-rich particles such as soot from diesel en-
• According to estimates, between 25 and 35 percent of gines absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere.
black carbon in the global atmosphere comes from • Conversely, exhaust from high-sulphur coal or oil pro-
China and India, emitted from the burning of wood and duce light aerosols that reflect sunlight back to space,
cow dung in household cooking and through the use of producing a cooling effect. Aerosols that form naturally
coal to heat homes. during volcanic eruptions cool the atmosphere. Large
Government Measures volcanic eruptions can eject enough ash into the atmos-
• Project Surya has been launched to reduce black carbon phere to lower temperature for a year or more until the
in atmosphere by introducing efficient stove technolo- sulfate particles settle out of the atmosphere.
gies, solar cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants.
17.4.1. Forcing
17.3.7. Brown Carbon
Altering the Energy Balance
• Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified compo-
• The power of a process to alter the climate is estimated
nent of organic aerosol which has recently come into
the forefront of atmospheric research. by its “radiative forcing,” the change in the Earth’s en-
ergy balance due to that process.
• Light-absorbing organic matter (other than soot) in at-
mospheric aerosols of various origins, e.g., soil humics, • Some climate forcings are positive, causing globally av-
humic-like substances (HULIS), tarry materials from eraged warming, and some are negative, causing cool-
combustion, bioaerosols, etc. ing. Some, such as from increased CO₂ concentration,
are well known; others, such as from aerosols, are more
Possible Sources of Brown Carbon are
uncertain.
• Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is
shown to be a major source of brown carbon Natural Forcings
• smoke from agricultural fires may be an additional • Natural forcings include changes in the amount of en-
source. ergy emitted by the Sun, very slow variations in Earth’s
orbit, and volcanic eruptions.
• “Brown carbon” is generally referred for greenhouse
gases and “black carbon” for particles resulting from • Since the start of the industrial revolution, the only
impure combustion, such as soot and dust. natural forcing with any long-term significance has been
a small increase in solar energy reaching Earth. How-
ever, this change is not nearly enough to account for the
Do you know?
current warming.
A flowering tree usually has a dome-shaped appear-
ance and a deliquescent stem in which the main trunk Human-Induced Forcings
divides at some distance from the ground into several • Climate forcing can also be caused by human activities.
branches, which branch again and again, making the These activities include greenhouse gas and aerosol
trunk appear to deliquese or melt away emissions from burning fossil fuels and modifications
of the land surface, such as deforestation.

17.4. CLIMATE FORCINGS Human-Generated Greenhouse Gases

• Climate “forcings” are factors in the climate system that • Greenhouse gases are a positive climate forcing; that is,
either increase or decrease the effects to the climate they have a warming effect. Carbon dioxide emitted
system. from the burning of fossil fuel is presently the largest
single climate forcing agent, accounting for more than
• Positive forcings such as excess greenhouse gases warm
half of the total positive forcing since 1750.
the earth while negative forcings, such as the effects of
most aerosols and volcanic eruptions, actually cool the Human-Generated Aerosols
earth. • Burning fossil fuels adds aerosols to the atmosphere.
• Atmospheric aerosols include volcanic dust, soot from Aerosols are tiny particles in the atmosphere composed
the combustion of fossil fuels, particles from burning of many things, including water, ice, ash, mineral dust,
forests and mineral dust. or acidic droplets.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• Aerosols can deflect the Sun’s energy and impact the energy (preventing it from immediately escaping
formation and lifetime of clouds. Aerosols are a negative to space), and how long the gas stays in the atmos-
forcing; that is, they have a cooling effect. phere.
Causes of Climate Change • The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is a
measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over a
• While natural forcings do exist, they are not significant particular period of time (usually 100 years), compared
enough to explain the recent global warming. Human
to carbon dioxide.
activities are very likely responsible for most of the
recent warming. • Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, per
pound, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contrib-
ute more to warming Earth.
How to estimate the effect of each gas?
GWP & Lifetime of Green House Gases:
• Each gas’s effect on climate change depends on
three main factors:
S. No GAS GWP LIFETIME
1. How much of these gases are in the atmosphere? (100-year) (years)
• Concentration, or abundance, is the amount 1 Carbon di oxide 1 100
of a particular gas in the air. Greenhouse gas
concentrations are measured in parts per mil- 2 Methane 21 12
lion, parts per billion, and even parts per 3 Nitrous oxide 310 120
­t rillion.
4 Hydro fluoro 140-11,700 1-270
• One part per million is equivalent to one drop of carbons (HFCs)
water diluted into about 13 galloons of liquid (roughly
the fuel tank of a compact car). 5 Perfluoro 6,500-9,200 800-50,000
2. How long do they stay in the atmosphere? carbons (PFCs)
• Each of these gases can remain in the atmos- 6 Sulfur 23,900 3,200
phere for different amounts of time, ranging hexafluoride (SF6)
from a few years to thousands of years.
• All of these gases remain in the atmosphere Carbon dioxide (CO2) has a GWP of 1 and serves as a base-
long enough to become well mixed, meaning line for other GWP values.
that the amount that is measured in the atmos-
phere is roughly the same all over the world,
• The larger the GWP, the more warming the gas causes.
For example, methane’s 100-year GWP is 21, which
regardless of the source of the emissions. means that methane will cause 21 times as much warm-
3. How strongly do they impact global temperatures? ing as an equivalent mass of carbon dioxide over a 100-
• Some gases are more effective than others at year time period.
making the planet warmer and “thickening the • Methane (CH4) has a GWP more than 20 times higher
Earth’s blanket (green house gas)”. than CO2 for a 100-year time scale. CH4 emitted today
• For each greenhouse gases, a Global Warming lasts for only 12 years in the atmosphere, on average.
Potential (GWP) has been calculated to reflect However, on a pound-for-pound basis, CH 4 absorbs
how long it remains in the atmosphere, on aver- more energy than CO2, making its GWP higher.
age, and how strongly it absorbs energy. • Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 310 times that of CO2
for a 100-year timescale. N2O emitted today remains in
the atmosphere for an average of 120 years.
17.5. GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL • Chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs), hydro fluoro carbons
• Global warming potential describes the impact of each (HFCs), hydro chloro fluoro carbons (HCFCs), perfluoro
gas on global warming. carbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are called
• The two most important characteristics of a GHG in high-GWP gases because, for a given amount of mass,
terms of climate impact are how well the gas absorbs they trap substantially more heat than CO2.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• The Himalayas and other mountain chains of central
Do you know? Asia support large regions that are glaciated. These gla-
Spices and condiments are flavoring agents obtained ciers provide critical water supplies to dry countries
from plants. Because they have little nutritive value, such as Mongolia, western China, Pakistan and Afghan-
they are not classified as foods. They contain essential istan. The loss of these glaciers would have a tremen-
oils, which impart flavor and aroma to food and add dous impact on the ecosystem of the region.
greatly to the pleasure of eating. They stimulate the • World’s leading scientists predict that global warming
appetite and increase the flow of gastric juices. may pose serious threat to national and global economy
and the environment.

Do you know? • The poor and low-lying countries will find it difficult to
cope with the damages caused by changing climate and
Shola forest, Temperate forest is an evergreen ecosys- rise in sea level
tem found at the high altitude regions. It is distributed
in Nilgris and Palani hills of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and 17.6.2. Chain of events
Karnataka. Sholas are found at sites where adjacent
slope converges. These are interrupted by grasslands Combustion of fossil fuels due to
ecosystem with stunted evergreen woods and confined Human Activities
to sheltered valleys, gleeves, hallows and depressions.
The main role of shola forest is conservation of water
in that region. It needs well drained soils and avoids Increase of Green House Gases
swampy soils.

Global Warming
17.6. R
 ECEDING GLACIERS-A SYMPTOM
OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
• 150 years ago there were 147 glaciers in Glacier National
Climatic Changes
park, but today only 37 glaciers remain, and scientists
predict that they are likely to melt by the year 2030.
Similarly, glaciers all across the Himalayas and Alps are
retreating and disappearing every year. There are al- Melting of Glaciers
most 160,000 glaciers found in Polar Regions and high
mountain environments. Therefore, researchers are
increasingly using satellite remote sensors to routinely Flooding / Rise in sea level
survey our world’s glaciers in a fraction of the time.

17.6.1. Impact of glacial retreat

Submergence of Low-lying Coastal Lands
• The retreat of glaciers in the Andes and the Himalayas
will have a potential impact on water supplies.
• Climate change may cause variations in both tempera-
Large-scale destruction of Ecosystems
ture and snowfall, causing changes in mass balance of
a glacier. and Extinction of species

 

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 CHAPTER - 18

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
18.1. OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
Oceans are an important reservoir for CO2, absorbing a Forms of calcium carbonate
significant quantity of it (one-third) produced by anthro- Calcite and aragonite are two different forms of cal-
pogenic activities and effectively buffering climate change. cium carbonate.
Ocean acidification is the change in ocean chemistry - low- 1. Calcite is the mineral form found in the shells of
ering of ocean pH (i.e. increase in concentration of hydro- planktonic algae, amoeboid protists, some corals,
gen ions) driven by the uptake of carbon compounds by the echinoderms, and some molluscs (e.g. oysters); it
ocean from the atmosphere. is relatively less soluble.
As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean 2. Aragonite is a more soluble form of calcium car-
increases, the concentration of hydrogen ions in the ocean bonate; it is found in most corals, most mollusks
(small planktonic snails), as well as some species
increases, the concentration of carbonate ions decreases,
of algae.
the pH of the oceans decreases and the oceans become less
alkaline – this process is know as ocean acidification.

18.1.1. CO2 effect on ocean acidification 18.1.2. Influence of other factors

Various factors can locally influence the chemical reactions
of CO2 with sea water and add to the effects to ocean acid-
ification. For example,

i. Acid rain
Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and 6 and has impact
The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is occurring at on surface ocean chemistry. It has major effect on ocean
a rate exceeding the natural buffering capacity of the acidification locally and regionally but very small globally.
ocean. ii. Eutrophication
The pH of the ocean surface waters has decreased by about Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs,
0.1 pH unit (i.e. 26% increase in ocean hydrogen ion con- mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, fertilizers and sewage.
centration) since the beginning of the industrial revolution. The resulting eutrophication leads to large plankton
The ocean currently has a pH around 8.0 and is therefore blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink to the
‘basic’ and it is nearly impossible, chemically, for all of it to sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing
actually become a pH less than 7.0. Why do we therefore the algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen and an
refer to ‘ocean acidification’? increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
That is because acidification is the direction of travel, the
How it reacts?
trend, regardless of the starting point. Acidification refers
to lowering pH from any starting point to any end point The term ‘ocean acidification’ summarizes several pro-
on the pH scale. cesses that occur when CO2 reacts with sea water.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Two reactions are particularly important. Firstly, the for- 18.1.4. Mitigation
mation of carbonic acid with subsequent release of hydro- • Reducing CO2
gen ions:
• promoting government policies to cap CO2 emissions,
CO2 + H2O
(Carbon dioxide) + (Water)
H2CO3 H+ HCO3--
(Carbonic acid) (Hydrogen ions) + (Bicarbonate ions)
• eliminate offshore drilling,
• by advocating for energy efficiency and
• Alternative energy sources such as wind power, solar,
etc.

18.1.5. Saturation horizons

• Deep, cold ocean waters are naturally under saturated
with carbonate ions causing the shells of most calcifying
organisms to dissolve.
• Surface waters are over saturated with carbonate ions
and do not readily dissolve shells of calcifying organisms.
• The saturation horizon is the level below which calcium
carbonate minerals undergo dissolution.
• Those organisms that can survive below the saturation
The above reaction and release of hydrogen ions increases horizon do so due to special mechanisms to protect
acidity and thus pH level is reduced. their calcium carbonate from dissolving.
A second reaction, between carbonate ions, CO2 and water • As ocean acidification causes this horizon to rise verti-
produces bicarbonate ions. cally in the water column so more and more calcifying
The combined effect of both these reactions not only in- organisms will be exposed to under saturated water
creases acidity but also lowers the availability of carbon- and thus vulnerable to dissolution of their shells and
ate ions. skeletons.
• The saturation horizon of calcite occurs at a greater
18.1.3. Effect of ocean acidification ocean depth than that for aragonite, but both horizons
Seawater absorbs CO2 to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3), have moved closer to the surface presently when com-
bicarbonate (HCO3--) and carbonate ions (CO32-). pared to the 1800s.
These carbonate ions are essential to the calcification pro-
cess that allows certain marine organisms to build their Do you know?
calcium carbonate shells and skeletons (e.g. hard tropical
Chameleons are seen inhabiting almost all the parts
corals, cold water corals, molluscs, crustaceans, sea ur-
of south India and west of the Ganges. However, they
chins, certain types of plankton, lobsters, etc).
are rarely seen in areas that receive heavy rainfall.
However, increases in atmospheric CO2 levels lead to de- Chameleons are mostly arboreal and are found in
crease in pH level, increase in the concentration of carbonic trees or on smaller bushes.
acid and bicarbonate ions, causing a decrease in the con-
centration of carbonate ions.
Thus carbonate ions are less available and calcification is 18.1.6. Ocean acidification and the short and
therefore harder to achieve, and may be prevented alto- long-term fate of carbon in the system
gether. Imagine trying to build a house while someone On long timescales (>100,000 years) there is a natural bal-
keeps stealing your bricks. ance maintained between the up-take and release of CO2
This impact of ocean acidification may therefore have po- on Earth; the CO2 produced by volcanoes, the main natural
tentially catastrophic consequences for ocean life and many source of CO2, is taken up by the production of organic
marine species of economic importance. matter by plants and by rock weathering on land.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
the sediment and trapped for a long time, but where the
UPWELLING shells sink in deep water nearly all the CaCO3 is dis-
solved, thereby not locking the carbon away for millions
• Surface Coastal regions periodically experience
of years.
upwelling events where deeper ocean water circu-
lates onto continental shelves and near-shore The current increased rate of dissolution of atmospheric
areas. CO2 into the ocean results in an imbalance in the carbonate
compensation depth (CCD), the depth at which all carbon-
• This exposes the productive upper ocean ecosys-
ate is dissolved.
tems to colder water containing more nutrients &
more CO2. As the pH of the ocean falls, it results in a shallowing of
the lysocline and the CCD, thus exposing more of the
• As ocean acidification makes the upper oversatu-
shells trapped in the sediments to understaturated condi-
rated layer of sea water shallower each year, these
tions causing them to dissolve, which will help buffer
natural upwelling events will more often cause
ocean acidification but over a long time scale of a thousand
undersaturated water to well up and flow to the
years.
shore.
• Coastal marine organisms that form shells are un-
accustomed to such events, and periodic exposures Do you know?
to these significantly different conditions may af- The park had been put on the tentative list of future
fect these communities. heritage sites of UNESCO in 2009 and had been in-
cluded in the final list in 2014. The Odisha govern-
ment had submitted a dossier, compiled by the Wildlife
However, rock weathering takes tens of thousands of years Institute of India, recommended to UNESCO that the
so will not remove the current anthropogenic input of CO2 park be declared a World Heritage Site.
to the atmosphere and ocean fast enough.
On shorter time scales (>1,000 years), the ocean has an
internal stabilizing feedback linking the ocean carbon cycle 18.1.7.Winners and losers
to the underlying carbonate rich sediment known as car- • The growth and level of photosynthesis of certain ma-
bonate compensation. rine phytoplankton and plant species may increase with
The upper layers of the ocean tend to be supersaturated higher CO2 levels, but this is by no means a general rule.
with CaCO3 so little dissolution takes place, whilst the deep • For others, higher CO2 and rising acidity may have ei-
ocean is undersaturated and carbonate readily dissolves. ther negative or neutral effects on their physiology.
The first boundary between these two states is known as • Therefore, particular marine plants will be ’winners’,
the lysocline, the depth at which dissolution strongly in- while others will be ‘losers’ and some may show no
creases in the deep ocean. signs of change but change is inevitable.
The CaCO3 in the form of dead shells sink to the sea bed. A reduction in atmospheric CO2 levels is essential to halt
If it is of shallow water depth, the majority is buried in ocean acidification before it is too late.



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SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

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 CHAPTER - 19

OZONE DEPLETION

O zone is a natural gas; it is an allotrope of oxygen

consisting of three atoms of oxygen bound together
in a non-linear fashion. The chemical symbol of
ozone is O3.
It helps in reducing the risks of mutation and harm to plant
and animal life. Too much UV rays can cause skin cancer
and will also harm all plants and animals. Life on Earth
could not exist without the protective shield of the ozone
layer.
It is found in two different layers of the atmosphere. Ozone
in the troposphere is “bad” because it dirties the air and
helps to form smog, which is not good to breathe. Ozone 19.1. OZONE DEPLETION
in the stratosphere is “good” because it protects life on
Earth by absorbing some of the sun’s harmful Ultra Violet 19.1.1. Change in equilibrium
(UV) rays. • The equilibrium between the formation and destruction
The ozone layer is very important because the configura- of ozone, has been upset by the influx of several sub-
tion of the ozone molecule and its chemical properties are stances into the atmosphere which react with ozone and
such that ozone efficiently absorbs ultraviolet light, thus destroy it.
acting like a sun-screen. • The rate at which ozone is being destroyed is much
faster than the rate at which it is being formed.

The UV rays cause direct damage to the genetic mate- • It implies that there is a significant decrease in the con-
centration of ozone in a particular region of the atmos-
rial or DNA of animal and plant cells. Exposure of
phere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’.
mammals to UV light has been shown to act on the
immune system, thereby making the body more sus- • The best example of such an Ozone Depletion is the
ceptible to diseases. atmosphere over the Antarctic which has only about 50
percent of the ozone that originally occurred there. The
actual realization of ozone-depletion came only in 1985.

Do you know? 19.1.2. Sources

• Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found in India. Rest chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
of the monkeys are all macaques and langurs. In CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine and
India is distributed in the northeast India. carbon.
• Palms are typically unbranched trees with only one
trunk (columnar stem), called the “caudex,” which Where it is used?
ends in a crown of large leaves. They are used as refrigerants, propellents in aerosol sprays,
foaming agents in plastic manufacturing, fire extinguish-
ing agents, solvents for cleaning electronic and metallic
In doing so, ozone protects oxygen at lower altitudes from
components, for freezing foods etc .
being broken up by the action of ultraviolet light and also
keeps most of the ultraviolet radiation from reaching the Two-thirds of CFC is used as refrigerants while one-third
earth’s surface. is used as blowing agents in foam insulation products.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Why CFCs are used? The depletion of O3 is catalystic. The element that de-
CFCs has a wide and varied application due to its proper- stroys O3 (i.e chlorine) is being reformed at the end of
ties like non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low toxic- cycle. A single chlorine atom destroys thousands of ozone
ity and chemical stability, etc. molecules before encountering reactive nitrogen or hy-
drogen compounds that eventually return chlorine to its
Lifetime & removal of CFCs reservoirs.
Unlike other chemicals, CFCs cannot be eliminated from
the atmosphere by the usual scavenging processes like
photodissociation, rain-out and oxidation. Do you know?
In fact, the residence time of CFCs in the atmosphere esti- Barking deer /common muntjac is the mammal with
mated to be between 40 and 150 years. During this period, the lowest recorded chromosome number. It gives
the CFCs move upwards by random diffusion, from the calls similar to barking, usually on sensing a predator.
troposphere to the stratosphere. Status – least threatened.
The escape of CFCs
The CFCs enter into the atmosphere by gradual evapora-
tion from their source. CFCs can escape into the atmos-
CFC substitutes – characteristics
phere from a discarded refrigerator. Since the CFCs are
thermally stable they can survive in the troposphere. But • The substitute for CFCs should be safe, low cost,
in the stratosphere, they are exposed to UV radiation. increased energy efficiency of CFC replacement
technology, effective refrigerants with low ozone
The chemical reaction layer depletion potential (ODP) and low global
The molecules of CFCs when exposed to UV radiation break warming potential (GWP).
up, thus freeing chlorine atoms. A free chlorine atom reacts • CFC-12 (R-12) is a widely used refrigerant. HFC
with an ozone molecule to form chlorine monoxide (ClO). 134a (R-134a) is the most promising alternative (R-
The molecules of chlorine monoxide further combine with 143a) and (R-152a) can also be used.
an atom of oxygen. This reaction results in the formation
of an oxygen molecule (O2) and reformation of the free
chlorine atom (CI). 19.1.3. Nitrogen Oxides:
Source
Chlorine + Chlorine monoxide + oxygen
The sources of nitrogen oxides are mainly explosions of
Chlorine monoxide Chlorine + Oxygen thermonuclear weapons, industrial emissions and agricul-
+ monoxide (o) tural fertilizers.
Net reaction:
The chemical reaction
ozone + oxygen + oxygen
monoxide (o) Nitric oxide (NO) catalytically destroys ozone.

Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide 

+ ozone + Oxygen
Nitrogen dioxide Nitric oxide
+ monoxide + Oxygen

The escape of N2O

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is released from solid through denitri-
fication of nitrates under anaerobic conditions and nitrifi-
cation of ammonia under aerobic conditions. This N2O can
gradually reach the middle of the stratosphere, where it is
photolytically destroyed to yield nitric oxide which in turn
CFC Ozone Depletion
destroys ozone.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Other substances: 2. The second type of clouds contain nitric acid instead of
Bromine containing compounds called halons and HBFCs, pure water.
i.e. hydrobromo fluorocarbons [both used in fire extin- 3. The third type of clouds have the same chemical com-
guishers and methyl bromide (a widely used pesticide)]. position as nacreous clouds, but form at a slower rate,
Each bromine atom destroys hundred times of more ozone which results in a larger cloud with no iridescence.
molecules than what a chlorine atom does. The chlorine released by the breakdown of CFCs exists
initially as pure chlorine or as chlorine monoxide (active
Bromine + ozone Bromine monoxide chlorine / instable) but these two forms react further to
+ Oxygen form compounds Chlorine nitrate and HCL that are stable
(inactive chlorine).
Bromine monoxide Oxygen + Bromine 
+ chlorine monoxide + chlorine
Chlorine + methane HCl + methyliumcation (CH3)
Bromine (Br) combines with ozone forming bromine mon- Chlorine monoxide Chlorine nitrate
oxide (BrO) and Oxygen (O2). The BrO further reacts with + Nitrogen dioxide
chlorine monoxide (ClO) to give oxygen (O2) and free atoms
of bromine (Br) and chlorine (Cl). This free atoms can
further react with ozone. The stable compounds HCL and CLONO2 are reservoirs of
chlorine, and therefore for chlorine to take part in reac-
Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine from
tions of any sort, it has to be freed.
molecular reservoirs, and convert reactive nitrogen into
inert forms thus preventing the formation of chlorine res-
ervoirs.
Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic solvent) and
methyl chloroform (used as a cleaning solvent for clothes
and metals, and a propellant in a wide range of consumer
products, such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays,
spray adhesives) and other aerosols.

Monitoring the Ozone Layer

• Some organizations that help in monitoring the at-
mosphere and form a network of informations com-
munication about the atmosphere, including ozone
layer monitoring are:
• World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
• World Weather Watch (WWW)
• Integrated Global Ocean Services Systems (IGOSS)
• Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)

There is a correlation exist between the cycle of ozone

19.1.4. Role of polar stratospheric clouds in ozone
depletion and the presence of polar stratospheric clouds
depletion.
(PSCs) i.e. the ice particles of the cloud provided substrates
There are three types of stratospheric clouds. They are: for chemical reactions which freed chlorine from its res-
1. Nacreous clouds extend from 10 to 100km in length and ervoirs. Usually the reaction between HCl and ClONO2 is
several kilometers in thickness. They are also called very slow, but this reaction occurs at a faster rate in the
‘mother-of-pearl’ clouds due to their glow with a sea- presence of a suitable substrate which is provided by the
shell like iridescence. stratospheric clouds at the poles.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
and chlorine nitrate react on cloud surfaces to free chlo-
HCl + Chlorine nitrate molecular chlorine
rine and winter temperatures drops to their lowest
point.
It results in the formation of molecular chlorine and nitric
acid. The molecular chlorine formed in the above reaction • In September sunlight returns to the centre of the vor-
can be broken down to atomic chlorine and the ozone tex as the austral spring begins and PSCs disappear
depletion reaction would continue. The PSCs not only ac- because of increasing temperature. ClO-ClO and ClO-
tivate chlorine, but they also absorb reactive nitrogen. If BrO catalystic cycles destroy ozone.
nitrogen oxides were present they would combine with • During October lowest levels of ozone are reached.
chlorine monoxide to form a reservoir of chlorine nitrate
(ClONO2).
• In November, Polar vortex breaks down, ozone-rich are
from the mid-latitudes replenishes the Antarctic strato-
Dimer of chlorine monoxide: Stratospheric chlorine mon- sphere and ozone-poor air spreads over the southern
oxide reacts with itself forming a dimer Cl2O2. This dimer hemisphere.
is easily dissociated by sunlight, giving rise to free chlorine
atoms which can further react to destroy ozone. 19.1.6. Arctic Ozone Depletion
• The Ozone Depletion has been increasingly evident over
Every spring, a hole as big as the USA develops in the the Arctic as well.
ozone layer over Antarctica, in the South Pole. A
smaller hole develops each year over the Arctic, at the
• The Arctic Ozone Depletion which swept across Britain
in March 96 was the greatest depletion of ozone ever
North Pole. And there are signs that the ozone layer seen in the northern hemisphere.
is getting thinner all over the planet.
• Scientists claim that it had been caused, in past, by a
dramatic cooling of the upper atmosphere in the north-
ern latitudes over.
19.1.5. Why is the Ozone Depletion predominant
at the Antarctic? • The ozone depletion over the northern hemisphere has
been increasing steadily since the winter of 1992.
• The Antarctic stratosphere is much colder. The low tem-
perature enables the formation of Polar stratospheric • Apart from the build-up of ozone depleting chemicals,
Clouds (PSCs), below 20 km. the main cause is the increasing cold temperature in
the arctic stratosphere which encourages the formula-
• Ozone absorbs sunlight, causing the characteristic in-
tion of PSCs.
crease in temperature with increase in altitude in the
stratosphere. If ozone is being depleted, the air becomes
cooler, further adding to the favourable conditions for
the formation of PSCs and stabilization of the vortex. How ozone is measured?
The vortex is a ring of rapidly circulating air that con- • The ozone measurement instruments and tech-
fines the ozone depletion in the Antarctic region. niques are varied. Some of them are the Dobson
spectrophotometer and the filter ozonometer called
• The longetivity of the Antarctic vortex is another factor,
M83, and total ozone mapping spectrometer
enhancing favourable conditions for the depletion of
ozone. The vortex remains, in fact, throughout the polar (TOMS) in the Nimbus-7 satellite.
winter, well into midspring whereas the vortex in the
Arctic disintegrates by the time the polar spring (March- The Umheher technique
April) arrives. • The most common measure of total ozone abun-
dance is the Dobson unit (named after the pioneer-
• Typical happenings in the winter months leading to the
ing atmospheric physical Gordon Dobson) which is
Ozone Depletion over the Antarctic.
the thickness of the ozone column (compressed at
• In June Antarctic winter begins, the vortex develops and Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)) in
the temperature falls enough for the clouds to form. milli-centimeters. At STP one Dobson unit is equal
to 2.69x1020 molecules per square meter.
• During July and August PSCs denitrify and dehydrate
the stratosphere through precipitation, hydrochloric acid

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
19.1.7. Environmental Effects Of Ozone timing of developmental phases and second metabolism
Depletion may be equally or sometimes more important that the
Decrease in the quantity of total-column ozone; tend to damaging effects of UV-B.
cause increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation Effects on aquatic ecosystems
(290-315nm) to the earth’s surface. UV-B radiation is the
most energetic component of sunlight reaching the • Exposure to solar UV-B radiation has been shown to
affect both orientation mechanisms and motility in phy-
earth’s surface. It has profound effects on human health,
animals, plants, micro-organisms, materials and on air toplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these
quality. organisms.
• Solar UV-B radiation has been found to cause damage
Effects of human and animal health in the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab,
• Potential risks include an increase in the incidence of amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects
and morbidity from eye diseases, skin cancer and infec- are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
tious diseases. development.
• UV radiation has been shown in experimental systems Effects on bio-geochemical cycles
to damage the cornea and lens of the eye. Experiments
in animals show that UV exposure decreases the im- • Increases in solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial
mune response to skin cancers, infectious agents and and aquatic bio-geochemical cycles, thus, altering both
other antigens and can lead to unresponsiveness upon sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically impor-
repeated challenges. tant trace gases.

• In susceptible (light-skin coloured) populations, UV-B • These potential changes would contribute to bio-sphere
radiations is the key risk factor for development of non- atmosphere feedbacks that reinforce the atmospheric
melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). build-up of these gases.

Effects on air quality

Do you know? • Reduction in stratospheric ozone and the concomitant
All the chameleons have the ability to change color increase in UV-B radiation penetrating to the lower
whenever they are subject to changes in stimuli, like atmosphere result in higher photo dissociation rates of
a change in light, temperature or emotion. For exam- key trace gases that control the chemical reactivity of
ple, when angered, they are likely to become darker the troposphere.
in color.
• This can increase both production and destruction of
ozone (O3) and related oxidants such as hydrogen per-
Effects on terrestrial plants oxide (H2O2), which are known to have adverse effects
on human health, terrestrial plants, and outdoor mate-
• Psychological and developmental processes of plants are
rials.
affected by UV-B radiation.
• Response to UV-B also varies considerably among spe- • Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of the hy-
cies and also cultivars of the same species. In agricul- droxyl radical (OH) may change the atmospheric life-
ture, this will necessitate using more UV-B tolerant times of climatically important gases such as methane
cultivars and breeding new ones. (CH4) and the CFC substitutes.)

• In forests and grasslands, this is likely to result in • Increased tropospheric reactivity could also lead to
changes in the composition of species; therefore there increased production of particulates such as cloud
are implications for the biodiversity in different eco- condensation nuclei, from the oxidation and subse-
systems. quent nucleation of sulphur, of both antropogenic and
natural origin (e.g. carbonyl sulphide and dimethyl-
• Indirect changes caused by UV-B such as changes in
plant form, biomass allocation to parts of the plant, sulphide.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Effects on materials dation rates of these materials, limiting their life out-
• Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring bio-polymers, doors.
as well as some other materials of commercial interest
are adversely affected by solar UV radiation.
• The application of these materials, particularly, plas- Do you know?
tics, in situations which demand routine exposure to The gray slender loris (primate) It is found in India
sunlight is only possible through the use of light-stabi- and Sri Lanka. Its natural habitats are subtropical
lizers and / or surface treatment to protect them from or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical
sunlight. moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat
• Any increase in solar UV-B content due to partial loss
ozone depletion will therefore accelerate the photogra-



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