Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology

Management & Gramothan Jaipur

Environmental Sciences SUBJECT CODE: NU99X

SEMESTER:I Non-Credit Course
Course Details for Group 1: Branch: CS, CE, ME, IOT

FACULTY- DR. CHANDAN KUMAR

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SKIT,JAIPUR
 Unit 2: Ecology & Ecosystem

a) Functional concepts of ecology

b) Ecosystem

c) Hydrological Cycles And Chemical Cycles

d) Energy Flow In Ecosystems

e) Biodiversity And Conservation

FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY
• The meaning of the word ecology
was given by German Biologist
Haeckel in 1869.

• The word ecology is derived from

Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning
house, habitat or place of living and
‘Logos’ meaning to study.

• After that…. Danish botanist,

Eugenius Warming elaborated the
idea of Ecology.
 FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY
Definition
Ecology is the study of
interactions among
organism or group of
organisms with their
environment.

The environment
consists of both biotic
components (living
organisms) and abiotic
components (non –
living organisms).
 ECOSYSTEM
The term Ecosystem was first
proposed by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

An ecosystem consists of the

biological community that occurs in
some locale, and the physical and
chemical factors that make up its
non-living environment.

There are many examples of

ecosystems - a pond, a desert, a
forest, an estuary, an ocean.
 ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of Ecology.
Definition:
“A group of organisms interacting among themselves
and with environment is known as ecosystem.”

• Non-living an ecosystem is a community of

different species interacting with one another and
with their non-living environment exchanging
energy and matter.

• Ecology is the study of ecosystems. Example

Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but
depend on the plants either directly or indirectly.
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The term structure refers to the various components of
an ecosystem. An ecosystem has two major
components
• Biotic (living) components
• Abiotic (non living) components

Biotic components:
The living organisms (or) living members in an
ecosystem collectively called biotic components (or)
biotic community.
Ex: Plants, Animals, Microorganisms
 ECOSYSTEM
Classification biotic components

The members of biotic components of an ecosystem

are grouped in to three based on how they get food.

• Producer (Plants) or Autotrophs

• Consumer (Animals) or Heterotrophs

• Decomposers (Micro-organisms)
 ECOSYSTEM
Producers (Autotrophs)
Producers synthesis their food themselves through
photosynthesis
Ex: All green plants, trees.

Photosynthesis
The green pigment called chlorophyll, present in the
leaves of plants, converts CO2 and H2O in the presence
of sunlight into carbohydrates.

6CO2 + 6H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2

This process is called photosynthesis
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
Consumers (Heterotrophs)
Classification of consumers
• Primary consumers or Herbivores or Plant eaters
• Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (Meat
eaters)
• Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat-
eaters)
•
Primary consumers or Herbivores or Plant eaters
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they
directly depend on the plants for their food. So they
are called plant eaters.
Examples : Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow etc.
 ECOSYSTEM
Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (Meat
eaters)
Secondary consumers are primary carnivores, they
feed on primary consumers. They directly depend on
the herbivores for their food.
Ex: Frog, cat, snakes, small birds, etc.,
Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat-
eaters)
Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores, they
feed on secondary consumers. They depend on the
primary carnivores for their food.
Ex: Hawk, Eagle, Tiger, Lion, etc.,
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
Omnivore
• Organisms that feed both on plants and animals.

• Ex: Human, rat, birds.

Detritivore
• They feed on dead organisms, wastes of living
beings and partially decomposed matter.

• Ex: Termites, earthworm, ants etc.

 ECOSYSTEM
Decomposers
• Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers
and consumers, and decompose them into simpler
compounds.

• During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are

released.

• The inorganic nutrients together with other organic

substances are then utilized by the producers for the
synthesis of their own food.

Ex. Microorganisms like bacteria

ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
Abiotic (non-living) components
• The non-living components (physical and
chemical) of ecosystem collectively form a
community called abiotic components (or) abiotic
community.
• Ex: Climate, soil, water, air, energy etc.,

Physical components
• Include the energy, climate, nutrients and living
space that the biological community needs. They
are useful for the growth and maintenance of its
member.
• Ex: Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.,
 ECOSYSTEM
Chemical Components
They are the sources of essential nutrients

a) Organic substances :

• Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,

b) Inorganic substances:

• All micro (Al, Co, Zu, Cu) and macro elements

(C,H, O, P, N, P, K) and few other elements.
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Natural ecosystem
• These operate themselves under natural conditions.
Based on habitat types, it can be further classified
into three types.
Terrestrial ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land.
• Ex: Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert
ecosystem, etc.,
Aquatic ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to water. It is further sub
classified into two types based on salt content.
Fresh water ecosystem
 ECOSYSTEM
(a) Running water ecosystems.
• Ex: Rivers, Streams…
(b) Standing water ecosystems
Ex: Pond, lake
Marine ecosystem
• Ex: Seas and sea shores…

Man – made (or) Artificial ecosystems

• Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by
man himself.
• Ex: Croplands, gardens
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of energy
and cycling of nutrients. Functions of an ecosystem are
of three types.
Primary function
• The primary function of all ecosystem is manufacture
of starch (photosynthesis).
Secondary function
• The secondary function of all ecosystem is
distribution energy in the form of food to all
consumers.
Tertiary Function
• All living systems diet at a particular stage. These
dead systems are decomposed to initiate third
function of ecosystems namely “cycling”.
 ECOSYSTEM
The functioning of an ecosystems may be understood by
studying the following terms.

• Energy and material flow.

• Food chains

• Food webs

• Food pyramids
 ECOSYSTEM
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
• Energy flow is the process by which energy moves
through an ecosystem, from its entry point (usually
sunlight) to various living organisms and eventually
back into the environment as heat.

Source of Energy
Sunlight
• The primary source of energy for most ecosystems is
solar energy.
• Plants, algae, and some bacteria capture sunlight
through the process of photosynthesis to convert it
into chemical energy.
 ECOSYSTEM
Chemical Energy
• In some ecosystems, like deep-sea hydrothermal vent
communities, energy comes from chemical reactions
instead of sunlight.

• This process, called chemosynthesis, is carried out by

certain bacteria.
 ECOSYSTEM
FOOD CHAINS
Definition
“There sequence of eating and being eaten in an
ecosystem is known as food chain” (or) “Transfer of
food energy from the plants through a series of
organisms is known as food chain”

• A food chain always starts with plant life and ends

with animal. When the organisms die, they are all
decomposed by microorganism (bacteria and fungi)
into nutrients that can again be used by the plants.

• At each and every level, nearly 80-90% of the

potential energy gets lost as heat.
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
Trophic Levels
Energy flow through an ecosystem is organized into
different trophic levels, which represent the position of an
organism in the food chain.

Primary Producers (1st Trophic Level)

• Autotrophs such as plants, algae, and certain
bacteria.
• These organisms capture sunlight and convert it into
chemical energy in the form of organic compounds
(e.g., glucose).

Primary Consumers (2nd Trophic Level)

• Herbivores that feed on primary producers.
• Examples: Deer, rabbits, and caterpillars.
 ECOSYSTEM
Secondary Consumers (3rd Trophic Level)
• Carnivores that feed on primary consumers.
• Examples: Frogs, snakes, and some birds.

Tertiary Consumers (4th Trophic Level)

• Carnivores that feed on secondary consumers, often
referred to as top predators.
• Examples: Lions, eagles, and sharks.

Decomposers
• Organisms that break down dead plants and animals,
returning nutrients to the ecosystem.
• Examples: Bacteria, fungi, and detritivores (e.g.,
earthworms).
 ECOSYSTEM
Energy Transfer and the 10% Rule
As energy moves from one trophic level to the next, a
significant portion is lost, primarily as heat due to
metabolic processes (e.g., respiration, movement). Only
about 10% of the energy at each trophic level is
transferred to the next level. This is known as the 10%
Rule.
Primary Producers
• Capture 100% of the available energy from sunlight.
Primary Consumers
• Receive about 10% of the energy from producers.
Secondary Consumers
• Obtain about 10% of the energy from primary
consumers.
 ECOSYSTEM
Tertiary Consumers:
• Receive only about 10% of the energy from secondary
consumers.
 ECOSYSTEM
Food Chains
“A simple, linear sequence that shows how energy moves
from one organism to another.”
Example
Grass → Grasshopper → frog → Snake → Eagle.
 ECOSYSTEM
FOOD WEB
• The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an
ecosystem is known as food web.

• In a food web many food chains are interconnected,

where different types of organisms are connected at
different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
opportunities of eating and being eaten at each tropic
level.

• Grass may be eaten by insects, rats, deer's, etc., these

may be eaten by carnivores (snake, fox, tiger). Thus
there is a interlocking of various food chains called
food webs
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
Difference between food chains and food web

• In a linear food chain if one species gets affected (or)

becomes extinct, then the species in the subsequent
tropic levels are also affected.

• But, in a food web, if one species gets affected, it does

not affect other tropic levels so seriously. There are
number of options available at each tropic level.
 ECOSYSTEM
Significance of food chains and food webs
• Food chains and food webs play a very important role
in the ecosystem. Energy flow and nutrient cycling
takes place through them.

• They maintain and regulate the population size of

different tropic levels, and thus help in maintaining
ecological balance.

• They have the property of bio-magnification. The non –

biodegradable materials keep on passing from one
tropic level to another. At each successive tropic level,
the concentration keep on increasing.

• This process is known as bio-magnification.

 ECOSYSTEM
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

“Graphical representation of structure and function of

tropic levels of an ecosystem, starting with producers at
the bottom and successive tropic levels forming the apex
is known as an ecological pyramid.”

• In food chain starting from the producers to the

consumers, there is a regular decrease in the biomass
and number of the organisms.

• Since energy is lost as heat in each tropic levels, it

becomes progressively smaller near the top.
 ECOSYSTEM

Types of Ecological pyramids

• Pyramid of numbers.

• Pyramid of energy.

• Pyramid of biomass.
 ECOSYSTEM

• It represents the number of individual organisms

present in each tropic levels.
• Ex: A grassland Ecosystem

• The producers in the grasslands are grasses, which are

in size and large in numbers. So the producers occupy
lower tropic level (1St tropic level).

• The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, the 2nd

tropic level. Since the number of rats are lower
Compared to the grasses, the size is small.
 ECOSYSTEM

• The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes,

which occupy the 3rd tropic level. Since the number of
snakes are lower when compared to the rats.

• The tertiary consumers (carnivores) are eagles, which

the next tropic level. The number and size of the last
level is till smaller.
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
Pyramid of Energy

“This pyramid indicates not only the amount of energy

flow at each level, but more importantly, the actual role
the various organisms play in the transfer of energy”

• An energy pyramid illustrates how much energy is

needed as it flows upwards to support the next trophic
level.

• Always there is a huge loss of energy.

 ECOSYSTEM
Pyramid of Biomass
“It represents the total amount of biomass (mass or weight
of biological material or organism) present in each tropic
levels.”
• Ex: A forest ecosystem

• The above figure shows that there is a decrease in the

biomass from the lower tropic level to the higher tropic
level.

• This because the trees (producers) are maximum in the

forest, which contribute a huge biomass.
 ECOSYSTEM

• The next tropic levels are herbivores (rabbit, deer) and

carnivores (snakes, fox).

• Top of the tropic level contains few tertiary consumers

(lion, tiger), the biomass of which is very low.
 ECOSYSTEM
Significance of Energy Flow
Limits Ecosystem Size
• The decrease in energy at higher trophic levels limits
the number of organisms and species that can be
supported in an ecosystem.

Controls Population Dynamics

• Energy availability influences population sizes at
different trophic levels, which can affect species
interactions and community structure.

Ecosystem Stability
• Energy flow helps maintain the stability and
functioning of ecosystems by supporting complex food
webs and nutrient cycling.
 ECOSYSTEM
Biogeochemical Cycles
“Biogeochemical cycles refer to the natural pathways
through which essential elements and compounds move
through the Earth's ecosystems, linking biological,
geological, and chemical processes”

• These cycles ensure the continuous supply of life-

supporting elements, like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
and water, that are critical for the survival of living
organisms.

• The main biogeochemical cycles include the water

cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle,
and sulfur cycle.
 ECOSYSTEM
Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)
“The water cycle describes the continuous movement of
water within the Earth and atmosphere, involving
processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
and runoff”
Evaporation
• Water from oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of
water is heated by the sun and transformed into water
vapor, rising into the atmosphere.
Transpiration
• Plants release water vapor into the atmosphere from
their leaves during photosynthesis.
Condensation
• As the water vapor rises and cools in the atmosphere, it
condenses to form clouds.
 ECOSYSTEM
Precipitation
• Water droplets in clouds become heavy and fall back to
Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

Runoff and Infiltration

• Water flows over the land's surface (runoff) or soaks
into the ground (infiltration), replenishing groundwater,
rivers, and lakes.

Water is crucial for regulating temperature, supporting

plant growth, and cycling nutrients.
 ECOSYSTEM
Carbon Cycle
“The carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon
between the atmosphere, oceans, land, and living
organisms. Carbon is a building block of life, and its cycle
plays a key role in climate regulation”
Photosynthesis
Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb carbon dioxide (CO₂)
from the atmosphere and use it, along with sunlight, to produce
glucose (organic matter).
Respiration
Both plants and animals release CO₂ back into the atmosphere as
a byproduct of cellular respiration.
Decomposition
When organisms die, decomposers (bacteria and fungi) break
down their organic matter, releasing carbon into the soil and
atmosphere.
 ECOSYSTEM
Combustion
• The burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and
biomass releases stored carbon as CO₂ into the
atmosphere.
Carbon Sequestration
• Carbon can be stored for long periods in oceans,
forests, and soils, as well as in fossil fuels.

Human activities, particularly burning fossil fuels and

deforestation, have significantly increased atmospheric
CO₂ levels, contributing to global warming and climate
change.
 ECOSYSTEM
Nitrogen Cycle
“The nitrogen cycle describes the movement of nitrogen
through the atmosphere, soil, water, and living organisms.
Nitrogen is essential for building proteins and DNA, but
atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) must be converted into usable
forms for most organisms”
Nitrogen Fixation
Certain bacteria (often in the roots of leguminous plants)
convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃),
which can be used by plants. Lightning also contributes to
nitrogen fixation.
Nitrification
Soil bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and
then into nitrates (NO₃⁻), which plants can absorb.
 ECOSYSTEM
Assimilation
• Plants absorb nitrates and use them to synthesize
proteins and other compounds. When animals eat
plants, they incorporate nitrogen into their own bodies
Ammonification
• When plants and animals die, decomposers convert
organic nitrogen back into ammonia.
Denitrification
• Certain bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas
(N₂), returning it to the atmosphere and completing the
cycle.
Human activities, such as the use of synthetic fertilizers
and the burning of fossil fuels, have disrupted the nitrogen
cycle, leading to soil acidification, water pollution, and the
formation of nitrogen-based greenhouse gases.
 ECOSYSTEM
Phosphorus Cycle
“The phosphorus cycle is unique because it does not
involve a gaseous phase; phosphorus is mainly cycled
through rocks, soil, water, and living organisms.
Phosphorus is essential for DNA, RNA, ATP (energy
transfer), and the formation of bones and teeth”
Weathering of Rocks
Phosphorus is released into the soil and water through the
weathering of rocks containing phosphate minerals.
Absorption by Plants
Plants absorb phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻) from the soil to build
molecules like DNA and ATP.
Consumption by Animals
Animals obtain phosphorus by eating plants or other
animals.
 ECOSYSTEM
Decomposition
When plants and animals die, decomposers break down
their organic material, returning phosphorus to the soil.

Sedimentation
Over time, phosphorus can be washed into rivers and
oceans, where it settles to the bottom and forms
sedimentary rock, thus locking the phosphorus away for
millions of years.

Excessive use of phosphorus-containing fertilizers can

lead to eutrophication of water bodies, causing algal
blooms and dead zones.
 ECOSYSTEM
Sulfur Cycle
The sulfur cycle describes the movement of sulfur through
the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Sulfur is important for proteins and vitamins.
Atmospheric Sulfur
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is released into the atmosphere
through volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil fuels, and
decay of organic matter.
Acid Rain
SO₂ in the atmosphere reacts with water to form sulfuric
acid (H₂SO₄), which falls to Earth as acid rain, affecting
soil and water pH.
Assimilation by Plants
Plants absorb sulfur, often in the form of sulfate ions
(SO₄²⁻), and incorporate it into amino acids and proteins.
 ECOSYSTEM
Decomposition
• When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the
soil, where bacteria convert it into its various forms.

Sedimentation
• In aquatic systems, sulfur can settle in sediments and
form deposits of sulfate minerals, which can be
eventually uplifted and re-exposed through geological
processes.

• Excessive sulfur emissions from human activities (e.g.,

burning fossil fuels) contribute to acid rain, which can
harm ecosystems by acidifying soil and water bodies.
 ECOSYSTEM
Human Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles
Human activities have altered biogeochemical cycles, leading
to environmental issues such as:
Carbon Cycle
• Increased atmospheric CO₂ due to fossil fuel combustion
and deforestation has led to climate change.
Nitrogen Cycle
• Excess nitrogen from fertilizers has caused nutrient
pollution in water bodies, leading to eutrophication and
dead zones.
Phosphorus Cycle
• Overuse of phosphorus in agriculture has led to similar
nutrient pollution and ecosystem imbalances.
Sulfur Cycle
• Emissions of sulfur compounds from industry have led to
acid rain and environmental degradation.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Bio means ‘Life’ and diversity means ‘Varity’.

“Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on

Earth, encompassing all living organisms, ecosystems, and the
ecological processes that connect them”

Classification of Biodiversity

• Genetic Diversity = Diversity within species.

• Species Diversity =Diversity Between species.

• Ecosystem Diversity =Diversity among ecosystems.

 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Genetic Diversity
• Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genes within a
species.

• It includes the differences in the DNA among individuals,

which results in variations in traits such as size, color,
disease resistance, and adaptability to changing
environments.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Importance
Adaptation and Evolution
• Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to environmental
changes over time, such as climate change, disease
outbreaks, or habitat alterations.
• It provides the raw material for evolution through natural
selection.
Agricultural and Livestock Productivity
• Genetic diversity in crops and livestock is essential for
breeding varieties that are more resilient to pests, diseases,
and environmental stresses.

Example
• The different breeds of dogs or the various types of apples
found worldwide (e.g., Granny Smith, Gala) are examples
of genetic diversity within a species.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Species Diversity
“Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a
particular region or ecosystem”
It encompasses two components
Species Richness
• The total number of different species in a given area.
Species Evenness
• The relative abundance of each species within an area.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Importance
Ecosystem Functioning
• When there are many different species in an ecosystem, it
works better and is more stable. Different species have
unique jobs, like helping plants grow, cleaning the air and
water, or recycling nutrients.
Resilience to Disturbances
• Ecosystems with lots of species can handle problems like
natural disasters or climate changes more easily. If one
species disappears, other species can take over its role, so
the ecosystem doesn’t fall apart.
Example
• A coral reef is an example of an ecosystem with high
species diversity, containing a wide variety of fish,
invertebrates, and plant species.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Ecosystem Diversity
“Having different types of ecosystems in an area or around the
world. These include various habitats, communities of living
things, and natural processes happening in each ecosystem.”
Importance
Habitat Variety
• Having different ecosystems provides homes for many
species. These include forests, oceans, wetlands,
grasslands, deserts, and more.

Ecological Processes
• Each ecosystem plays a part in important processes like the
water cycle, carbon cycle, and recycling of nutrients.
Having a variety of ecosystems helps keep these processes
going.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Example
The Amazon rainforest, Sahara Desert, and Great Barrier Reef
are examples of different ecosystems, each with its own unique
species and environment.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity gives us many important benefits, including
Ecosystem Services
Provisioning Services
• Products we get from nature, such as food, water, wood,
and medicine.
Regulating Services
• Natural processes like cleaning air and water, controlling
the climate, and helping with pollination.
Cultural Services
• Non-material benefits, like recreation, tourism, and the
beauty or spiritual value of nature.
Supporting Services
• Basic processes that support life, like recycling nutrients,
forming soil, and producing plant energy.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Resilience to Environmental Change
• Ecosystems with lots of species are better at recovering
from problems like climate change, pollution, or disasters.
• If one species disappears, other species can often take over
its role.
Scientific and Economic Value
• Biodiversity provides valuable resources, like new
medicines, food, and materials.
• It also offers opportunities for scientific discoveries and
new ideas.
Cultural and Ethical Importance
• Many cultures and indigenous people have strong
connections to the biodiversity around them.
• Also, there’s a belief that all living things have a right to
exist just because they are alive.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Threats to Biodiversity
Climate Change
• Rising temperatures and extreme weather force species to
adapt or move, which many can’t do.
Habitat Loss
• Building cities, farms, and roads destroys habitats, making
it hard for species to survive.
Pollution
• Chemicals, plastic, and waste harm ecosystems, especially
water environments, killing marine life.
Overexploitation
• Overfishing, hunting, and logging reduce species faster
than they can recover.
Invasive Species
• New species entering ecosystems outcompete native
species, disrupting the balance and causing extinctions.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Conservation Strategies
Protected Areas
• National parks and reserves protect important habitats and
endangered species.

Habitat Restoration
• Restoring damaged ecosystems by planting trees and fixing
wetlands.

Sustainable Resource Use:

• Managing resources like fish, forests, and farms responsibly
to prevent depletion.
Biodiversity Hotspots:
• Focus on areas with many unique species that are at high
risk, like the Amazon or Madagascar.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Species Protection
• Special efforts to save endangered species through breeding,
protection laws, and habitat conservation.

Community Involvement
• Helping local communities benefit from conservation
through eco-tourism and sustainable practices.

International Agreements
• Countries working together through global treaties to
protect biodiversity.

Climate Change Action

• Reducing carbon emissions and restoring forests to combat
climate change and protect ecosystems.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Challenges
Funding
• Many conservation projects lack enough money,
especially in developing countries.

Conflict with Human Needs

• As populations grow, people need more land, food, and
resources, which can clash with conservation goals.

Enforcement
• Even when laws exist to protect nature, they are not
always enforced, and illegal activities like poaching and
logging continue.
Climate Change
• Ongoing changes in the climate make it harder for species
and ecosystems to survive and adapt.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
What You Can Do

Live sustainably
• Save energy, recycle, and support eco-friendly products.

Support conservation
• Volunteer, donate, or raise awareness.

Advocacy and Education

• Advocate for policy change and educate others on
biodiversity.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity Hotspots
“Biodiversity Hotspots are regions that have a large number of
unique species but are under serious threat from human
activities.”
Criteria for Identifying a Biodiversity Hotspot
To be classified as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet
two main criteria:

High Endemism
It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as
endemics.

Threatened Ecosystem
It must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat due to
human activities.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
• Currently, 36 biodiversity hotspots have been identified across
the world.

• These areas collectively contain over 50% of the world’s plant

species and around 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species,
despite covering only 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface.

• There are around 2,500 bird species that are endemic,

meaning they are found nowhere else in the world.

• These species are concentrated in hotspots due to the unique

environments and high levels of species richness.

• There are approximately 25,000 plant species that are

considered endemic. This means these plant species are
unique to specific regions and cannot be found anywhere else
in the world.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity Hotspots in World
Amazon Rainforest (South America)
• The largest tropical rainforest, home to about 10% of all
species, including jaguars and sloths.
• Threatened by deforestation, logging, and agriculture.
Western Ghats (India)
• A mountain range with over 7,000 plant species and 500 bird
species.
• Faces habitat loss due to agriculture and urban development.

Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands:

• Home to unique species like lemurs and chameleons, with
around 90% of its wildlife being endemic.
• Threatened by deforestation and illegal wildlife trade.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Coral Triangle (Southeast Asia)
• Known as the "Amazon of the oceans," it has the highest
marine biodiversity.
• Coral reefs are at risk from climate change, overfishing, and
pollution.

Mediterranean Basin
• Contains various ecosystems and 22,500 plant species,
including 11,700 that are endemic.
• Heavily impacted by agriculture, urbanization, and tourism.

Caribbean Islands:
• Over 7,000 islands with unique species like the Jamaican
iguana.
• Threatened by deforestation, habitat loss, and climate change.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Sundaland (Southeast Asia)
• Includes parts of Indonesia and Malaysia, home to
orangutans and tigers.

• Faces major threats from deforestation for palm oil

plantations.
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Global Conservation Efforts
Protected Areas
• Over 15% of the world's land and 7% of its oceans are
protected through national parks and marine sanctuaries.
• Examples: Galápagos Islands (Ecuador) and Great Barrier
Reef (Australia).
International Agreements:
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• A treaty that aims to protect biodiversity and promote its
sustainable use.
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
• Regulates trade in endangered species to prevent their
exploitation.
Paris Agreement
• Focuses on climate change but also helps protect ecosystems
by limiting temperature rise.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Restoration Initiatives
• Countries are working on reforestation, wetland restoration,
and marine conservation to revive damaged ecosystems.
• The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030)
supports these global efforts.

Sustainable Practices
• Sustainable farming and fishing practices, like crop rotation
and organic farming, help meet human needs while protecting
biodiversity.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Major Biodiversity Hotspots in India
The Himalayas
• Region: Northern India (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh)
• Key Features: Diverse flora and fauna, including unique
species like the snow leopard and red panda.
The Indo-Burma Region
• Region: Northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura)
• Key Features: Rich in plant and animal diversity, including
over 3,000 flowering plant species.
The Western Ghats
• Region: Western coast of India (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu)
• Key Features: High endemism, home to over 7,000 plant
species and various mammals like the Nilgiri tahr.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Minor Biodiversity Hotspots in India
The Sundaland
• Region: Includes the Nicobar Islands and parts of the
Andaman Islands.
• Key Features: Unique species like the Nicobar pigeon and
diverse marine life.

The Eastern Himalayas

• Region: Sikkim and parts of West Bengal.
• Key Features: Endemic species like various orchids and the
red panda.

The Western Indian Desert (Thar Desert)

• Region: Primarily Rajasthan.
• Key Features: Adapted desert life, including the Great Indian
Bustard.
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Endangered Species in India (Short Overview)
Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)
• Status: Endangered
• Threats: Habitat loss, poaching.
Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica)
• Status: Endangered
• Threats: Habitat fragmentation, human encroachment.
Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
• Status: Vulnerable to endangered
• Threats: Poaching, habitat loss.
Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)
• Status: Vulnerable
• Threats: Climate change, habitat degradation.
Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)
• Status: Critically Endangered
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
• Status: Critically Endangered
• Threats: Habitat destruction, pollution.
Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica)
• Status: Critically Endangered
• Threats: Poaching, habitat loss.
Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)
• Status: Near Threatened
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting.
Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus)
• Status: Vulnerable
• Threats: Poaching, habitat loss.
Indian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes)
• Status: Near Threatened
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Conservation Efforts
Protected Areas
• National parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

Legal Protection
• Wildlife Protection Act (1972).

Conservation Programs
• Habitat restoration and anti-poaching measures.
Thanks