2.

1 ECOSYSTEMS
2.1.1INTRODUCTION:
ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) –
means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of.
Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of
relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist [Link] coined the term “eco system”.

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  The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.

2.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:
 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:
 Dynamic (Not static)
 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:
 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM

 Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

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  The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of
energy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.

2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types
based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

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 2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
2.1.5 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an
ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the
biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

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1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic

component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers)

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 Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how
they get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence
they are also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
[Link] (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend
directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant
eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

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  They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic
nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in
metabolic activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic
component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Chemical Factors

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 2.1.6 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.
2.6.1 Types of functions:
 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves
through photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This
is called secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the
decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following
terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of
organisms is called as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus,
a food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an environment, as
shown in the following figure.

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Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for
plants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of
the sunlight, chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals
and humans, cannot make their own food. They are always depending
upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals
and plants and release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are
re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to
decomposer food chain (or) detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain.
Example: Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain

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 Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion
b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial
food chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is
called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

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 2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter
(plants and animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food
chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic
matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this
food chain either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to
smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’
links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:
 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter
connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.

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 Figure: Food
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arerbow

Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food
chains are inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a
food web. The grazing food chains are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles
Elton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which
the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

KƉĞŶ ůĞĐƚŝǀĞ Ͳ/ EŽƚĞƐ z 43

 Apex

Tertiary Consumers (Omnivores)

Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy

Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores)

Primary Consumers
(Herbivores)

Producers

Base

Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

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 1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic
level to higher tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and
large in numbers. So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 st tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropiclevel.
Since the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size
of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III
tropic level. Since the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the
rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic
level. The number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in
figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and
carnivores are decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level.
Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from
lower tropic level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.

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 2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
 A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
 In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number.
So, these producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II
tropic level. Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher
when compared to the trees, the size of which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy
the third tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when
compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV
tropic level. Since the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the
fox and snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called
partially upright of number as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Lion,
Tiger

Snakes, Secondary Consumers

Foxes

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees

Producers

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Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers

Parasites, Lice & Bugs Secondary Consumers

Birds
Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological
material (or) organism) present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.

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  Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of
biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first
tropic level to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of
biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer
levels (as shown in figure)

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ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer
level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer
levels as shown in the following figure.

Big fish
Tertiary Consumers

Small fish Secondary Consumers

Insect
Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

KƉĞŶ ůĞĐƚŝǀĞ Ͳ/ EŽƚĞƐ z 50

 Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Insects Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in
the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of
the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and
every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of
energy is always upright as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Decrease in Energy

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500 K Cals Primary Consumers

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2.1.7 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

[Link] FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild
animals
Types:
1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
2. Littoral and swamps
3. Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc
Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals
Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria

[Link] AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh
water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic
ecosystems.

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 Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature –
organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often
exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing,
swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification,
especially during summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached
to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer
contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic
eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role.
Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face
extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen
deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of
running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

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 range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of
industrial pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of
dissolved oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more
oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of
plants and fishes that require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought –
deposited in plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface –

2,50,000 species – huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg,
oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate
biochemical cycles.
 Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal
actions – very rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are
highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high food productivity – however
to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

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 [Link] GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg.
Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry
seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in
photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 – global
warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and
very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow –
soil is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox,
etc. – A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the
year – known as permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

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 2.2 BIODIVERSITY
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio -life or living
organisms, diversity-variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our
planet, the total number of races, varieties and species. The sum of total of
various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers, consumers and
decomposers) in a system.
 Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic,
topographic and soil conditions and roughly comparable biological communities
(Eg. Grassland, forest). The biomes shelter an astounding variety of living
organisms (from driest desert to dripping rain forest, from highest mountain to
deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of size, shape,
colour and inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the biodiversity,
makes the world beautiful.
 There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by
research expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between
3-50 million different species may be alive today. Insects make up more than
one half of all known species and may comprise more than 90% of all species on
earth.
2.2.2 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
 The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are
1. Ecosystem diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Genetic diversity
1. Community or Ecosystem diversity
 A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and
abiotic components (soil, air, water, etc) interacting with each other is
known as an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a
biological community, including tropic levels, ecological processes (which
capture energy), food webs and material recycling.

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  The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystem
diversity.
Ex: River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and a
variety of plants that have adapted.
 Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a
region.
 It explains the interaction between living organisms and physical
environment in an ecosystem.
2. Species diversity –
 A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.
 Species diversity is the diversity between different species.
 The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is known
as species diversity.
 Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within
individual communities or ecosystems.
 The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants,
animals and microorganisms which interact with each other and with the
abiotic component of the environment.
Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more
than 2 million. However, only around 1.5 million are found and assigned
scientific names.
Plant species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc
Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,Deer etc
3. Genetic diversity –
 A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species
or "genera".
 Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene
within individual species.
 Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different
from one other. These differences are due to differences in the
combination of genes.

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  Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one
generation to the other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species
"oryzasativa". However there are thousands of rice varieties that show
variation at the genetic level in the form of different size, shape, colour
and nutrient content.
(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available
are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.
2.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are
1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fibre, shelter,
fuel and medicine.
2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air and
overall health of biosphere.

2.2.4 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversity
is classified into:
1. Direct Value and
2. Indirect Value
1. Direct value of biodiversity: It is of two types
a. Consumptive use value and
b. Productive use value
a. Consumptive use value:
 The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are
consumed directly, without passing through a market. Some of them are
firewood, food, and game meat.
 When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game
viewing, the consumptive value is the whole recreational experience.
Consumptive value seldom appears in national income accounts, but could be
easily included in measures such as GDP. It is valued from the cost if resource
was sold at market value, rather than being consumed.
 High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:

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  Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
 Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
 Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
 Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if
harvested sustainably and managed efficiently.
b. Productive use value:
 Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in
a market).
 Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an
inflated cost to the finished product.
 Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in
national income accounts and may have a major impact on the national
economy.
 Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal
plants and game meat sold in a market have productive use value.

2. Indirect value of biodiversity

 Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not
appear in GDP. However, they are crucial to other natural products which
influence the GDP.
 These values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any
use. Ex: Ecological Processes etc.
 Direct values are often derived from indirect values because plants and animals
are supported by the services provided by their environments.
 Many classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal
communities.
Ex:
1. Ecological functions
2. Flood and storm protection
3. Waste assimilation
4. Microclimatic functions
5. Nutrient cycles

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 6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores
8. Soil protection, etc.
Indirect value of biodiversity is of the following types:
1. Non-consumptive use value
2. Optional value
3. Existence or ethical value and
4. Information value
1. Non-consumptive use value:
 This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.
 It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for
other species by maintaining water cycle, regulating climate, production
and protection of the soil, absorption and breakdown of pollutants,
recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, spiritual and
historic values of natural environments.
 Recreational value is important with regard to tourism and helps the
national GDP.
2. Optional value:
 This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and
needs to be explored.
 This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that
may prove to be important in future and their usefulness needs to be
studied with reference to a specific problem currently plaguing the
society.
Ex:
1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseases
like cancer and AIDS.
2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic
growth of our country.
3. Existence value:
 This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also,
this is the value that people are willing to pay to keep a species /

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 community /ecosystem from going extinct. Examples of this are high
amounts being spent for animals like pandas, whales, lions etc.
 Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers and
mountains. Examples being the Ganga river, trees like Banyan and Peepal
and plants like the Vambu, Tulsi and Vengai are worshipped.
4. Information value: This relates to the educational, scientific and aesthetic and
tourism values of biodiversity in an ecosystem
5. Aesthetic Values: Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect
biodiversity. The most important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.
Ex:
1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they
can enjoy aesthetic value of biodiversity. This is called eco -tourism.
2. The pleasant music of wild birds, beautifully coloured butterflies, colour of
peacocks and colour of flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.

2.2.5 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

 Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity.
 Waste generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils
the environment and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.
 Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normal
ecological cycle.
 Causes for loss of biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
1. Habitat loss: The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat
loss. Factors influencing habitat loss are:
a. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities.
Forests and grasslands are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or
settlement areas or developmental projects. Forests and grasslands are
natural home to thousands of species which disintegrate due to loss of their
natural habitat.

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 b. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are
destroyed due to farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
c. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and
scattered patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads
to the disappearance of most wildlife
d. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw
materials leading to extinction of many wild plant species.
e. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the
production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
f. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat
loss
g. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled
with the discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
2. Poaching of wildlife: Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. It
contributes to loss of biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:
1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.
2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their
products.
Factors influencing poaching:
1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to
pressure on forest resources, leading to degradation of wildlife habitats
2. Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally on
the trade of products of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling
of wildlife products. Since trading of such products is highly profitable,
poachers continue to hunt endangered animals and smuggle their fur, skin
and tusks to other countries. Wildlife products include furs, horns, tusks, live
specimens and herbal products. Richest source of biodiversity lies in
developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Advanced
countries like Europe, North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong are
the major importers of wildlife products.
3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing
immense damage and danger to man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the

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 forest department officials to convince the affected villagers to gain the villagers support
for wildlife conservation.
Ex:
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation,
the villagers killed and injured several elephants.
2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damage
done by elephants to their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals which
explode when the elephants enter the fields
4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai
Factors influencing man-animal conflicts
1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food
5. Villagers set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals
(Elephants) who suffer pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.

2.2.6 BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

 India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed as
a mega diversity country.
 India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the world.
 It is essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmental
interaction of flora and fauna of India.
 Bio-geographers have classified India into ten bio-geographic zones with each zone
having characteristic climate, soil and biodiversity.
 These zones are described below:
1. Trans-Himalayas: The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibetean
plateau. This region harbors the high-altitude cold desert in ladakh (Jammu

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 and Kashmir) and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). It accounts for 5.7% of
the country's landmass.
2. Himalayas: The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The entire
mountain chain is running from Kashmir in the North-west to Assam in the
north-east. The Himalayas comprise of a diverse range of biotic provinces
and biomes. The himalayas cover 7.2% of the country's landmass
3. Desert: The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is comprising
both the salty desert of Gujarat and the sandy desert of Rajasthan. Deserts
occupy around 6.9% of the country's land mass.
The kinds of deserts found in India are:
a. The desert of western Rajasthan
b. The desert ofGujarat
c. The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh. The Indian deserts have more diversified fauna.
4. Semi-arid: This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It
includes the Aravalli hill range. It overs approximately 15.6% of the country's
landmass.
5. Western Ghats: The western ghats are a mountain range that runs along
the western cost of India. They are a range extending north-south from
southern tip of Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the [Link]
mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq. km. This ghat section covers
an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. It covers about
5.8% of the country's landmass.
6. Deccan plateau: It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada
valley. Three sides of the plateau are covered by mountains slopes towards
east. Satpura mountains cover the north while western ghats cover the west
side and eastern ghats cover the eastern side of the plateau. It is the one of
largest zones covering the southern and south-central plateau with mostly
deciduous trees. It covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.
7. Gangetic plain: This plain covers the area between the south himalayas to
the tropic of cancer. These plains were formed by the Ganges river system
and are relatively homogeneous. This region experience 600 mm rainfall

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 annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and it covers 11% of
the country's land mass.
8. North-east India These are pains and non-himalayan ranges of
northeastern India and have a wide variety of vegetation. It covers around
5.2% of the country's land mass.
9. Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has almost
300 big and small islands. Among these, only five islands are inhabited. Only
tribes are found in the island of Nicobar. These islands have a highly diverse
set of biomes and occupy 0.03% of the country's biomass.
[Link] India has a large coastline distributed both to the east and west with
distinct differences between the two. The Lakshwadeep islands are included
in this but the area of these islands is negligible.
2.2.7 INDIA AS MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

 India's rich biological diversity - its immense range of ecosystems, species and
genetic forms is by virtue of its tropical location, climate and physical features.
 India's biogeographical composition is unique as it combines living forms from three
major biogeographical realms, namely - Eurasian, Agro-Tropical and Indo-Malayan.
 India's fabulous biodiversity is estimated to be over 45,000 plant species
representing about seven percent of the world's flora; and its bewildering variety of
animal life represents 6.5 per cent of world's fauna. 15,000 species of flowering
plants, 53,430 species of insects; 5050 species of molluscs, 6,500 species of other
invertebrates; 2,546 species of fishes; 1228 species of birds, 446 species of
reptiles, 372 species of mammals and 204 species of amphibians have been
identified.
 In India about 1, 15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and
described.
 India stands tenth in 25 most plant-rich countries of the world. Plant richness
means greater uniqueness of species present.
 India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich
means of all living organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater
the multidiversity of species, greater is the contribution to biodiversity. There are
25 clearly defined areas in the world called 'hot spots' which support about 50,000

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 endemic plant species, comprising 20 per cent of the world's total flora. India's
defined location of 'hot spots' is the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions.
 Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64
m. hectares or about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to
satellite imaging. Roughly 33 cent of this forest cover represents primary forest.
Indian flora comprises about 15,000 flowering plants and bulk of our rich flora is to
be found in the Northeast, Western Ghats, the Northwest and Eastern Himalayas,
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Likewise, Assam and the Western Ghats are
home to several species of mammal fauna, birds, and reptilian and amphibian
fauna.
 As one of the oldest and largest agriculture societies, India has also a striking
variety of at least 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of
cultivated crops. There is a vital, but often-neglected factor when we focus on
biodiversity. It may be a matter of she surprise for many to understand that the
tribals who officially constitute 7.5 per cent of India's population have preserved 90
per cent of the country's biocultural diversity. To a large extent, the survival of our
biodiversity depends on how best the tribals are looked after.
 To preserve our rich biodiversity, nine biosphere reserves are set up in specific
biogeographic'' zones: the biggest one is in the Deccan Peninsula in the Nilgiris
covering Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Others are the Nanda Devi in
Uttar khand in the Western Himalayas, the Nokrek in Meghalaya, Manas and Dibru
Saikhowa in Assam, the Sunderban's in the Gangetic plain in West Bengal, Similar
in Orissa, the Great Nicobar and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu.

2.2.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

[Link] ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA: A plant, animal or microorganism that

is in immediate risk of biological extinction is called endangered species or threatened
species. In India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100
mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be endangered. India's biodiversity is
threatened primarily due to:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Degradation and

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 3. Over exploitation of resources
 The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals.
It contains a list of species of that are endangered but might become extinct in
the near future if not protected.
 Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1. Asiatic cheetah
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Asiatic Wild Ass
4. Bengal Fox
5. Gaur
6. Indian Elephant
7. Indian Rhinocerous
8. Marbled Cat
9. Markhor
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.
Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical
number. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat
destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive
area. Such species are not endangered or vulnerable. A few endangered pecies in the
world are listed below:
1. West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)
2. Giant Panda (China)
3. Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
4. Siberian Tiger (Siberia)
5. Mountain Gorilla (Africa)
6. Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
7. Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
8. African Elephant (Africa)
Other important endangered species are:
1. Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)

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 2. Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
3. Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey
(Primates)
4. Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc
Factors affecting endangered species
1. Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the
air, land and water. These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in
living creatures resulting in death.
2. Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also
leads to their extinction.
3. Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the
atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they
cannot adjust to the changing environmental conditions leading to their
death and extinction.
 An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed
by 160 countries.
1. CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens
or wildlife products as they are in danger of extinction.
2. CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
Drawbacks of cites
1. This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators get
away by paying only a small fine.
2. Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.

[Link] ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost
60% the endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:
1. North-East India
2. North-West Himalayas
3. Western Ghats and
4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

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 Examples of endemic Flora species are
1. Sapria Himalayana
2. Ovaria Lurida
3. Nepenthis khasiana etc
Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:
1. Lion tailed macaque
2. Nilgiri langur
3. Brown palm civet and
4. Nilgiri tahr
Factors affecting endemic species:
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also plays an important role.
Ex: Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants
especially pesticides.
3. Over-hunting and
4. Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators
and competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important
adversary in reducing populations of endemic species.

2.2.9 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Due to
1. Habitat loss Deforestation activities (cutting trees for timber, removal of
medicinal plants)
2. Production of hybrid seeds requires wild plants as raw material, farmers
prefer hybrid reeds, many plant species become extinct.
3. Increase in the production of pharmaceutical companies made several
number of medicinal plants and species on the verge of extinction.
4. Removal of forest-cover for road laying and also due to soil erosion.
5. Illegal trade of wild life.
6. Population explosion, construction of dam, discharge of industrial effluents
use of pesticides.

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 Poaching of wild life
 Due to poaching, illegal trade and smuggling activities most of our valuable fauna
are under threat organised crime has moved into illegal wild life smuggling because
of huge profit Eg. Tiger, Deer for hides, Rhinoceros – for horns, Elephant – for ivory
tusk, Sea Horse, Star turtle – sold to foreign market.
 (Extinction, the elimination of species, is a normal process of the natural world.
Species die put and are replaced by others as part of evolutionary change.
 Human caused reduction: The climate change caused by our release of green house
gases in the atm. could have catastrophic effects. Human disturbance of natural
habitat is the largest single cause pf loss of biological diversity. Woodlands and
grasslands are converted now use about 10% of the world’s land surface for crop
production and about twice the amount for pasture and grasslands.)
 Hunting: Over harvesting is responsible for depletion or extinction of many species.
 Eg. The American passenger pigeon was the world’s most abundant bird. In spite of
this vast population, market hunting and habitat destruction caused the entire
population to crash with in 20 years.
Fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation reduces the biodiversity because many animals like bears and large
cats require large territories to subsist. Some forest birds reproduce only in deep forest or
habitat far from human settlement. A large island for example, can support more
individuals of given species and therefore less likely to suffer extinction due to genetic
problems and natural catastrophes.
Commercial products:
Smuggling of fuels, hides, horns and folk medicines also affect the biodiversity in an
abrupt manner.

2.2.10 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of
animal skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.

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 4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started
5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenches
to prevent animals from entering fields.
6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders
7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals within
forest zones.
8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be
stopped.
 Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The
commercial, medical, genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity
emphasizes the need for its conservation.
Factors affecting biodiversity:
1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity
2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation of
habitats affect biodiversity.
3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents
4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also affect
biodiversity
Need for biodiversity
1. It provides recreation and tourism
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from plants
and animals
3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals
4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.
5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting
systems
6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration
Types of conservation
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation

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 1. IN-SITU CONSERVATION
In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The
natural habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".
a. Biosphere reserves
b. National parks
c. Wildlife sanctuaries
d. Gene sanctuaries
a. Biosphere reserves: They cover large areas (>5000 [Link].) They are normally used
to protect species for a long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
i. Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem
ii. Protect endangered species
iii. Protect maximum number of species and communities
iv. Serve as site of recreation and tourism
v. May also be used for educational and research purposes
vi. Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are
not allowed. No tourism and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere
reserves.
b. A national park: It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with
its environment. It covers an area ranging from 100 to 500 [Link]. One or more
national parks may exist within a biosphere reserve. A national park is used for
enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment. It is used to protect,
propagate and develop wildlife. Grazing domestic animals inside national parks is
prohibited All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited inside a national park

c. Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.
i. It protects animals only
ii. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest
products, private ownership rights and forestry operations, provided it does
not affect animals adversely
d. Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.
Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project,
Crocodile breeding project, project elephant etc

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 Advantages of in-situ conservation
i. It is cheap and convenient
ii. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation
i. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity
ii. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution

2. EX-SITU CONSERVATION
Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild
relatives of crops.
1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant
and animal species under controlled conditions
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the
endangered species.
Important centers of ex-situ conservation:
1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and
uses the Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops.
Cryopreservation technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice,
turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for
years using this technique.
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal,
Haryana and preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

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 National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility,
conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility
has been created within the NPBGR.
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and
security thereby have a longer life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance
of survival in the wild
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment

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