MENG 245 –

Thermodynamics 1
Instructor: Prof. Dr. Uğur Atikol
web: [Link]
MENG 245 –
Thermodynamics 1
Book: Thermodynamics: an Engineering
Approach, Yunus A. Çengel, M. A. Boles,
McGrawHill

“Property Tables Booklet” by the same

authors can be useful too
MENG 245 –
Thermodynamics 1
Grading Policy
Mid-Term.........30%
Final Exam......50%
Quizes.............10%
Labs.................10%

NG Policy
1. Students who do not attend any two of the above assessment
activities (such as labs, mid-term exam, etc.)
2. Students attending less than 70% of the classes and/or labs
will be given NG (Nil Grade).
 CHAPTER
1

Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics
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Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.

Conservation of energy:

Simply states that during an interaction, energy can change from one state to
another but that the total amount of energy remains constant. (Energy can not be
created or destroyed)

Thermodynamics deals with :

 The conversion of energy from one to another.

 Various properties of substances.
 The changes in properties due to energy transformations.
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Some basic laws are obtained from experimental observations:

 First Law of Thermodynamics(expresses the conservation of energy)

 Second Law of Thermodynamics (asserts that processes occur in a certain

direction but not in inverse)

Some SI and English units:

Basic
dimensions Mass(m) Length(L) Time(t)

SI units Kilogram(kg) Meter(m) Second(s)

Pound-
English units mass(lbm) Foot(ft) Second(s or sec)

1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
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Force = (Mass)(Acceleration)

F=ma (SI unit is in Newton, N)

(English unit is Pound-force, lbf)
So:

1 Newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1kg at a rate of 1 m/s^2

The gravitational force applied to the body is called weight.

W= m g (N)
m => mass
g => local gravitational acceleration

The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called the specific weight(w).

w=g ( is density)
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Work=(Force)(Distance)

1 Joule = 1J=1 N.m (More commonly in the form of kilojoule)

The energy unit in English system is BTU(British Thermal Unit)

=> Energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68 ᵒF by 1ᵒF

(1BTU=1.055kJ)

Dimensional Homogeneity:

In engineering, equations must be dimensionally homogeneous i.e, every term in an

equation must have the same units.

E=25 (kJ) + 7 (kJ/kg) is not correct!!!

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Closed and Open Systems

Thermodynamic system
a collection of matter within prescribed and identifiable boundaries

2-1
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Closed and Open Systems

Surroundings: the region outside the system

boundary : imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings (can
be fixed or movable)

Closed system (or control mass) : consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass
can cross the boundary. But energy, in the form of heat or work can cross the
boundary.

Open system (or a control volume) : is a property selected region in space involving
mass transfer across the boundaries.

Isolated system : Neither mass or energy is allowed to cross the boundary

2-2
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Forms of Energy
(thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear)

E = the sum of all forms of energy

e = E/m (kJ/kg)

Thermodynamics deals with the change of energy instead of its absolute value.
It is appropriate to assign the total energy of a system a value of zero (E=0) at some
convenient reference point.

2-3
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Forms of Energy

Kinetic energy
mV 2
K.E. = (kJ)
2
V2
or, on a unit mass basis k.e. = (kJ/kg)
2
(V denotes the velocity of the system relative to some fixed reference frame)

2-4
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Forms of Energy

Potential energy

P.E. = m g z (kJ)

or, on a unit mass basis, p.e. = g z (kJ/kg)

(where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation w.r.t. some reference point)

2-5
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Forms of Energy

Internal energy

Is related to the molecular structure and the molecular activity of the system. The
degree of molecular activity, which is said to be the internal energy is denoted by
U (kJ).

The magnetic, electric , and surface tension effects are not significant for the purpose of
this course and are not considered here.

2-6
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The total energy of a system

mV 2
E = U + KE + PE = U + +m g z (kJ)
2
or, on a unit mass basis,
V2
e = u + ke + pe = u + +gz (kJ/kg)
2

2-7
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Properties of a system

Any characteristic of a system is called a property

(e.g. pressure P, temperature T, volume V, mass m, viscosity, thermal
conductivity, etc)
m
Some properties are defined in term of others, e.g.  
V
V 1
E.g. specific volume   
m 

Intensive properties – are those properties which are independent of the

size of the system, such as T, P, , e, u

Extensive properties – vary directly with the size – or extent – of the

system. e.g., m, V, E, U

Specific properties – extensive properties per unit mass e.g., specific

energy e = E/m, specific internal energy, u = U/m
2-8
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State of the system:

The set of properties which describe the condition of the system, is called the state of the
system.

Steady state:

A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties changes with time.

2-10
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Equilibrium- a condition of balance

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states

A system which is in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its

surroundings.

2-11
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Processes and Cycles

a process is a transformation from one equilibrium sate to another.

A path is the series of states through which a system passes

2-12
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Processes and Cycles

A quasi equilibrium (or quasi static) process is one in which the deviation from
thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal, and all the states the system passes
through, is considered as equilibrium states.

Although ideal, engineers are interested in this process since,

a) they are easy to analyze
b) work producing devices deliver the most work

2-13
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Processes and Cycles

A process diagram:

Isothermal process: process at constant temperature.

Isobaric process: process at constant pressure.

Isochoric (or isometric) process: process at constant volume.

2-14
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Processes and Cycles

a cycle: the system returns to initial state at the end of the process.

Initial state = Final state

2-15
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The State Postulate

The state of of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two

independent, intensive properties.
E.g. temperature and specific volume.

Note: temperature and pressure are dependent during a phase change process.
(at sea level (P=1 Atm) water boils at 100ºC.)

2-16
 PRESSURE 68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on

the feet of a chubby person is much
greater than on the feet of a slim
person.

Some basic
In the English system, the unit of pressure is
pressure pound-force per square inch,
gages. lbf/in or psi
1 atm = 14.696 psi
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Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is used as a reference to define other pressures:
(absolute pressure) = (atmospheric pressure) + (Gage pressure)
Total pressure or actual pressure pressure measuring device reads zero in the atmosphere

When the local atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure in the system, the
term vacuum pressure is used.

(vacuum Pressure) = (atmospheric pressure) – (absolute pressure)

In the tables and in this course absolute pressure is used and P will always denote
absolute pressure.
2-17
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Manometer

Since gravitational effects of gases are negligible, P is the same every

where in the tank at position 1

Since position 2 at the same level is 1

2-18
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Alternitavely free body diagram of column h gives:

mg = ρVg = ρAhg

Pressure difference

2-19
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Barometer
Measures the atmospheric pressure.
is often called the barometric pressure.
Pressure at point 1 = atmospheric pressure
Pressure at point 2 = 0 (since above 2, there is
only mercury vapor)

Standard atmosphere is defined as h= 760 mmHg at 0ºC

and

(for water the same pressure is obtained at h=10.3 m)

2-20
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Temperature and The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Temperature is a measure of the “hotness” or “coldness” of a body.

Zeroth law Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

2-21
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Temperature Scales

Celcius Scale
Anders Celcius, devided the temperature scale into 100 equal parts, assigning the
value 0 and 100ºC to ice and steam points.

Farenheit scale
On the Farenheit scale, the values 32 and 212 are assigned to ice and steam point.

Absolute Scale
The absolute temperature scale in the SI units is kelvin scale.
The temperature measured at the absolute vacuum is designated the zero (which
would read -273.15ºC with the celcius scale.)

2-22
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Gas
P=0 kPa
T= 0 K T (K) = T (ºC) + 273.15
T=-273.15ºC

In the english system, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankine scale.
T (R) = T (ºF) + 459.67

The other relations: T (R) = 1.8 T (K)

T (F) = 1.8 T (ºC) + 32
Note that the magnitudes of each division of 1 K and 1 ºC is
Identical ΔT (K) = ΔT (ºC)
similarly ΔT (R) = ΔT (ºF)

2-23
 CHAPTER
2

Properties of Pure
Substances
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A Pure Substance
Is a substance that is chemically homogenous and fixed in chemical
composition.(e.g. water, nitrogen, air & etc.)
mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance.
a mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance.

Phase of a Pure Substance

The phase of a substance is the homogeneous, chemical, and physical of
aggregation of its molecules.
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The molecules in a solid are kept at their positions

by the large spring like inter-molecular forces.

At high temperature, molecules overcome the

inter molecules forces and break away.

In the liquid phase the molecules are no longer at

fixed positions, and chunks of the molecules float
about each other.
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In the gas phase the molecules are far apart

from each other, irregular and move about at
random colliding with each other. Molecules
are higher energy level than they are in liquid
or solid phases.
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Phase Change of Pure Substances

Attention will be focused on liquid and vapor phases in this section. All
substances exhibit general behavior. Water will be used in the following
example.

compressed liquid or subcooled liquid

At 1 atm and 20°C, water exists in the liquid

phase(i.e. not about to vaporize).

As heat added the temperature increases

and water expands.(i.e. v increases)
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Saturated liquid

At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water exists as

a liquid that is ready to vaporize.

Any addition of heat will cause the phase

change.
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Saturated liquid–vapor mixture

The state at which the liquid and vapor

phases coexist in equilibrium.

Once boiling starts, the temperature will not

rise until the liquid completely vaporizes.
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Saturated vapor

A vapor that is about to condense.

Superheated vapor

A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e.,

not a saturated vapor).
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FIGURE 2-1
T-v diagram for the
heating process of
water at constant
pressure.
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Holding the pressure constanta t 1 atm,

boiling takes place at 100C. By changing
the pressure we can change the boiling
temperature of water.

Saturation temperature Tsat

The temperature at which a pure substance
starts boiling.

Saturation pressure Psat

The pressure at which a pure substance
starts boiling.
FIGURE 2-2 Liquid-vapor saturation curve
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Property Diagrams for phase-Change Processes

Critical point
The point at which the
saturated liquid and
saturated vapor states are
identical.

is the maximum
temperature at which liquid
and vapor phases can co-
exist in equilibrium.

FIGURE 2-3 T-V Diagram of a Pure Substance

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P-v diagram
of a pure
substance.
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T-v diagram of
constant-
pressure
phase-change
processes of a
pure
substance at
various
pressures
(numerical values
are for water).
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P-v diagram of a
substance that
contracts on
freezing.
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P-v diagram
of a
substance
that expands
on freezing
(such as
water).
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When all three phases of a substance co-exist in equilibrium under some

conditions, it is called triple phase.

On P-v or T-v diagrams Triple line

On P-T or T-v diagrams Triple point

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P-T diagram
of pure
substances.
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P-v-T surface of a
substance that
contracts on
freezing.
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P-v-T surface of a
substance that
expands on freezing
(like water).
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PROPERTY TABLES

Enthalpy or

If 𝑢 is not listed → 𝑢 = ℎ − 𝑃𝑣

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

(Tables A4 and A5 in Çengel)

Subscripts
f – saturated liquid
g – saturated vapor
fg – the difference between saturated vapor and saturated liquid

For example:
𝑣𝑓 = specific volume of saturated liquid
𝑣𝑔 = specific volume of saturated vapor
𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓
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A partial list
of Table A–4.

v-value of
sat. liq.+vap
mixture
A partial list of Table A–5.
Enthalpy
kJ/kg
Sat Sat. Sat.
Press. temp.
.......... liquid Evap. Vapor
P kPa Tsat oC hf hfg hg
20 60.06 251.42 2357.5 2608.9
25 64.94 271.96 2345.5 2617.5
30 69.09 289.27 2335.3 2624.6
40 75.86 317.62 2318.4 2636.1
50 81.32 340.54 2304.7 2645.2
75 91.76 384.44 2278.0 2662.4

Enthalpy of vaporization, hfg (Latent heat of

vaporization): The amount of energy needed to vaporize a
unit mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or
pressure.
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Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture

In order to know the properties of the liquid and vapor phase in the
mixture a new property is defined:

Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.
Quality is between 0 and 1 0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.

or
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Similar equations can be derived for u or h:

Example 5 kg of steam at 200kPa occupied a volume of 2.60 .

Determine temperature and quality.

Compare this with the values given in Table A-5

Note : =120.23 ºC at 200 kPa (=0.200 Mpa)
=0.001061 and =0.8857
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A partial listing
of Table A–6.
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Superheated Vapor (Table A-6)

characterized by

Example

ºC

However at the same pressure,

if T= 200 ºC h= 2855.4
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Compressed Liquid

characterized by

In the absence of data a compressed liquid is approximated as a saturated liquid at

the given temperature.
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Example

T, oC at 80 ºC

If our pressure is 5 MPa then we have

compressed liquid.

Pa

a
For compressed liquid table(A-7):

9 kP
5M

47. 3
P=

P= From the saturation table(A-4):

80 oC

If we make ,the error is:

u uf@80oC u, kj/kg
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Example

State 1 2 3 4 5

P,kPa 200 300 2000 476.1 5000

T, ºC 120.23 133.56 300 150 100
x, % 80 I M 92 M

v, 0.709 I 0.125 0.361 0.00104

= 0.001061 + 0.8(0.8857-0.001061) = 0.709

either saturated liquid

x = indeterminate = I or saturated vapor
v = indeterminate = I or saturated liquid-vapor mixture
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x=meaning less=M
v=012547

Compressed liquid x=meaningless=M

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The Ideal Gas Equation of State

Equation of State: any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific of a substance. Specific volume

Ideal-gas equation of state

Absolute temperature
Absolute pressure Gas constant

Ideal gas is a gas which obeys the above relation. The gas constant R is
different for each gas.
=universal gas constant

M=molar mass(molecules weight)

= 8.314 or 1.986 (same for all substances)

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Mass of system Mole number

Ideal Gas Equation in different forms:

State 1 State 2

= mR

Molar specific volume

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Example

Determine the density and specific volume of air at room temperature.

Room temperature = 20ºC

273+20 = 293 K
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FIGURE 2-14
Percentage of
error
involved in
assuming steam to
be an ideal gas,
and the region
where steam can
be
treated as an ideal
gas with less than
1 percent error.
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COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR

Gases deviate from ideal-gas behavior significantly at state near saturation region
and the critical point.
Hence a correction is introduced:

compressibility factor = (for ideal gases Z=1)

Z is an indication of deviation from ideal gas behavior.

Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure.

Reduced Pressure Reduced Temperature

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The Z – factor is approximately the same for all gases at the same reduced
temperature and pressure.

FIGURE 2-13
Comparison of
Z factors for
various gases.

1) , gases behave as an ideal gas regardless of T.

2) , ideal gas assumed regardless of P(except )
3) The deviation from ideal-gas is greatest around critical point
(i.e. )
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Example
Determine the specific volume of R-134-a at 1 MPa and 50ºC.

if ideal gas equation used

0.08149
0.02632

Z can be determined:

0.245
4.067
Z = 0.835
0.835 0.02632
374.3 0.862
0.02197
OTHER EQUATIONS OF STATE

Several equations have been proposed to represent

the P-v-T behavior of substances accurately over a
larger region with no limitations.

Van der Waals

Equation of State

Critical isotherm
of a pure
substance has an
inflection point at
the critical state.

This model includes two effects not considered

in the ideal-gas model: the intermolecular
attraction forces and the volume occupied by
the molecules themselves. The accuracy of the
van der Waals equation of state is often
inadequate.
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
The constants are given in
Table 3–4 for various
substances. It is known to be
reasonably accurate for
densities up to about 0.8cr.

Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

The constants are given in Table 3–4. This equation can handle substances
at densities up to about 2.5 cr.

Virial Equation of State

The coefficients a(T), b(T), c(T), and so on, that are

functions of temperature alone are called virial coefficients.
 Complex equations of
state represent the P-v-T
behavior of gases more
accurately over a wider
Percentage of error involved in various equations of range.
state for nitrogen
(% error = [(|vtable - vequation|)/vtable] 100).
 CHAPTER
3

The First Law of

Thermodynamics:
Closed Systems
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Closed system
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two forms: Heat and work

FIGURE 3-1
Specifying the
directions of
heat and work.

3-1
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two systems (or
a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.

3
Heat transfer per
unit mass

Amount of heat transfer

when heat transfer rate is Rate of heat transfer
constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

Energy is
recognized as
heat transfer
only as it
crosses the
system
boundary.

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings.
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Sign Convention for Heat

(+) ve if to the system

(-) ve if from the system

Heat in
Q= +5 kJ

Q = - 5 kJ
Heat out
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
• Or an energy interaction which is not caused by a temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings
– A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions

Work done
per unit mass

+
Moving a positive
charge from one
place to another
requires work
Power is the
work done per
unit time
(kW)
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System boundary

A spring is doing work on the surroundings

W=5kJ
Sign Convention of Work

W=-5kJ (+)ve if work done by a system

(-)ve if work done on a system

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Moving boundary work (P dV work):

The expansion and compression work in a
piston-cylinder device.

FIGURE 3-2
A gas does a differential amount of work dWb
as it forces the piston to move by a differential
amount ds.
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The area under

the process
curve on a P-V
diagram
represents the
boundary work.
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The net work

done during a
cycle is the
difference
between the
work done by
the
system and the
work done on
the system.

3-7
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First Law of Thermodynamics or the Conservation of energy Principle:

Net energy transfer Net increase (or decrease)

to (or from) the system = İn the total energy
As heat and work of the system

Q–W = ΔE
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(Remember from chapter 1: ΔE = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE )

Q – W = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE (kJ)

where ΔU = m( - ) Most closed systems

encountered in
ΔKE =1/2 m( - ) practice are stationary
i.e. ΔPE =0 ΔKE =0
ΔPE =mg( - )

Q – W = ΔU
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Example: 0 0
System
boundary Q  W  U  KE  PE
Wpw = ΔU = m(u2 - u1 )
18.5kJ 5 kg of Wpiston
steam
W=Wpw +Wpiston

Q -(Wpw +Wpiston)= m(u2 - u1 )

Q = 80 kJ

u1  2709.9 kJ/kg
(+80kJ) –( ( -18.5kJ)+ Wpiston=(5kg)(2659.6 -2709.9)kJ/kg
u2  2659.6 kJ/kg
Wpiston =350kJ
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Example: constant-pressure process, initially saturated water vapor. =?

Q – Wel = =
-3.7 kJ – (-7.2kJ)= 0.025 kg ( - 2725.3 kJ/kg)
= 2865.3 kJ/kg
=300 kPa
=200ºC Table A-6
= 2865.3

Note: for constant pressure case: Q – Wother= ΔH and W = Wboundary + Wother

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Example: constant volume

T
1

Superheated
steam

Q 0 0 0
Q  W  U  KE  PE

Q  m (u2  u1 )

Note: for constant volume case: Q  Wother  U  KE  PE

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Example: changing volume and pressure

P
Evacuated 1
system

Partition 2
Q H2O

V
0 0 0
Q  W  U  KE  PE
Q  m (u2  u1 )
note: u1≈ uf@Tsat
u2 = uf +x2ufg
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Specific Heats

The energy required to raise the temperature of a unit of a substance by one

degree.
Cv : specific heat at constant volume
Cp : specific heat at constant pressure

Cp > Cv
Helium gas: (2)
Because at constant
(1) pressure, the energy
V=constant
P=const required for expansion work
m=1kg
m=1kg must also be supplied to
ΔT=1ºC
ΔT=1ºC system.
Cv=3.13 kJ/kgºC
Cp=5.2 kJ/kgºC

3.13kJ
5.2kJ

3-16
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First law for constant volume:

First law for constant pressure:

3-17
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Ideal Gases:

Pv  RT
Joule demonstrated that for ideal
gases u=u(T) Cv=Cv(T)

h  u  Pv
h  u  RT
Pv  RT
Since R is constant and u=u(T) h=h(T) Cp=Cp(T)

and

3-18
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Three ways of calculating u and h

h  h2  h1 from tables
2
h   c p (T ) dT
1

h  c p ,avg T

Similarly:

3-19
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differentiate

cpdT =cvdT+RdT

÷ dT

On a molar basis

Specific heat ratio

3-20
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Solids and Liquids:

Can be approximated as incompressible: c p  cv  c

Again, specific heats depend on temperature only.

The change in internal energy between states 1 and 2:

2
u  u2  u1   c(T ) dT
1

u  cavg (T2  T1 )

3-21
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Example: insulated
Q-W=ΔU or ΔU=0

Water U  U iron  U water  0

25ºC mC (T2  T1 )iron  mC (T2  T1 )water  0
m  50kg
V 0. 5 m 3
80o C mwater   3
 500 kg
v25 C 0.001m kg

0.5 Specific heats are determined from

table A-3.

50 kg (0.45 kJ
kg Co  
) T2  80o C  500kg (4.18 kJ o )(T2  25o C)  0
kg C
T2  25.6 o C

3-22
Example 1 – Class Work
• Radon gas initially at 65 kPa, 200oC is to be
heated in a closed , rigid container until it is
at 400oC. The mass of the radon is 0.393 kg.
• A table of properties shows that at 200oC, the
internal energy of radon is 26.6 kJ/kg; at
400oC it is 37.8 kJ/kg.
• Determine the amount of heat required.
• Determine the final pressure
(Draw a simple diagram and put the information on it)
 Example 2
Air at a temperature of 500oC is compressed in a piston-
cylinder arrangement at a constant pressure of 1.2 MPa from
a volume of 2 m3 to a volume of 0.4 m3. if the internal energy
decrease is 4820 kJ, find
a. the work done during the reversible compression
b. The heat transferred
c. The change of enthalpy
d. The average specific heat at constant pressure.

 
a) W1 2  P(V2  V1 )  1.2 103 kPa (0.4 - 2) m 3  1920kJ
b) Q1-2  W1 2  U 2  U1  Q1 2  (1920kJ )  4820kJ  Q1 2  6740kJ
Example 3
The radiator of a steam heating system is filled with superheated vapor. The
volume of the radiator is 15 L and the inlet and outlet valves are closed. The
pressure inside the radiator drops from 200 kPa to 100 kPa while dissipating
heat into a room. If the initial temperature of the steam is 200oC determine the
heat transferred to the room.
Q  W  U
Q
V
Q  m(u2  u1 )  (u2  u1 )

15 103 m 3
Q 3
(u2  2654.4 kj kg )
1.0803 m kg

In order to find u2 we need to find the quality at state 2

  f
x then use u2  u f  xu fg
 fg
 CHAPTER
4

The First Law of

Thermodynamics for
Control Volumes
 CONSERVATION OF MASS

Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it

cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during a process.
Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep track
of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.

Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions.

Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other
according to
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is
c = 2.9979  108 m/s.
The mass change due to energy change is absolutely negligible.
4-1
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Conservation of mass principle

Control volume can be thought of a region of space through which mass flows.

Mass
Control leaving
Mass Volume
entering (CV)
_ Total mass Net change
Total mass
entering leaving CV = in mass
within CV
CV

m  m i e   mCV
Note: i-inlet , e-exit , CV-control volume

The rate form   m   m i e  m

 CV
 dm
where m is mass flow rate, i.e
4-2 dt
 Flow through a pipe or duct

Velocity profile

Viscous effects
The average velocity Vavg is defined as The volume flow rate is the volume
the average speed through a cross of fluid flowing through a cross
section. section per unit time.

4-3
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display

The mass flow rate through a different area dA can be expressed as:

  Vn dA
dm
Velocity normal to dA

m   Vn dA (kg/s )
A

  Vavg A (kg/s )
m
density kg/ m3 average fluid velocity normal to A, m/s
3
The volume flow rate: 
V   V ndA  V av A( m )
s
A
The mass and volume flow rates are related by :
V
m  V 
v
4-4
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Conservation of Energy Principle

Total energy Total energy Total energy Net change

crossing boundary + of mass - of mass = in energy
as heat and work entering CV exiting CV of CV

W
Mass
in Q
Q  W   E in   E out   E CV

Mass out
This equation can also be expressed in the rate form (i.e. quantities per unit
time).

When there is no mass flow in and out of the system, the energy equation
reduces to that of a closed system:

Q  W  E

4-5
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Flow work or flow energy

The energy required to push fluid into or out of a control volume.

The force applied on the fluid element : F= PA
The work done in pushing the fluid element into the control volume:
i.e. the flow work : Wflow = F L = PAL = PV (kJ)
On a unit mass basis w flow
 Pv (kJ/kg)

(the fluid pushing

the fluid infront of it)

4-6
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Total Energy of a flowing fluid

2
V
For a nonflowing fluid : e = u + ke + pe = u + +gz (kJ/kg)
2
2
V
For a flowing fluid the total energy θ = Pv + e = Pv + u + + gz (kJ/kg)
2
2 h
V
Hence θ = h + ke + pe = h + + gz (kJ/kg)
2

The total energy consists of three parts for a nonflowing fluid and four parts for a flowing fluid.

4-7
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE STEADY-FLOW PROCESS

Steady flow is defined such that all properties at each point in a system
remain constant with respect to time. (e.g. turbines, compressors, and
heat exchangers)

Under steady-flow conditions, the

Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
fluid properties at an inlet or exit
and energy contents of a control
remain constant (do not change with
volume remain constant.
time).

4-8
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Example:
Conservation of mass

mcv = constant for steady-flow process

 m i   m e

If there is only one inlet and one exit

1 1
m  m (kg/s) or  V A   V A
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
(or
v
VA  V A
1
v
1 2 2
)
1 2

where   density (kg/m 3 )

  specific volume (m3 /kg)
V  average velocity (m/s)
A  cross  sectional area normal to area (m 2 )
4-9
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Mass (and
Conservation of energy for steady flow energy) in

ECV  constant or ECV  0 Work

Q  W   E 
out  E  E
in cv

 
Heat
 Q  W  m  
e e
m i i
Mass (and
energy) out

 Q  W   m (h   gz )   m (h 
2 2

  V V
e e
 gz ) e
e i i
i
i
2 2
For one-inlet, one-exit systems(i.e single stream systems):

m  m
1 2

V V In many cases:
Q  W  m {h  h  2
 g ( z  z )}
1
2 1
2 1
ke = pe =0
2  q  w  h
h ke pe
4-10
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices

[Link] and Diffusers

0 0 0
q  w  h  ke  pe
V V 2 2

0h h 2 1
2 1

4-11
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] and compressors

A modern land-based gas turbine used for electric power production. This is a
General Electric LM5000 turbine. It has a length of 6.2 m, it weighs 12.5 tons,
and produces 55.2 MW at 3600 rpm with steam injection.

4-12
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] and compressors Mass (and

energy) in

Work
Turbine
q  w  h  ke  pe
V V 2 2

w  ( h  h 
2 1
) 2 1

Mass (and
2 Heat
0 0 energy) out
q  w  h  ke  pe
Heat
qwh h 2 1

Compre
Work ss or

4-12
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Ex: Steam turbine

For steady flow m = 600 kg/h
h1 = 3120 kJ/kg
m  m  m
1 2
V1 = 3 m/s
V V2 2
z1 = 3 m
Q  W  m {h  h 
2 1
2
 g ( z  z )}
1
2 1
2
Q W 2
V V 2

  (h   gz )  (h   gz )  0
m m
1 2
2 2
600 kg kg
w
m  hr  0.167
3600 sec sec
hr Q = 630 kJ/h
h2 = 2330 kJ/kg
630 kg V2 = 130 m/s
Q  hr  0.175kW
3600 sec z2 = 0
hr
0.175 kJ W (100 m ) 2
9.81m 2 (130 m ) 2

 s   (3120 kJ  s  s )  (2330 kJ  s  0)  0
kg 2(1000 J ) 1000 J kg 2(1000 J )
0.167 kg 0.167 kg kJ kJ kJ
s s
W
 1.05 kJ   (3120 kJ  5 kJ  0.029 kJ )  (2330  8.45  0)  0
kg kg kg kg
0.167 kg
s
 W  131.183kW
4-13
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] Valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure
drop in the fluid.
Why there is a pressure drop?

Energy per unit volume before = Energy per unit volume after

P1 + ½۷12 + gz1 = P2 + ½۷22 + gz2

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] Valves
What is the difference between a turbine and a throttling valve?
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in temperature, and for
that reason throttling devices are commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning
applications.

Energy balance
0 0 0 0
q  w  h  ke  pe
h h2 1

u  Pv  u  P v
1 1 1 2 2 2

During a throttling process, the enthalpy of a fluid remains constant. But

internal and flow energies may be converted to each other.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] Valves

Internal energy +flow =const.

If P v increase then u2 decreases
2 2
drop in temperature
If Pv decrease then u1 increases increase in temperature
For an ideal gas, h=h(T) and since h1  h2, the temperature does not change T1  T2 .
1 1

4-14
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4. Heat exchangers
Mass flow rate of fluid A:
Mass flow rate of fluid B: m  m  m
i e A
m  m  m
i e B
Energy equation for blue CV:

 
2 2
V V
Q  W  m (h   gz ) 
e e
e
e
m (h   gz )
i i
i
i
2 2
 m h   i i
m h e e

m h  m h  m h  m h
B Bi A Ai B Be A Ae

Energy equation for red CV: single stream

0 0 0
Q  W  m (h  ke  pe) A

Q  m (h  h ) A 2 1

4-15
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] Chambers

 m i   m 2
m 1 m 3
m 1  m 2  m 3  1 
0 0 m 2 0 m2 0 0 0
2 2
V V
Q  W   m e (he  e
 gze )   m i (hi  i
 gzi )
2 2
 m i hi   m e he
m 1h1  m 2 h2  m 3h3
m 1
Divide by m and let y   y h1  h2  ( y  1) h3
m 2
2

The T-elbow of an ordinary shower serves as the

mixing chamber for the hot- and the cold-water
streams.

4-16
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

[Link] and Duct Flow

Q  W  m (h  ke  pe)

Q  W  m (h  h ) 2 1

Pipe or duct flow may involve more When air treated as ideal gas
than one form of work at the same tim

RT
v 
1
1

P 1

V
m  1

v 1
Heat losses from a hot fluid flowing
through an uninsulated pipe or duct to
the cooler environment may be very  Q  W  m C (T  T ) p 2 1
significant.
(We  Wsh )
4-17
 m  V (kg )
 s
m
V1  m
1 A1 ( s )
m (m )
V2  s
 2 A2

z2 Enthalpy change for incompressible substance:

h2  h1  (u 2  P2 v2 )  (u1  P1v1 )
Pump
 (u 2  u1 )  v( P2  P1 )
 C (T2  T1 )  v( P2  P1 )

 u
z1
Energy equation becomes:
22  12
Q  Wsh  m { C (T2  T1 )  v ( P2  P1 )   g ( z2  z1 )}
2

4-18
 𝜗2 2 −𝜗1 2
Energy Equation: 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝑚 𝐶 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 + 𝜐 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

When 𝑄 is neglible and 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 :

𝜗2 2 − 𝜗1 2
→ 𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝑚 𝜐 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2
In the case of negligible changes of kinetic and potential
energies:
→ 𝑊𝑠ℎ ≈ 𝑉 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
Definition of pump efficiency :
m3
𝑉( ) × 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 kPa
 pump 
Water (output) Power
 s
Shaft (input) Power 𝑊𝑠ℎ (kW)
Electric Pump
𝑊𝑠ℎ
𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑊𝑒𝑙
Power delivered
Electric motor to the fluid The overall pump efficiency :
P2
ov   pump   motor

Wel
Electric power consumption:
P1 𝑊𝑠ℎ 𝑉 × (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
W sh
Electric power
𝑊𝑒𝑙 = =
𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
Shaft power
 CHAPTER
5

The Second Law of

Thermodynamics
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A process must satisfy the first law to occur

However, does it ensure that the process will actually take place?

potential energy lost = kinetic energy gained kinetic energy lost = potential energy gained
(satisfies the first law) (satisfies the first law – VIOLATES the 2nd LAW!)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Transferring heat to a paddle Transferring heat to a

A cup of hot coffee does not wheel will not cause it to wire will not generate
get hotter in a cooler room. rotate. electricity.

It is clear from the above examples that processes take place in a certain direction
and not in the reverse direction. First law alone is not enough to determine if a
process will actually occur.

Another principle is needed: Second law of Thermodynamics

 Processes occur in a
certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.

A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed.

MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW

1. The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
2. The second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity.
The first law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the
transformations of energy from one form to another with no regard to its
quality. The second law provides the necessary means to determine the
quality as well as the degree of degradation of energy during a process.
3. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting the
degree of completion of chemical reactions.
4
 THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A source
supplies
energy in the
form of heat,
Bodies with relatively large thermal
and a sink
masses can be modeled as thermal
absorbs it.
energy reservoirs.
• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x
specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy reservoir,
or just a reservoir.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as
the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy reservoirs
because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or thermal masses.
5
 HEAT ENGINES

The devices that convert heat to

work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
Work can always
2. They convert part of this heat to
be converted to
work (usually in the form of a
heat directly and
rotating shaft.)
completely, but the
reverse is not true. 3. They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink
(the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic
devices usually involve a fluid to
Part of the heat and from which heat is
received by a heat transferred while undergoing a
engine is converted to cycle. This fluid is called the
work, while the rest is working fluid.
rejected to a sink. 6
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

HEAT ENGINES:
are thermodynamic systems operating in a cycle to which net heat is transferred
and from which net work is delivered.

Solar energy
Oil furnace
Nuclear reactor

or QH : heat transfer between cyclic device and high temp. medium at TH

Rotating shaft

or QL : heat transfer between cyclic device and high temp. medium at TH

The atmosphere
Rivers
Sea
A steam power plant

A portion of the work output of

a heat engine is consumed
internally to maintain
continuous operation.

8
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

DEFINITION of PERFORMANCE for any device

Desired output What I Get
In general : performance = =
required input What I pay for

In heat engines: the desired output = net work output = Wnet ,out

the required input = heat supplied to system = Qin

Wnet ,out Qin − Qout Q

Thermal efficiency ηth = = = 1 − out
Qin Qin Qin
Wnet ,out QL
or ηth = = 1−
QH QH
Thermal efficiency

Schematic of
a heat engine.

Some heat engines perform better

Even the most
than others (convert more of the
efficient heat
heat they receive to work).
engines reject
almost one-half
of the energy
they receive as
waste heat.

10
Can we save Qout?
In a steam power plant, the
condenser is the device
where large quantities of
waste heat is rejected to
rivers, lakes, or the
atmosphere.
Can we not just take the
condenser out of the plant
and save all that waste
energy?
The answer is, unfortunately,
a firm no for the simple
reason that without a heat
A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without rejection process in a
rejecting some heat to a low-temperature sink. condenser, the cycle
cannot be completed.
Every heat engine must waste some energy
by transferring it to a low-temperature
reservoir in order to complete the cycle, even
under idealized conditions.
11
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device
that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid A heat engine that violates the
must exchange heat with the Kelvin–Planck statement of the
environment as well as the furnace. second law.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to
friction or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.
12
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

• The transfer of heat from a low-

temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat engines,
are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.
• The most frequently used
refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration
cycle.

In a household refrigerator, the freezer

compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator,
Basic components of a and the coils usually behind the
refrigeration system and refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the
typical operating conditions. kitchen air serve as the condenser. 13
 Coefficient of Performance

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed

in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

The objective of a refrigerator is to Can the value of COPR be

remove QL from the cooled space. greater than unity?
14
 The objective
Heat Pumps
of a heat
pump is to
supply heat
QH into the
warmer
space.

The work supplied

to a heat pump is
used to extract
energy from the
cold outdoors and
carry it into the
warm indoors.

Can the value of COPHP

be lower than unity?
for fixed values of QL and QH What does COPHP=1
represent? 15
 • Most heat pumps in operation today have a
seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air
as the heat source in winter (air-source HP).
• In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably
when temperatures are below the freezing point.
• In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP
that use the ground as the heat source can be
used.
• Such heat pumps are more expensive to install,
but they are also more efficient.
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators whose
refrigerated space is a room or a building instead
of the food compartment.
When installed backward, • The COP of a refrigerator decreases with
an air conditioner decreasing refrigeration temperature.
functions as a heat pump. • Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate to a
lower temperature than needed.

Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount of

heat removed from the cooled space in Btu’s for 1
Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed. 16
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics: Clausius
Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless

its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor.
This way, the net effect on the surroundings
involves the consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the transfer of heat
from a colder body to a warmer one.
To date, no experiment has been conducted that
A refrigerator that violates
contradicts the second law, and this should be
the Clausius statement of
taken as sufficient proof of its validity.
the second law.
17
Equivalence of the Two Statements

Proof that the

violation of the
Kelvin–Planck
statement leads
to the violation
of the Clausius
statement.

The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent

in their consequences, and either statement can be used as
the expression of the second law of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also
violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa. 18
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Example 1:
Heat is transferred to a heat engine from a furnace at a rate of 75MW. If waste heat
rejection to a nearby river is 48MW, determine the power output and the thermal
efficiency for this heat engine.

𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑄̇𝐻 − 𝑄̇𝐿

Furnace
= 75 − 48 MW = 27MW
𝑄̇𝐻 = 75 MW

𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑜𝑜𝑜 =? 𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
H.E. 𝑄̇𝐻

𝑄̇𝐿 = 48 MW
27 MW
= = 0.36
75 MW
River
or 36%
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

75,000 kJ/h
Example 2: Heat pump

𝑄̇𝐻
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 =
𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑖𝑖

𝑄̇𝐻 75,000
→ 𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑖𝑖 = = 𝑄̇𝐻 = 75,000 kJ/h
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 2.5 COP = 2.5

= 30,000 kJ (or 8.33 kW ) 𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑖𝑖 =?

h

𝑄̇𝐿 = 𝑄̇𝐻 − 𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑖𝑖 = (75,000 − 30,000) 𝑄̇𝐿 =?

0
= 45,000 kJ
h
PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

A perpetual-motion machine that

A perpetual-motion machine that violates the second law of
violates the first law (PMM1). thermodynamics (PMM2).

Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.
Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
worked. If something sounds too good to be true, it probably is. 21
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES:

A process is reversible if, after it has occurred , both

the system and the surroundings can be returned to
their original states.

If the system can not be restored to its initial state

then the process is called irreversible.

The reversible processes do not occur in nature. They

are only idealization of actual processes.
A pendulum could be a reversible
process if it were frictionless Reversible processes are important because they
provide the maximum work from work-producing
devices and the minimum work input to devices that
absorb work to operate . (theoretical limitation of
performance)

The more close we approximate a reversible process

the better.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Irreversibilities:
 The factors that cause a process to be irreversible
are called irreversibilities.
 They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference, electric resistance,
inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions.
 When designing something we try to lower the
irrevesibilities.

Friction renders a
process irreversible.
(a) Heat transfer through a
temperature difference is
irreversible, and (b) the
reverse process is impossible.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE CARNOT CYCLE:

A reversible cycle, i.e. limiting case for both an engine and a refrigerator.

The Carnot engine is the heat engine that converts heat into work with the
highest possible efficiency.

The Carnot refrigerator is the refrigerator that uses the minimum amount
of work to cool a space

The Canot cycle is composed of four reversible processes(two isothermal

and two adiabatic).

Can be expected either in a closed system or a steady-flow system.

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Gas in an adiabatic piston-cylinder device:

Execution of
the Carnot
cycle in a
closed
system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

P-V diagram of the reversed Carnot

P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle.
cycle.

The Reversed Carnot Cycle:

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed, in which
case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES:

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of
a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two
reservoirs are the same.

Violation of
Kelvin-Plank
statement

The Carnot principles. Proof of the first Carnot principle.

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE:

A temperature scale that is

independent of the
properties of the substances
that are used to measure
temperature is called a
thermodynamic
temperature scale.
Such a temperature scale
offers great conveniences in
thermodynamic
calculations.
All reversible heat
engines operating
between the same two
reservoirs have the
same efficiency.

The arrangement of heat engines used to develop

the thermodynamic temperature scale.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

For a reversible heat engine

operating between two
reservoirs:

QH φ (TH )
=
QL φ (TL )

With Kelvin scale φ (T ) = T

QH TH
( )=
QL TL
For reversible cycles, the A conceptual experimental
heat transfer ratio QH /QL setup to determine
can be replaced by the thermodynamic
absolute temperature ratio temperatures on the Kelvin
TH /TL. scale by measuring heat
transfers QH and QL.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE:

The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low-
temperature
reservoirs. No heat engine can have a higher efficiency
than a reversible heat engine operating
between the same high- and low-temperature
reservoirs.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

QL
For any heat engine: ηth = 1 −
QH

TL
For a carnot engine(i.e. any reversible heat engine): ηth ,rev = 1−
TH

Carnot efficiency: This is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating

between the two reservoirs at TL and TH can have.

For a steam power plant operating between TH=750K and TL=300K the
maximum efficiency is 60%.(In practicing they are under 40%)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Quality of Energy:

The carnot efficiency implies that, the higher the temperature TH, the
higher the efficiency and hence the higher the quality of energy.

The higher the temperature of the

The fraction of heat that can be converted to thermal energy, the higher its
work as a function of source temperature. quality.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP:

1
COPHP =
1 − QL
QH

No refrigerator can have a higher COP

than a reversible refrigerator operating
between the same temperature limits.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1
COPR =
QH
−1
QL

For a carnot refrigerator: For a carnot heat pump:

QH replace by TH QL replace by TL
QL TL QH TH

1 1
⇒ COPR ,rev = ⇒ COPHP ,rev =
TH
−1 1 − TL
TL TH

Highest COP between the limits TL and TH

 CHAPTER
6

Entropy
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Clausius Inequality:

δQ
∫ T
≤0 This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or
irreversible

Cyclic integral = for reversible

< for irreversible

The cyclic integral of δQ/T can be viewed as

the sum of all the differential amounts of heat
transfer divided by the temperature at the
boundary.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Total work of the combined system:

The vaidity of the Clausius inequality:

δ Wrev + δ Wsys Change in total

energy of the
combined system

Clasius
inequality
Single reservoir is not possible
according to Kelvin-Plank
statement, WC = 0

Formal
definition
of entropy

The system considered in the The equality in the Clausius inequality holds
development of the Clausius for totally or just internally reversible cycles
inequality. and the inequality for the irreversible ones.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

For reversible cycles:

High temp.
QL TL Q Q
reservoir at TH = → L = H
QH TH TL TH
QH
δQ δQH δQL
∫( ) rev = ∫ −∫
T TH TL
Rev. Wnet
1 1
H. E. = ∫ δQH − ∫ δQL
TH TL
QH QL
QL = − =0
TH TL
High temp. δQ
note : ∫ ( ) int rev = 0
reservoir at TL T
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

For irreversible cycles:

Or

For all cycles, the two results are combined:

Note: violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics

has to be always negative.

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Entropy:

Internally reversible
∫ dV = 0
The net change in volume (a property) during a cycle is
always zero.

Any property change during a cycle is zero.

δQ δQ
Since ∫ ( T )int rev = 0, ( T )int rev must represent a
property in the differential form.

δQ 2
δQ 1
δQ
∫ T int rev ∫1 T A ∫2 T ) B = 0
( ) = ( ) + (

2
δQ 2
δQ
→ ∫ ( ) A = ∫ ( )B
1
T 1
T
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The value of the integral depends on the

end states only and not the path followed
δQ
This represents the change of a property dS = ( ) int rev (kJ )
T K

This property is called entropy, S .

Entropy is an extensive property.

2
δQ
The entropy change of a system: ∆ S = S 2 − S1 = ∫ ( )int rev (kJ )
T K
1

Example: air temperature is raised from T1 to T2

0
Thermal
δ Q − δ W = dU insulation

δ Q = d U = mCv dT Air
2
δQ 2
mCv dT T2
∆S = ∫ ( ) int rev =∫ = mCv ln
1
T 1
T T1 Q
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal heat transfer processes:

Particularly useful for determining the entropy changes of thermal energy

reservoirs that can absorb or supply heat indefinitely at constant temperature.

2 2 2
δQ δQ 1
∆ S = ∫ ( )int rev = ∫ ( )int rev = ∫ (δ Q)int rev
1
T 1 o
T To 1

∆S =
Q
(kJ K )
T = 300K = const
To
ΔS = Q/T
= 2.5 kJ/K Constant absolute
temperature

Q = 750 kJ
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

Consider a a cycle that is made of two processes:

S1 − S 2

This is an irrev. cycle since

part of it is irreversible.

A different amount of actual heat transfer between

a system and its surroundings

Absolute temp. of the boundary

The equality holds for an internally reversible process and

the inequality for an irreversible process.
9
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A different amount of actual heat transfer between

a system and its surroundings

Absolute temp. of the boundary

The entropy of an isolated

If system is adiabatic then δQ = 0 system during a process always
increases or, in the limiting case
∆Sisolated ≥ 0 of a reversible process, remains
constant.

Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process,

and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.
Can the entropy of a system during a process decrease?
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The entropy change of an isolated

system is the sum of the entropy
changes of its components, and is
never less than zero.

A system and its surroundings

form an isolated system.

The increase
of entropy
principle
11
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Some Remarks about Entropy

1. Processes can occur in a certain direction
only, not in any direction. A process must
proceed in the direction that complies with
the increase of entropy principle, that is,
Sgen ≥ 0. A process that violates this
principle is impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and
there is no such thing as the conservation of
entropy principle. Entropy is conserved
during the idealized reversible processes
only and increases during all actual
processes.
3. The performance of engineering systems is
degraded by the presence of irreversibilities,
The entropy change of a and entropy generation is a measure of the
system can be negative, magnitudes of the irreversibilities during that
but the entropy generation process. It is also used to establish criteria
cannot. for the performance of engineering devices.

12
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Example:
A system and its surroundings can be viewed as the two subsystems.

Total entropy change is the entropy change of all the systems:

∆S total = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr ≥ 0

Entropy generation, S gen

S gen = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr ≥ 0

The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The increase of entropy principle:

> 0 irreversible process

S gen = ∆ S total = 0 reversible process

< 0 impossible process

Can not be negative

∆ Ssys + ∆ Ssurr

Can be
Example:
negative
The entropy change of a
system can be negative, but
the entropy generation
cannot.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Closed Systems

Isolated system boundary

Sgen = ∆ S total = ∆ Ssys + ∆ Ssurr ≥ 0

S 2 − S1 Qsurr
Qsurr ∆S surr =
Tsurr
Tsurr Qsurr
m ( s2 − s1 )

CLOSED SYSTEM
If process is adiabatic: ∆Ssys= m(s2-s1)

Qsurr = −Qsys = 0
SURROUNDINGS
S gen = ∆ S tot = m( s2 − s1 ) ≥ 0
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Example:
In a constant pressure process, vapor in the cyclinder condeses. Determine:
a) entropy change of water
b) entropy change of surrounding air
c) whether this process is possible

Qwater − 600 kJ
a) ∆S water = = = −1.61 kJ
Twater 373 K K

Qsurr + 600 kJ
b) ∆Ssurr = = = +2.01 kJ
K
Tsurr 298 K

c) ∆ S tot = ∆ Ssys + ∆ Ssurr

= −1.61 + 2.01 = +0.4 kJ/K

A frictionless piston
This process is an irreversible process and is
Q surr = −Q sys= + 600 kJ
possible
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Control Volumes:
Similar to the closed systems, except that this time we consider the entropy carried
by the mass from flow rates across the boundaries.

∆S cv = ( S 2 − S1 ) cv
Qsurr
∆Ssurr = + S e − Si
Tsurr
Qsurr
∆Ssurr = + me se − mi si
Tsurr

Entropy flow entropy transport

with heat with mass

Sgen = ∆ S total = ∆ Ssys + ∆ Ssurr ≥ 0

Qsurr The entropy of a control
= ( S 2 − S1 )cv + Se − Si + ≥0 volume changes as a result
Tsurr
of mass flow as well as heat
= 0 for steady flow
transfer.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Steady flow devices in the rate

form:

Q surr
S gen = ∑ m e se − ∑ m i si +
 ≥ 0 (kW/K )
Tsurr

Single stream devices:

 Q surr
S gen = m ( se − si ) + ≥0
Tsurr

The entropy of a
The entropy generation of a fluid
substance always
will increase as it flows through an
increases (or remains
adiabatic steady-flow device as a
constant in the case
result of irreversibilities.
of a reversible
process) as it flows
through a single-
stream, adiabatic,
steady-flow device.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Property Diagrams Involving Entropy:

During an internally reversible,

The isentropic process appears as a vertical adiabatic (isentropic) process,
line segment on a T-s diagram. the entropy remains constant.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

On a T-S diagram,
the area under
T-s diagram of a Carnot cycle the process curve
represents the
heat transfer for
internally
reversible
processes.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

0
Q – W = ΔH

For adiabatic steady-flow

devices, the vertical distance
∆h on an h-s diagram is a
measure of work, and the
horizontal distance ∆s is a
measure of irreversibilities.

Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram

(see Fig. A-10 for the Mollier diagram of
water)
ISENTROPIC
EFFICIENCIES OF
STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
The isentropic process involves no
irreversibilities and serves as the ideal
process for adiabatic devices.

Isentropic
Efficiency
of
Turbines

The h-s diagram for

the actual and
isentropic
processes of an
adiabatic turbine.
22
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed

once the state of the system is fixed.

The entropy of a pure substance is

determined from the tables (like Schematic of the T-s diagram for water.
other properties).
Entropy Balance

Prof. Dr. Uğur Atikol

Entropy Balance

 The property entropy is a measure of

molecular disorder or randomness of a
system.
 Enropy can be created but it cannot be
destroyed
 Total   Total   Total   Change in the 
       
 entropy    entropy    entropy    total entropy 
 entering   leaving   generated   of the system 
       
or
S in  S out  S gen   S system
Entropy Change of a System Ssys

Entropy change of a system  Entropy at final state  Entropy at initial state

 S sys  S final  S initial
Note : S sys  0 during steady state operation.

When the properties of the system are not uniform, the entropy
of the system can be determined by :
S sys   s  m   s dV

volume

density
Mechanisms of entropy transfer, Sin and Sout
 Entropy can be transferred by the following two
mechanisms:
Heat is a chaotic form of
 Heat transfer energy and some chaos
(entropy) flows with heat

Mass contains entropy and

 Mass flow entropy is carried with it.
Entropy increases with mass

 No entropy is transferred by work

Entropy transfer by heat transfer

When temperature is
not constant or
different throughout
the boundary

Entropy transfer by work:

Heat transfer is always accompanied by

entropy transfer in the amount of Q/T,
where T is the boundary temperature.

No entropy accompanies work as it crosses the

system boundary. But entropy may be generated
within the system as work is dissipated into a
less useful form of energy.
Entropy transfer by mass flow

Entropy transfer by mass:

When the properties of the mass

change during the process Mass contains entropy as well as
energy, and thus mass flow into or
out of system is always accompanied
by energy and entropy transfer.
Entropy generation, Sgen

Sin with mass Sout with mass

System
Ssys
Sgen≥0
Sin with heat Sout with heat
Entropy generation, Sgen

 The term Sgen represents the entropy within the system

boundary only
 External irreversibilities are not accounted for in the
term Sgen.
Entropy generation
outside system
boundaries can be
accounted for by
writing an entropy
balance on an
extended system that
includes the system
and its immediate
surroundings.
Entropy balance of control masses (closed
systems)

T0

Qk Q 0
 S sys
 
 T  S gen

(kJ/K)
k System
W
Entropy change Entropy
of a closed system generated
Q1 Q 3
Sum of net entropy
transfer through the Q 2
system boundary by
heat transfer

T1 T2 T3
Example:
Entropy generation in a wall
Determine the rate of entropy generation in a wall of 5-m x 7-m and thickness 30 cm. The
rate of heat transfer through the wall is 1035 W.
0 (steady heat flow)
d S sys
Sin  Sout  S gen 
    dt
Rate of net entropy Rate of entropy 
transfer by heat generation Rate of
and mass change in
entropy

 Q   Q 
      S gen  0
 T in  T out

1035 W 1035 W 
  S gen  0  therefore S gen , wall  0.191 W/K
293 K 278 K

The total rate of entropy generation (including the indoors and outdoors)
can be found by taking into account the indoors and outdoors temperatures
(extended system):
1035 W 1035 W 
  S gen  0  therefore S gen, total  0.341 W/K
300 K 273 K
 Entropy balance of control volumes (open
systems)

T0

The entropy of a control

volume changes as a result of Q 0
mass flow as well as heat
transfer. System
m in m out
Q1 Q 2 Q 3
W
Qk
 T   mi si   me se  S gen  (S
2  S1 ) CV

(kJ/K)
T1 T2 T3
k  S CV

or in the rate form :

Q k dS CV
T  m i si  m e se  S gen 
  dt
(kW/K)
 k
Net entropy flow rate Entropy 
Entropy transfer out of the control volume generation Rate of entropy
rate by heat via mass flow rate accumulation in
transfer the control volume
Entropy balance of control volumes (open
systems)
Q k dS
 T   m i si   m e se  S gen  dtCV
k

The entropy of a
substance always
increases (or remains
constant in the case of a
reversible process) as it
flows through a single- The entropy of a control
stream, adiabatic, steady- volume changes as a result of
flow device. mass flow as well as heat
transfer.
 Example: Entropy generation during a
throttling process
Determine the rate of entropy generation in a steady-state throttling process of steam shown
in the diagram.

Use the tables to determine the entropy at the inlet and the exit states:
P1  7 MPa 
State 1 :  h1  3288.3 kJ/kg, s1  6.6353 kJ/kg.K
T1  450C 

P2  3 MPa 
State 2 :  s2  7.0046 kJ/kg.K
h2  h1 
0 (negligible heat transfer) 0 (steady flow process)
Q k dS
 T   m i si   m e se  Sgen  dtCV
k

d S sys m s1  m s2  S gen  0
Sin  Sout  S gen 
   
Rate of entropy Rate of entropy
dt
 S gen  m ( s2  s1 )
transfer by mass generation Rate of change
in entropy in the
flow
control volume Dividing by mass flow rate :
s gen  s2  s1  7.0046  6.6353  0.3693 kJ/kg.K
 Example: Entropy generation in a
compressor
𝑃1 = 1 MPa
d S sys 0 (steady flow process) 𝑇1 = 327℃
Sin  Sout  S gen  s2o  2.40902 kJ/kg.K
    dt
Rate of net entropy Rate of entropy 
transfer by heat generation Rate of
and mass change in
entropy

Q out
m s1  m s2   S gen  0 300 kW
Tb , surr
 Q out
S gen  m ( s2  s1 ) 
Tb , surr
P2 25 kW
For ideal gases : s2  s1  s20  s10  R ln
P1
kJ 1000 kPa Air
m ( s 2  s1 ) air  0.853 kg/s (2.40902  1.66802)  0.287 ln 𝑚1 = 0.853 kg/s
kg.K 100 kPa 𝑃1 = 100 kPa
 0.0684 kW/K 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 17℃
25 kW s1o  1.66802 kJ/kg.K
S gen  0.0684 kW/K   0.155 kW/K
290 K