Basic Instrumentation Course

1. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

2. FLOW MEASUREMENT

3. LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

4. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Introduction
 Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some
field parameter, pressure, flow, level or temperature to
produce a dial indication or a standard (4 - 20 mA)
electronic signal - (3 – 15 psi) pneumatic signal - that
represents the value of field parameter in a process.
 This signal can be used to directly control other
instruments, or sent to a computerized controller system
where it can be interpreted into readable values, or used to
control other devices and processes in the system.
 Instrumentation engineering is the engineering
specialization focused on the principle and operation of
measuring instruments which are used in design and
configuration of automated systems.
1. Pressure Measurements
1- Pressure Measurements
 General theory (Pascal's law)

 Pressure units are pounds per square inch (PSI), (bar) or

millimeter water (mmH2O).
 Atmospheric pressure = 14.6 psi
= 1.01325 bar
= 10000 mmH2O
Pressure Scales
 Gauge and Absolute pressure

Pa = Pg + Patm (when Pg > Patm)

Pa = Pg – Patm (when Pg < Patm)
Pressure In A Fluid
 Liquids are uncompressible.
 For an opened vessel,
Pa = Patm + ρgh  Pascal's law
Pressure In A Fluid
 Pascal's law indicates that the shape of the open tank
does not affect the pressure and that the pressure is
influenced only by the depth (h) and the density (ρ).
 Application: Hydraulic press.
 The pressure at every point on the same line is equal:
P1 = P2
So that F2 = (A2 / A1) F1
 The hydraulic press is a force amplifier where the gain
is (A2 / A1)
The Hydraulic Press
Pressure Exerted by Gases
 General law for gases
PV = KT

 At const. temperature (Boyle’s law)

P = (K / V)  P α (1 / V)

 At const. volume (Charle’s law)

P=KT  PαT
Manometers
 Can provide a very accurate measurement of pressure
 Used as calibration standards for other pressure
measurement devices.

 P = ρgh
Manometers
Pressure Gauges
 Pressure gauges are used for local indication
 Pressure gauges consist of a dial or indicator and a
pressure element.
 A pressure element converts pressure into a mechanical
motion.
 Most mechanical pressure elements rely on the fact that
pressure acts on a surface area inside the element to
produce a force that causes a mechanical deflection.
Bourdon Tube
 Bourdon tubes are circular-shaped tubes with oval cross
sections.
 The outward pressure on the
oval cross section forces it to
become rounded.
 This movement provides a
displacement that is
proportional to the applied
pressure.
 The tube is mechanically linked to
a pointer on a pressure dial to give
a reading.
Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tube
 Diaphragm
 A diaphragm is a flexible membrane that expands when
pressure applied .
 In pressure-measuring instruments, the diaphragms are
normally metallic.
 When two are fastened together they form a container
called a capsule.
 Pressure applied inside the diaphragm capsule causes it to
expand and produce motion along its axis.
Diaphragm
Bellows
 The bellows pressure element converts a pressure into a
physical displacement.
 It is very similar to a
diaphragm-type gauge
the difference is that
typically the movement
in a bellows is much
more of a straight-line
expansion.
Differential Pressure Gauges
 Measures the difference between two pressures.
 The measuring element is formed by two diaphragms, acting
on the same movement.
 In this way the pointer
senses only the difference
between the two pressures
 Smart Differential Pressure Transmitter
 Capable of measuring differential pressure (that is, the
difference between a high pressure input and a low
pressure input) and therefore called DP transmitters or DP
cells.
 The DP transmitter consists of:
 Body containing display, electronic module & power

module.
 Manifold with isolation, bypass & vent valves.

 The transducer (DP cell) inserted in a pressure capsule .

 A pressure capsule has to be used to obtain maximum

sensitivity.
 A pressure capsule has a sensitivity range that closely
matches the anticipated pressure of the measured fluid.
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Transmitter Functional Block Diagram
Three Valve Manifold
 If the process pressure is accidentally applied to only
one side of the DP capsule during installation or removal
of the DP cell from service, over ranging of the capsule
would occur and the capsule could be damaged causing
erroneous indications.
 A three-valve manifold is a device that is used to ensure
that the capsule will not be over-ranged during bringing
the transmitter in/out of the service.
 Allows isolation of the transmitter from the process loop.
 Consists of two block valves - high pressure and low
pressure block valve - and an equalizing valve.
 During normal operation, the equalizing valve is closed
and the two block valves are open.
Three Valve Manifold
Three Valve Manifold
Electronic Pressure Sensors
 Pressure can be converted to some intermediate form,
such as displacement, the sensor then converts this
displacement into an electrical output such as voltage,
frequency or current.
 Most electronic pressure sensors employ capacitive,
differential transformer, force balance, photoelectric,
piezoelectric, potentiometric, resistive, strain gauge, or
thermoelectric means of measurement.
Potentiometric-type Sensor
Piezoelectric-type Sensor
 Class of crystals, called piezoelectric, produce an electrical
signal when they are mechanically deformed.
 The voltage level of the signal is proportional to the amount of
deformation.
 The crystal is mechanically attached to a metal diaphragm.
 One side of the diaphragm is connected to the process fluid to
sense pressure, and a mechanical linkage connects the
diaphragm to the crystal.
 The output voltage signal from the crystal is very small (normally
in the microvolt range), so you must use a high-input impedance
amplifier.
Piezoelectric-type Sensor
Capacitance-type Sensor
 In a capacitance-type pressure sensor, the process
pressure is applied to a diaphragm.
 The diaphragm is exposed to the process pressure on
one side and a reference pressure on the other.
 The deflection of the diaphragm causes a change in the
distance between the metal plates, so, the capacitance
changed.
 The change in capacitance is detected by a bridge circuit
& converted into either a direct current or a voltage signal.
Capacitance-type Sensor
Strain Gauges
 Strain gauge sensors are used for high and low pressure
applications, and can measure absolute or differential pressure.
 The strain gauge is a device that can be affixed to the surface of
an object to detect the force applied to the object.
 One form of the strain gauge is a metal wire of very small
diameter that is attached to the surface of a device being
monitored.
 When force is applied the overall length of the wire tends to
increase while the cross-sectional area decreases.
 For a metal, the electrical resistance will increase as the length of
the metal increases or as the cross sectional diameter decreases.
 Very small pressure changes can be detected if there are a large
number of wire runs.
Strain Gauges
Strain Gauges
 Variable Reluctance Sensor
 Usually used for low differential pressure measurements.
 The operating principle of the VRP transducer is based on the
reluctance of the L1 and L2 coils is directly proportional to the length
of the flux path and inversely proportional to its permeability.
 Each electromagnetic circuit associated with coil L1 and coil L2
contains two reluctance elements, iron and air-gap paths.
 When a permeable material such as iron is introduced into the flux
field of the coil, the lines of magnetic flux are redirected and
concentrated in the permeable material.
 As a differential pressure is applied, the diaphragm deflects, one
side decreasing and the other increasing, and the air gap
reluctances in the electromagnetic circuits change proportionally to
the differential pressure applied.
Variable Reluctance Sensor
Pressure Measurement Error
 Over-Pressure: All of the pressure gauges are designed
to operate over a rated pressure range.
 If a pressure gauge is over ranged, pressure is applied to
the point where it can no longer return to its original
shape, thus the indication would return to some value
greater than the original.
 Diaphragms and bellows are usually the most sensitive
and fast-acting of all pressure gauges.
 Bourdon tubes are very robust and can handle extremely
high pressures although, when exposed to over-pressure,
they become slightly distended and will read high.
Pressure Measurement Error
 Faulty Sensing Lines : When the pressure lines become
partially blocked, the dynamic response of the sensor is
naturally reduced and it will have a slow response to
change in pressure.
 Depending on the severity of the blockage, the sensor
could even retain an incorrect zero or low reading.
 Periodic draining and flushing of sensing lines is a must.
 A cracked sensing line has the characteristic of
consistently low readings.
Pressure Measurement Error
 Over ranging Damage to the D/P Cell: The valve
manifolds are provided on DP cells to prevent over-
pressuring and aid in the removal of cells for
maintenance.
 Loss of Loop Electrical Power : The output of the DP
transmitters will drop to zero with a loss of power supply.
Pressure Switches
 The switch is a device that monitor the system & senses any
change in the concerned quantity, opens or closes an electrical
circuit when a pre-determined value is reached.
 The pressure switch is a
device that will trip at the set
point, and remain tripped until
a fixed re-set point is reached,
at which point the switch will
return to its original operating position.
 Pressure switch consists of
 Electrical Contacts: the elements in the switch that electrically
respond to the media applied to the actuator.
 Actuator: The member in the switch which receives the media
and ultimately strokes the electrical contacts to open or close
at the designated set point.
Pressure Switches
 Switch configured to be SPST or SPDT.
 The fluid medium determines the diaphragm material,
and in some cases, the type of switch that can be used.
 We may need a pressure, vacuum or differential switch.
 In a pressure switch, positive pressure pushes the
diaphragm
 In a vacuum switch, negative pressure pulls the
diaphragm.
 In a differential switch, both sides of the switch housing
are ported to two pressure sources, and the diaphragm
responds to the resulting net force.
 The switch healthy status is the status that the switch
gives no
alarm or trip signal and configured to be N.O. or N.C.
according to the application.
Diaphragm Sensing Element Switch

 Many pressure switches are configured simply by coupling

a diaphragm to the actuator of a snap switch.
 In operation, force against the diaphragm is transferred to
a guide disk, which depresses the actuator of a snap
switch.
 To depress the actuator, the guide disk must also push
against the opposing force of a spring.
 The compression of the spring can be modified by an
adjustment screw, and this permits fine calibration of the
switch set point.
Snap Action Switch
Snap Action Switch
Diaphragm Sensing Element Switch
Piston Sensing Element Switch
 Combines a durable piston sensing element
with a reliable switch mechanism.
 The switch is capable of extremely high
pressure ratings.
2. Flow Measurements
 2- Flow Measurement
 We will consider only a so-called ideal fluid, that is, a
liquid that is incompressible and has no internal friction or
viscosity.
 The techniques used to measure flow fall into four general
classes:
 Differential pressure technique
 Velocity technique
 Volumetric technique
 Mass technique
Flow Profile Types
Differential-Pressure Flowmeters
 We use the relationship between the pressure drop and
the rate of flow
Q = K √ ΔP
where
Q = the volumetric flow rate
K = a constant for the pipe and liquid type
ΔP = the differential pressure drop across the restriction
to measure the flow.
 The constant depends on numerous factors, including
the type of liquid, the size of the process pipe, and the
temperature of the liquid, among others.
Flow Detectors
 To measure the rate of flow by the differential pressure
method, some form of restriction is placed in the pipeline
to create a pressure drop.
 Since flow in the pipe must pass through a reduced area,
the pressure before the restriction is higher than after or
downstream.
 So by measuring the differential pressure across a
restriction, one can measure the rate of flow.
 Using DP transmitter in a square mode of operation can
detect the flow.
Orifice Plate
 An orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate with a hole
bored in the center.
 Usually clamped between a pair of flanges.
 suitable for liquid, gas, and steam
Orifice Plate
 The concentric orifice plate is the most widely used type.
 Eccentric and segmental orifices are preferable to concentric
orifices for measuring dirty liquids as well as gas or vapor
where liquids may be present, especially large slugs of liquid.
 Where the stream contains particulate matter, the segmental
orifice may be preferable because it provides an open path at
the bottom of the pipe.
Orifice Plate
DP Flow Transmitter Installation
Flow Transmitter Installation
Flow Transmitter Installation
Venturi Tubes

 Used for applications where high permanent pressure

loss is not tolerable (no permanent pressure drop
occurs).
 Used to measure dirty fluids.
 It is more bulky and more expensive than Orifice.
Venturi Tubes
Flow Nozzle
 Flow nozzle has properties
between an orifice plate and
a venturi tube (lower
permanent pressure loss
than an orifice plate & less
expensive than the venturi
tubes)
 Widely used for flow
measurements at high velocities.
 More rugged and more resistant to erosion than the
sharp-edged orifice plate
Flow Nozzle
Elbow Taps
 Centrifugal force generated by a
fluid flowing through an elbow can
be used to measure fluid flow.
 As fluid goes around an elbow, a
high-pressure area appears on the
outer face of the elbow.
 One use of elbow taps is the
measurement of steam flow from
the boilers, where the large volume
of saturated steam at high pressure and temperature could cause an
erosion problem for other primary devices.
 The elbows are often already in the regular piping configuration so
no additional pressure loss is introduced.
 Pitot Tubes
 Pitot tubes actually consist of two tubes. One, the low pressure tube
measures the static pressure in the pipe, the second is the high
pressure tube is inserted in the pipe in such a way that the flowing
fluid is stopped in the tube.
 The pressure in the high-pressure
tube will be the static pressure in
the system plus a pressure
dependant on the force required
stopping the flow.
 Pitot tubes have two problems
 The pressure differential is

usually small and hard to measure.

 The differing flow velocities across the pipe make the accuracy
dependent on the flow profile of the fluid and the position of
the pitot in the pipe.
Pitot Tubes
Annubars
 An annubar is very similar to a pitot tube, the difference
is that there is more than one hole into the pressure
measuring chambers.
 The pressure in the
high-pressure chamber
represents an average
of the velocity across the
pipe.
Annubars
Annubars
Velocity-Type Flowmeters
 Volumetric flow is defined as the volume of fluid that
passes a given point in a pipe per unit of time.
Q = AV
where
 Q = the volumetric flow

 A = the cross-sectional area of the flow carrier (e.g.,

pipe)
 v = the fluid’s velocity

 By measuring the fluid velocity and knowing the pipe

cross-sectional area, we can determine the flow.
The Turbine Flowmeter
 The fluid passing the rotor causes it to turn with an angular
velocity that is proportional to the fluid linear velocity.
 The pickup probe converts the rotor velocity into an equivalent
frequency signal.
 The output signal from a turbine flowmeter is a frequency that is
proportional to volumetric flow rate.
 Each pulse generated by the turbine flowmeter is therefore
equivalent to a measured volume of liquid.
 The flow rate can be indicated digitally or in analog form.
 Flow rates are converted into flow totals by totalizer-type
instruments.
The Turbine Flowmeter
The Turbine Flowmeter
Vortex Shedding Device

 As fluid flows past a bluff body, the fluid separates from each
side of the shedder and swirls to form vortices downstream of the
shedder.
 Flow sensors that detect the frequency of vortices shed by a bluff
body placed in a flow stream.
 The frequency of the vortices is proportional to the flow velocity.
Vortex Shedding Device
Vortex Shedding Device
Magnetic Flowmeters
 Magnetic flowmeters use Faraday's law of induction to
measure flow.
 Relative motion at right angles between a conductor and a
magnetic field will develop a voltage in the conductor, and
the induced voltage is proportional to the relative velocity of
the conductor and the magnetic field.
 The fluid has some minimum conductivity and acts as a
series of fluid conductors that cut the magnetic field,
generate an induced voltage can be detected by the meter
electrodes.
Magnetic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
 Ultrasonic flowmeters are ideal for wastewater applications or
any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based.
 There are two main types of ultrasonic flowmeters: Transit time
and Doppler.
 Transit Time Ultrasonic Meters have both a sender and a
receiver.
 They send two ultrasonic signals across a pipe: one traveling
with the flow and one traveling against the flow.
 The ultrasonic signal traveling with the flow travels faster than a
signal traveling against the flow.
 The ultrasonic flowmeter measures the transit time of both
signals. The difference between these two times is proportional
to flow rate.
 Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters usually monitor clean liquids.
Transit Time Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Transit Time Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters
 This metering technique utilizes the physical
phenomenon of a sound wave that changes frequency
when it is reflected by moving discontinuities in a flowing
liquid.
 They compute flow rate based on a frequency shift that
occurs when their ultrasonic signals reflect off particles in
the flow stream.
 Using the frequency change between transmitted and
received sound waves to calculate the velocity of a flow.
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Positive-Displacement Flowmeters

 A type of Volumetric type flowmeter

 Positive-Displacement (PD) operates by isolating
and counting known volumes of a fluid (gas or
liquid) while feeding it through the meter.
 By counting the number of passed isolated
volumes, a flow measurement is obtained.
Rotating Vane Meters

 Rotating vane meters have spring-loaded

vanes that entrap increments of liquid between
the eccentrically mounted rotor and the casing.
 The rotation of the vanes moves the flow
increment from inlet to outlet and discharge.
 used in the petroleum industry and are capable
of metering solids-laden crude oils.
Rotating Vane Meters
Oval-Gear PD Flowmeters
 Oval-gear PD flowmeters are generally used on very viscous
liquid, which is difficult to measure using other flowmeters.
Nutating-Disk PD Flowmeters
 As liquid flows through the metering chamber, it causes
a disc to nutate, turning a spindle, which rotates a
magnet.
 This magnet is coupled to a mechanical register or a
pulse transmitter.
 The rate of flow is proportional to the rotational velocity
of the spindle.
 Designed for water service and the materials of which
they are made must be checked for compatibility with
other fluids.
Nutating-Disk PD Flowmeters
 Variable Area Flowmeters
 The flowmeter operates in accordance with the float measuring
principle.
 A metal cone or a ring orifice is installed in the measuring unit in
which a suitably shaped float can move freely up and down.
 The flowmeter is inserted into a vertical pipeline and the medium
flows through it from bottom to top.
 The guided float adjusts itself so that the buoyancy force (A) acting
on it, the form drag (W) and weight (G) are in equilibrium
(G = A + W).
 An annular gap which depends on the flow rate results.
 The height of the float in the measuring unit, which depends on the
flow, is transmitted by a magnetic coupling and displayed on a
scale.
 Strong deflecting magnetic fields can lead to deviations in the
measured value.
Variable Area Flowmeters
 Rotameter
 The rotameter is a type of variable-area flowmeter
 Consists of a tapered metering tube and a float, which is free to
move up and down within the tube.
 In order to pass through the tapered tube, the fluid flow raises the
float, the greater the flow, the higher the float is lifted.
 In liquid service, the float rises due to a combination of the buoyancy
of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid.
 With gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds mostly to
the velocity head.
 The metering tube is mounted vertically, with the small end at the
bottom.
 The fluid to be measured enters at the bottom of the tube, passes
upward around the float, and exits the top.
Rotameter
 When no flow exists, the float rests at the bottom. When fluid
enters, the metering float begins to rise.
 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
 Coriolis mass flowmeters measure the force resulting from the
acceleration caused by fluid moving toward (or away from) a loop of
flexible hose that is "swung" back and forth in front of the body with
both hands, & opposite forces are generated and cause the hose to
twist.
 In a Coriolis mass flowmeter, the "swinging" is generated by
vibrating the tube(s) in which the fluid flows.
 The amount of twist is proportional to the mass flow rate of fluid
passing through the tube(s).
 General applications are found in the water, wastewater, petroleum,
chemical, and petrochemical industries.
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters

Flow Flow
Force

Flow
Flow Force
Fluid Force is Reacting to Vibration
Vibrating Flow Tube of Flow Tube

Twist Angle

Twist Angle
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
Thermal Mass Flowmeter
 Thermal measurement method employs two Resistance
Temperature Detectors (RTDs) to measure flow. One RTD
measures the fluid temperature, and the other RTD
measures the temperature of a constant low-power heater
which is cooled by the flowing fluid.
 The temperature differential between the heated and
unheated RTDs provides the primary flow signal.
 At higher flow rates, the cooling effect on the heated RTD
is greater, so the temperature differential decreases.
 This differential signal is a logarithmic function of the flow
rate.
THERMAL FLOW MEASUREMENT
THERMAL FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow Measurement Errors
 Over ranging Damage to the D/P Cell
 Faulty Sensing Lines
 Loss of Loop Electrical Power
 Erosion Particulate, suspended solids or debris in the
piping will erode the sensing device.
 The orifice, by its design with a thin, sharp edge is most
affected.
 Vapour Formation in the Throat A small amount of gas
pockets or vapour at the HP side in liquid flow measuring,
makes the flow sensor indicate a lower flow rate than
there actually is.
Flow Switch
 A Flow switch is normally a simple device that monitors flow and
sends a trip signal to another device such as a pump to protect it.
 Some flow switch applications are
 Pump Protection.
 Cooling circuit protection.
 High and low flow rate alarm and general flow monitoring.
 Flow switch types are used on air, steam and liquid.
 Flow switch types are
 PADDLE flow switches
 VANE actuated flow switches
 PISTON flow switches
 ULTRASONIC flow switches
 THERMAL flow switches
Paddle Type Flow Switch
 The flow of liquid through the valve body applies a force
to a flow disc (paddle).
 This in turn raises the magnetic sleeve, within its sealed
non-magnetic enclosing tube into the field of the switch
magnet, located outside the enclosing tube, actuating
the attached switch mechanism.
 The status of the switch may then be used to electrically
control the fluid flow.
 The movable switch allows the contacts to be set either
normally open (N/O) or normally closed (N/C).
Paddle Type Flow Switch
Paddle Type Flow Switch
Vane Actuated Flow Switch
 The actuating vane is magnetically linked to a pivoted
electric switch, which is isolated from the process by a
non-magnetic barrier tube.
 As the actuating vane moves with an increase in flow, it
drives a magnetic sleeve into the field of a permanent
magnet located
outside the barrier tube which trips the switch.
 As flow decreases, the actuating vane returns to a
vertical position, allowing the magnet and switch
assembly to return to the “No Flow” position.
Vane Actuated Flow Switch
Vane Actuated Flow Switch
3. Level Measurements
 3-Level Measurement
 Very simple systems employ external sight glasses or tubes to view
the height of the fluid.
 Others utilize floats connected to variable potentiometers or
rheostats that will change the resistance according to the amount of
motion of the float.
 This signal is then inputted to transmitters that send a signal to an
instrument calibrated to read out the height or volume.
 So, we have
 Sight-type Instruments
 Pressure-type Instruments
 Electrical-type Instruments
 Sonic-type Instruments
 Radiation-type Instruments
 Sight-type Instruments
 Glass Gauges The gauges are made of glass, plastic, or a
combination of the two materials must be able to withstand the
pressure in the vessel.
Sight-type Instruments
Sight-type Instruments
 The pressure that the liquid exerts in the tank forces the liquid
in the sight glass to rise to the same level as the liquid in the
tank.
 For the pressurized tank, the upper end of the tube is
connected to the tank.
 This creates an equilibrium pressure in both ends of the tube,
and the liquid in the tube rises to the same level as the liquid
in the vessel.
 Pressure at the base of a vessel containing liquid is directly
proportional to the height of the liquid in the vessel.
P=ρgH
 The level of liquid inside a tank can be determined from the
pressure reading if the density of the liquid is constant.
Sight-type Instruments
 There are two basic types of flat sight gauges: reflex and
transparent.
 The reflex-type gauge produces a dark area where liquid is
present and a light area where vapor is present.
 The reflex type gauge is normally chosen for liquids that
are colorless, clear, and nonviscous.
 The transparent gauge is generally used when the liquid is
colored, viscous, and corrosive.
 Sight glass gauges are installed with manual shutoff valves
at both ends so maintenance can be performed.
Sight-type Instruments
Magnetic Level Gauges
 An external float chamber
connected to the tank.
 The float has a magnetic
property that makes the
indicator goes up and down
on a scale according to the
level in the tank.
Tape Float
 A tape is connected to a float on one end and to a counterweight
on the other to keep the tape under constant tension.
 The float motion makes the counterweight ride up and down a
direct-reading gauge board.
 Displacers
 Displacer level gauges operate on Archimedes’ principle.
 A body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
 By measuring the buoyancy force produced by a displacer, you
can determine a level value.
 Displacer may used as a level transmitter for single liquid (LT), or
differential level transmitter for interface applications (LDT).
 For empty tank (or filled with a light liquid), there is no (or
minimum) buoyancy force  Maximum weight of the displacer.
 For filled tank ( or filled with heavy liquid), maximum buoyancy
force generated on the displacer  Minimum weight of the
displacer.
 The displacer may be top mounted inside the tank or chambered
unit.
Displacers
Displacers Installation
Displacers (LT)
Displacers (LDT)
Pressure-type Instruments
 The pressure at the base of a vessel containing liquid is
directly proportional to the height of the liquid in the
vessel.
 As the level in the vessel rises, the pressure exerted by
the liquid at the base of the vessel will increase linearly.
 Differential Pressure (DP) capsules are the most
commonly used devices to measure the pressure at the
base of a tank.
 When a DP transmitter is used for the purpose of
measuring a level, it will be called a level transmitter.
DP Level Transmitter
 When using pressure or differential Pressure
transmitters to measure tank liquid level, determining
the liquid density is important to accurately calculate the
level for a given liquid head pressure.
 Tanks may be open (vented), or they may be closed
(pressurized).
 With closed tanks that may have a pressure above the
liquid that is different from atmospheric pressure, a dry
leg or wet leg system may be used to port the top-of-
tank pressure to the opposite side of a differential
pressure transmitter that is connected to the tank to
measure level.
DP Level Transmitter
 If it is a dry leg, then density of vapor or noncondensing
gas in dry leg is calculated and used to correct level
measurement for vapor density changes.
 If it is a wet leg, density of liquid in wet leg is calculated
and used to correct the liquid level measurement.
 Transmitter can be mounted at minimum level, or below
minimum level.
 If transmitter is mounted below minimum level, the leg to
transmitter from the lower tank connection is assumed to
have liquid in it, and its density calculated to correct the
liquid level measurement.
Open Tank (Vented) or Closed Tank With Dry Leg
 Assume dP cell below bottom tap
we make zero suppression
calculation.
 The span points for the dP cell
are calculated as follows
DP0% = d ρ g
DP100% = (Lmax+d) ρ g
 The DP transmitter must be
calibrated from DP0% to DP100%
 Any condensation in the leg will
create an error in the level
measurement.
 We can prevent condensation in most cases by doing steam
tracing of the reference leg.
Closed Tank With Wet Leg
 Assume the leg filled with liquid that ( ρw > ρ ) to prevent the
serviced liquid goes to the transmitter cell.
 Assume dP cell below bottom tap
we make zero elevation calculation.
 The span points for the dP
cell are calculated as follows
DP0% = d ρ g – h ρw g
DP100% = (Lmax+ d) ρ g – (hρwg)
 Any change in the height or
density of the wet leg fluid
influences the accuracy of the
level measurement.
 Bubbler Level Measurement System
 Used If the process liquid contains suspended solids or is chemically
corrosive or radioactive.
 It is desirable to prevent it from coming into direct contact with the
level transmitter.
 A bubbler tube is immersed to the bottom of the vessel in which the
liquid level is to be measured.
 A gas (called purge gas) is allowed to pass through the bubbler
tube.
 Consider that the tank is empty, so, the gas will escape freely at the
end of the tube and therefore the gas pressure inside the bubbler
tube (called back pressure) will be at atmospheric pressure.
 As the liquid level inside the tank increases, pressure exerted by the
liquid at the base of the tank (and at the opening of the bubbler tube)
increases.
 Bubbler Level Measurement System
 As a result, the gas pressure in the bubbler tube will continue to
increase until it just balances the pressure of the liquid & any
excess supply pressure will escape as bubbles through the liquid.
 A level transmitter (DP cell) used to monitor this backpressure.
 The bubbler tube is connected to the high-pressure side of the
transmitter, while the low pressure side is vented to atmosphere.
 The output of the transmitter will be proportional to the tank level.
 Note that bubbling action has to be continuous or the measurement
signal will not be accurate.
 The purge supply pressure should be at least 10 psi higher than the
highest hydrostatic pressure the process will encounter.
 You should keep the purge rate small so no significant pressure
drop occurs in the dip tube.
 The purge medium is air or nitrogen, although you can use liquids.
Bubbler Level Measurement System
Diaphragm Level Detectors

 Diaphragm detectors operate by the simple principle of

detecting the pressure that the process material exerts
against the diaphragm.
 The diaphragm box instrument consists of an air-filled
diaphragm that is connected to a pressure detector via
air tubing.
 As the level rises above the diaphragm, the liquid head
pressure compresses the captive air inside.
 A differential pressure element senses the air pressure,
which is displayed as level.
Diaphragm Level Detectors
Servo Tank Gauge
 Its level measuring principle is based on the detection of
variations in the weight of a displacer suspended in the
process fluid.
 The displacer on level is partly immersed in the liquid.
 The apparent weight is the weight of the displacer minus
the weight of the displaced product.
 The hart of the servo gauge is an accurate force
transducer that continuously measures the apparent
weight of the displacer.
 A weight corresponding with the apparent weight of the
displacer on level is programmed by software settings.
 In equilibrium condition, the weight of the partly immersed
displacer balances against the weight programmed to be
measured by the force transducer.
Servo Tank Gauge
Servo Tank Gauge
 When emptying the tank, the liquid level starts moving
downwards.
 The force transducer will experience an increasing
weight, as upward force is no longer acting on the
displacer.
 Smart communication between the force transducer and
the servo controller will ensure that the displacer is
lowered.
 The servo motor drives the measuring drum to unwind
measuring wire until the displacer is partly immersed in
liquid again until the measured or apparent weight
equals the programmed weight.
 The smart processing unit then can detect the level of
the liquid inside the tank corresponding to the drum
apparent weight.
Servo Tank Gauge
Electrical-type Instruments
 Capacitance Probes one side of the process tank acts as one
plate and an immersion electrode is used as the other.
 The dielectric is either air or the material in the vessel & the
dielectric varies with the level in the vessel.
 With the tank empty, the insulating medium between the two
conductors is air.
 With the tank full, the insulating material is the process liquid or
solid.
 As the level rises in the tank to start covering the probe, some of
the insulating effect from air changes into that from the process
material, producing a change in capacitance between the sensing
probe and ground.
 This capacitance is measured to provide a direct and linear
measurement of tank level.
 Noting that this type of instrument used only with NON-conducting
service to act as a dielectric between capacitance plat.
Capacitance Probes
Resistance Tapes
 In these devices, resistive material is spirally wound around a steel
tape & mounted vertically from top to bottom on a process tank.
 The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the resistive tape to be
short-circuited, thus changing the total resistance of the measuring
tape.
 This resistance is measured by an electronic circuit and is directly
related to the liquid level in the tank.
Ultrasonic Type Instruments
 These system consist of a transmitter mounted on top of
the tank and receiver as well as associated electronics
equipment.
 The transmitter antenna radiates the signal toward the
surface of the process liquid in the tank.
 A portion is reflected back to the antenna, where it is
collected and routed to the receiver.
 The strength of the reflected signal is directly related to the
dielectric constant of the liquid.
 The instrument measures the time that elapses between
the transmitted burst and the echo signal which is
proportional to distance between the transducers and the
surface of the liquid inside the tank.
Ultrasonic Type Instruments
 Ultrasonic Type Instruments
 Ultrasonic level measurement works on a "time of flight" principle.
 Ultrasonic Level Measurement Instruments use sound waves to
determine level.
 A piezoelectric crystal inside the transducer mounted on top of the
tank converts electrical pulses into sound energy that travels in the
form of a wave at the established frequency and at a constant speed
in a given medium.
 The sound waves are emitted in bursts and received back at the
transducer as echoes.
 The Ultrasonic Level Measurement Instrument measures the time for
the bursts to travel down to the reflecting surface and return.
 This time will be proportional to the distance from the transducer to
the surface and can be used to determine the level in the tank.
 Sound waves are a form of mechanical energy that uses the
molecules in the atmosphere to propagate, so, any changes in the
chemical makeup of the atmosphere cause the speed of sound to
vary.
Ultrasonic Type Instruments
 Affected by powders, heavy vapors, surface turbulence
and foam.
 Cannot operate in vacuum or high pressure.
 Limited temperature range
 More position sensitive than other technologies
Ultrasonic Type Instruments
 Radar And Microwaves Instrument
 Radar and Microwaves instruments are similar to the Sonic-type, but
have advantage that they don’t affected by the molecules in the
atmosphere to propagate unlike the sonic-type.
 Both radar signals and microwaves travel at the speed of light, but are
distinguished by their frequencies and by their power levels.
 The transmitter is a microwave oscillator and directional antenna (a
parabolic dish, horn-type antenna or rod antenna).
 The receiver consists of an antenna, a high gain, a pulse-decoding
circuit, and an output circuit.
 Microwave signals are absorbed almost entirely by water and to
varying degrees by water-based liquids or by products that have a
high moisture content.
 Microwave signals cannot penetrate metals but are reflected by them,
so metal storage tanks or hoppers must have a detector window that
is transparent to the microwave signals.
Radar And Microwaves Instrument
Radar And Microwaves Instrument
Radar And Microwaves Instrument
 There are two types of radar level instruments: noncontact and
guided wave.
 In the noncontact type the output electromagnetic energy of the
radar antenna is very weak, typically about 1 mW.
 On the return to the instrument, this weak signal loses more
energy.
 Liquid turbulence and some foams can further complicate the
measurement by scattering or absorbing the radar pulse.
 The guided-wave radar unit can overcome these problems by
using pulses of electromagnetic energy that are transmitted down
the probe tube.
 The wave guided offers a highly efficient path for the signal to
travel down to reach the surface of the liquid and then bounce
back to the receiver.
Radar And Microwaves Instrument
Nuclear Level Measurement
 Nuclear radiation systems have the ability to “see” through tank walls,
and thus they can be mounted on the outside of process equipment.
 Suitable for liquid or solid material detection.
 Composed of a radioactive source material and a radiation detector,
the two are mounted across the diameter of a storage vessel for
either solid or liquid material.
 The product to be measured is attenuating the radiation coming from
the radioactive source and according to the height of the product in
the vessel, more or less of the original radiation is reaching the
detector.
 This measuring signal is then transferred to an output signal which
directly correlates to the actual Level of the product.
 Two typical nuclear level instruments:
 Using a single low-level gamma-ray source on one side of the
process vessel and a radiation detector on the other side of the
tank.
 Using several gamma sources at different heights on the tank.
Nuclear Level Measurement
Level Measurement Errors
 Over ranging Damage to the D/P Cell
 Faulty Sensing Lines
 Loss of Loop Electrical Power
 Connections: with an incorrectly connected DP cell the
indicated level would go down while the true tank level
increases.
 Extra weighted displacer: The sludge formed on the
displacer makes faulty indication of the level.
 Blocked bubbler tube: gives higher level reading than
the present one.
Level Switches
 A level switch is a device that senses the level of a liquid
in a process tank.
 They are also used to control valves or pumps in order to
maintain fluid level at a set value or to prevent tanks from
being overfilled.
 Level switch can be
 Float type switch.

 Ultrasonic type switch.

 Rotating Paddle type switch.

 Displacer type switch.

 Capacitance type switch.

Float Type Switch
 The buoyant force is the operating principle of float level switch.
 Floats should always be lighter than the minimum expected
specific gravity of the process fluid.
 As the level rises and falls, the float tilts up and down, thus opening
and closing its electric contact.
 The free length of the cable determines the actuation level.
 In most cases, magnetic coupling transfers the float motion to the
electric contact or indicator mechanism.
 The switch itself can be mercury or snap-action type switch.
 The float, which contains an annular magnet, rises or falls with
liquid level and is guided by the tube.
 The switch assembly can be either inserted directly into the tank or
side-mounted in a separate chamber.
 The side-mounted switches are completely sealed and well suited
for heavy duty industrial applications
Float Type Switch
 Top mounted switch (directly in the tank)
Float Type Switch
 Side-mounted
Displacer Type Switch

 A displacer remains partially or completely submerged.

 The apparent weight of the displacer is reduced as it
becomes covered by more liquid.
 When the weight drops below the spring tension, the
switch is actuated.
 Displacer switches are more reliable than regular floats
on turbulent, frothy, or foamy applications.
Displacer Type Switch
Ultrasonic Level Switches
 Echo transmitter-type level switches contain transmitter and receiver
units.
 The transmitter generates pulses in the ultrasonic range, which the
receiver detects.
 The transmitter and receiver can be located in the same probe or on
opposite sides of the tank
 Sound waves are easily transmitted across a transducer gap in the
presence of a liquid medium, but are severely attenuated when the
gap is dry.
 The level switch will be actuated when the sound beam is
interrupted .
 This type of switch is effective for both solid and liquid material
applications.
 Noting that the probes of Ultrasonic switch installation has two
types.
 Contact type probe: which the probe itself is inserted inside the
tank and surrounded by the media.
 Non-Contact type probe: the probe is installed externally of the
tank.
Ultrasonic Level Switches
Ultrasonic Level Switches
Ultrasonic Level Switches
Nuclear Level Switch

 The radioactive source and the radiation detector are

mounted across the diameter of a storage vessel for
either solid or liquid material.
 Any height of material beyond the level of the
source/detector arrangement will attenuate the strength
of radiation reaching the detector.
 This decrease in radiation at the detector can
provide a switch contact for measurement, alarm point,
or even control of the vessel level.
Nuclear Level Switch
Rotating Paddle Type Switch
 Used to detect the presence or absence of solids in a
process tank.
 A Synchronous motor keeps the paddle in motion at very
low speed when no solids are present, there is very low
torque on the motor
drive.
 When the level in the tank rises to the paddle, torque is
applied to the motor drive and the paddle stops.
 The level instrument detects the torque and actuates a
switch or set of switches.
Rotating Paddle Type Switch
Capacitance Type Switches
 As media rises and falls in the tank, the
amount of capacitance developed between
the sensing probe and the ground also rises
and falls.
 This change in capacitance is sensed by the
electronic circuitry.
 At the predefined set point, the electronic
circuit gives the alarm or trip signal.
Capacitance Type Switches
Thermal level switch
 The sensor head employs two temperature sensors with
a constant heating source physically attached to one of
the temperature sensors.
 The second temperature sensor is isolated from the
heating source and provides compensation for changing
process temperatures.
 The probe operates by sensing the thermal conductivity
of the product surrounding the probe.
 All liquids that form an interface will have a difference in
thermal conductivity that can be sensed.
Thermal level switch
4. Temperature Measurements
Temperature Scales
 The hotness or coldness of any material depends upon the molecular
activity of the material.
 Kinetic energy is a measure of the activity of the atoms which make up
the molecules of any material.
 As Kinetic energy of the material increases, the Temperature of the
material increases.
 Therefore, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the
material.
 It has been experimentally determined that the lowest possible
temperature is -273.15°C.
 Thermodynamic temperature is indicated by the symbol T and has the
unit known as the Kelvin, symbol K.
 The Kelvin temperature scale was chosen so that its zero is at
-273.15°C
 Relation between °C, °F, K
T = T(°C) + 273.15
T(°F) = (9/5) T(°C) + 32°
Thermometer
 One of the old-age thermometer is the mercury-in-glass thermometer.
 Its operation was based on the temperature expansion of fluids.
 A glass bulb filled with mercury is connected to a narrow evacuated
glass capillary tube.
 As the mercury is warmed, it expands and rises up the capillary tube
into a vacuum.
 A mercury-in-glass thermometer is effective in the range -39°C to
~250°C.
 If a thermometer is required
for lower temperatures, the
alcohol-in-glass thermometer
can utilize the same principle
in the range -117°C to 78°C.
Thermometer
 The thermometers include
 Filled-System Thermometers

 Bimetallic Thermometers

 Thermocouples

 Resistance Temperature Detectors

 Thermistors

 Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

 Radiation Pyrometers
Filled-System Thermometers

 Filled-system thermometers use the phenomenon of

thermal expansion of matter to measure temperature
change.
 The sensing element is a capillary tube filled with a liquid
or gas which expands with an increase in temperature.
 This sensing element delivers a motion of physical
change that is applied to the control element which
indicates the temperature of a process by means of a
pointer on a calibrated dial.
Filled-System Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometers
 These thermometers contain no liquid but do operate on
the principle of unequal expansion.
 Since different metals expand at different rates, we can
bond one metal to another and see that when heated, the
bonded metal will bend in one direction and when cooled
it will bend in the opposite direction.
 This bending motion is transmitted by a suitable
mechanical linkage to a pointer that moves across a
calibrated scale.
 Although not as accurate as liquid in glass thermometers,
Bimetallic are much more rugged, easy to read, and have
a wider span making them ideal for many industrial
applications.
Bimetallic Thermometers
Thermocouples (T/C)
 If two dissimilar metals are joined together to form a closed loop,
and if one junction is kept at a different temperature from the
other, an electromotive force is generated (called the Seebeck
emf in honor of its discoverer) and electric current will flow in the
closed loop.
 So, if the temperature of one junction is kept at a known value,
the temperature of the other junction can be determined by the
amount of voltage produced.
 Typically consists of 6 different types i.e. J, K, E, R, S and T
according to the metals materials.
 We have a comprehensive tables of voltage versus temperature
for many types of thermocouples.
Thermocouples (T/C)
Measuring Thermocouple Voltage
 You cannot measure the Seebeck voltage directly because
you must first connect a voltmeter to the thermocouple,
and the voltmeter leads create a new thermoelectric
circuit.
Measuring Thermocouple Voltage
 Using an isothermal block can make a junction
compensation.
 The isothermal block containing a thermistor to measure
the block temperature.
Thermocouples
 Advantages
 It’s used over a wide range of temperatures (to 1482 °C).

 A computer-based temperature-monitoring system can perform the

entire task of reference compensation and software voltage-to-

temperature conversion.
 Good vibration resistance.

 Suitable for long distance transmission

 Disadvantages of Thermocouples
 Accuracy declines with time.

 Non-linear operating curve.

 Cold junction compensation required.

 Thermocouples are not used in areas where high radiation fields are
present.
 Slower response time.
Thermocouples
Failure Modes
 An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that
there is no path for current flow, thus it will cause a low
(off-scale) temperature reading.
 A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also
cause a low temperature reading because it creates a
leakage current path to the ground and a smaller
measured voltage.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Every type of metal has a different resistance to the flow of electrical
current.
 For most metals the change in electrical resistance is directly
proportional to its change in temperature and is linear over a range of
temperatures, this constant factor called the temperature coefficient of
electrical resistance is the basis of resistance temperature detectors.
 The RTD can actually be regarded as a high precision wire wound
resistor whose resistance varies with temperature.
 By measuring the resistance of the metal, its temperature can be
determined.
 A typical RTD probe contains a coil of very fine metal wire, allowing
for a large resistance change without a great space requirement.
 Usually, platinum RTDs are used as process temperature monitors
because of their accuracy and linearity.
RTD
RTD
2-Wire RTD
 A temperature transmitter in the form of a Wheatstone bridge is
generally used to detect the small variations of resistance of the
RTD.
3-Wire RTD

 Since the connecting wires are long, resistance of the wires

changes as ambient temperature fluctuates.
 The variations in wire resistance would introduce an error in the
transmitter.
 To eliminate this problem, a three-wire RTD is used.
 The connecting wires (w1, w2, w3) are made the same length and
therefore the same resistance (Rw1, Rw2, Rw3).
 Since Rw1 = Rw2, the result is that the resistances of the wires
cancel and therefore the effect of the connecting wires is
eliminated.
3-Wire RTD
RTD
 Advantages
 The response time compared to thermocouples is very fast.

 Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity

than a thermocouple.
 In an installation where long leads are required, the RTD does
not require special extension cable.
 Sensors are interchangeable and do not require individual
calibration.
 Disadvantages
 More expensive than thermocouples

 RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range

as a thermocouple.
 A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings.

 All connections must be tight and free of corrosion, which will

create errors.
Failure Modes

 An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the

RTD and the bridge will cause a high temperature
reading.
 Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low
temperature reading.
Thermistor
 Thermistors are manufactured from beads of semiconductor
material.
 Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature-sensitive
resistor.
 The typical thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, this
means that with an increase in temperature, the resistance of the
thermistor decreases.
 The per degree resistance change in a thermistor is much greater
than with an RTD.
 It is also very non-linear and usually used over a very small
temperature span.
 They are quite susceptible to permanent decalibration when
exposed to high temperatures.
Thermistor
Thermistor
 Advantages
 Have high sensitivity.

 No moving parts.

 Long service life.

 Lightweight, compact.

 Disadvantages
 Very non-linear.
 Not interchangeable I.e. each sensor needs to be calibrated
individually.
 Quite fragile
Comparison of T/C, RTD, and Thermistor
High Temperature Light Bulb Thermometer
 A standard household light bulb has a thin filament made
of a high melting point metal (probably tungsten: melting
point > 3000 ° C).
 When the 240V main electricity passes through the
filament of the bulb it heats up and glows so brightly we
use it as a lamp.
 The electrical resistance of the filament varies with
temperature, in fact its resistance rises as the
temperature rises.
 This fact alone makes the current tends to regulate itself
when power is applied.
High Temperature Light Bulb Thermometer
IC Sensors
 Integrated circuit transistors produce an output proportional to the
absolute temperature.
 If two identical transistors are operated at a constant ratio of
collector circuit densities (r), then the difference in their base-
emitter voltages will be (kT/q) linear, since both k (Boltzmann's
constant) and q (the charge of an electron) are constant, the
resulting voltage is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
 Different types are configured to give an output in the form of
either a varying current (typically 1 μA/K) or varying voltage
(typically 10 mV/K).
 Current forms are normally used with a digital voltmeter that
detects the current output in terms of the voltage drop across a 10
k resistor.
 They only have a limited measurement range from -50°C to
+150°C.
Radiation Thermometers
 All objects emit electromagnetic radiation as a function of their
temperature above absolute zero.
 Radiation thermometers (also known as radiation pyrometers)
measure this radiation in order to calculate the temperature of
the object.
 Different versions of radiation thermometers are capable of
measuring temperatures between -100°C and +10000°C.
 The important advantage that radiation thermometers have over
other types of temperature-measuring instrument is that there is
no contact with the hot body while its temperature is being
measured.
 Various types of radiation pyrometers exist
 Optical pyrometers

 Radiation pyrometers
Optical Pyrometers
 The optical pyrometer is designed to measure temperatures where
the peak radiation emission is in the red part of the visible spectrum.
 The optical pyrometers are used mainly in the range 600-3000°C.
 The instrument contains a heated tungsten filament within its optical
system.
 The current in the filament is increased until its colour is the same as
the hot body, under these conditions the filament apparently
disappears when viewed against the background of the hot body.
 Temperature measurement is therefore obtained in terms of the
current flowing in the filament.
 Optical pyrometers widely used in industry for measuring
temperatures in furnaces and similar applications.
Optical Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometers
Total Radiation Pyrometers
 Have an optical system that is similar to that in the
optical pyrometer and focuses the energy emitted from
the measured body.
 However, they differ by omitting the filament and
eyepiece and having instead an energy detector in the
same focal plane as the eyepiece was.
 The radiation detector is either a thermal detector or a
photon detector.
 Photon detectors are much faster than the thermopile
type, this enables us to use the photon type for
measuring the temperature of small objects moving at
high speed.
Radiation Pyrometers
Other Used Types Of Thermometer
 Thermography (thermal imaging)
 Quartz thermometers
 Fibre-optic temperature sensors
 Acoustic thermometers
 Colour indicators
 Change of state of materials
 Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments
Temperature Switches
 Temperature switches operate from temperature changes
occurring in an enclosure, or in the air surrounding the
temperature-sensing element.
 The operation of the temperature switch is similar to the operation
of the pressure switch ,both switches are operated by changes in
pressure.
 The temperature element is arranged so a change in temperature
causes a change in the internal pressure of a sealed-gas, air-filled
bulb, or helix, which is connected to the actuating device by a
small tube or pipe.
 A temperature change causes a change in the volume of the
sealed-in gas, which causes movement of a bellows.
Temperature Switches
 The movement is transmitted by a plunger to the switch
arm.
 The moving contact is on the arm.
 A fixed contact may be arranged so the switch will open
or close on a temperature rise.
 This allows the switch contacts to be arranged to close
when the temperature drops to a predetermined value
and to open when the temperature rises to the desired
value.
 The reverse action can be obtained by a change in the
contact positions.
Temperature Switches
Bimetallic Temperature Switch
 Bimetallic thermal switches offer precise switching
temperatures and quick response times.
 Consists of a bimetallic strip and a contact.
 As the temperature rises, one of the metals will elongate
more than the other, forcing the strip to bend.
 When the strip bends away from the contact, the circuit
is opened.
 Cooling releases the tension in the strip, and the circuit
is closed.
Bimetallic Temperature Switch