Chapter 2 – Algebraic Expressions

College of Engineering and Architecture

I. Integral Exponents

When two or more quantities are multiplied, each is called a factor. Much of mathematical notation can
be viewed as efficient abbreviations of lengthier statements. For instance,
44 = 4x4x4x4

In general, for any natural number n,

xn = x.x.x…x

where:
x = base
n = exponent
xn = power of x

Rules on Positive Integral Exponents

If m and n are nay positive integer, and a and b are real numbers, then

1. bmbn = bm+n :Product Rule

2. bm
n
 b m n if m  n
b
: Quotient Rule
1
 n m if n  m
b
3. (bm)n = bmn : Power Rule
4. (ab)m = ambm
5. m m
a a
   m
b b
0
6. b =1 : Definition of Zero Exponent
7. b-n = 1/bn : Definition of Negative Exponent

Exercises
Express each answer using positive exponents only.
1. (-2a2b0)4 2. (-2x3y)2(-3x2y2)3 3.  x3
4
  y
2 4. x 2 y 3
 2   2 
y  x  x 3 y 4

5. x-2 + y-2 6. a  b 2 7. 2a 3b 2 8. a

 x a 1   x a 
2 a 1

   
a  b 8 2 1 c 2 d 4  y a 1   y a 1 
   

9. 1 10. 2
 x ( n  2 ) n y n 1  n 1
 27 x 3 y 1  3

   1 1 
 x 1  x  y 

II. Operation with Polynomials

An algebraic expression in one or more letters is one in which one or more of the six operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, and evolution are involved.

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An algebraic expression which does not involve evolution is said to be rational; otherwise, it is said to be
irrational.
x x 2  xy
3
Thus, the algebraic expressions 2x -4x+5, 3xy+y and2
are rational; while x  2 and are
xy 1 x
irrational.

A rational algebraic expression which does not involve division is called a polynomial; otherwise, it is said
to be fractional.

A polynomial is called a monomial, a binomial, or a trinomial according as it has one, two, or three terms,
respectively.

A factor or factors in a term may be considered as the coefficient of the remaining factor or factors. Thus,
in 2axy, 2a is the coefficient of xy, 2ax that of y, and 2 that of axy.

The word coefficient, if used without any qualifying phrases, generally refers to the numeral factors and the
known literal factors.

The degree of a term of a polynomial is the sum of the exponents of the unknowns of the polynomial appearing
in that term.

The degree of a polynomial is the degree of its term or terms of the highest degree.

Operations of Polynomials:
1. Addition and Subtraction
Addition and subtraction of similar terms are performed by using the distributive law in the
indicated sum. Sum or difference of terms which are not similar can only be indicated.

Examples:
Remove the sign of groupings and combine similar terms:
1. 3a {4a + 3[2a – 2(2a + 3b) – (a – b) – 6(a + b)] – (7a – 6b)}
2. a – {5b – [a – (3c – 3b) + 2c – 3(a – 2b – c)]}
3. 3x – [3 + 2{5x -2(4x + 6) + 5x + 7 – 6x} – 10x]
4. 9x2 – [6x2 + {3x2 + x2 – 1 – x2 – 2x(4x + 3) + 4} + 3(2x – 1)]

2. Multiplication of Polynomial
Two polynomials are multiplied by applying the distributive law, the commutative law of
multiplication and the product rule of exponents.

Special Product Formulas:

Although the products of any two polynomials can be found by the method above, it is
advantageous to remember formulas certain special types which occur frequently. These are the
following:
a. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
b. (a – b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
c. (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
d. (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
e. (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
f. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
g. (a + b + c + d)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2ad + 2bc + 2bd + 2cd

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h. (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3

i. (x – y)3 = x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3
j. (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) = x3 + y3
k. (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2) = x3 – y3

Examples:
Give the product orally:
1. (8x + 2y)(8x – 2y) 6. (2x2y – 3z3)2
2. (-3z + 2)(3z + 2) 7. (5x + 4y)(x – 2y)
3. (2a2b + 5cd2)(2a2b – 5cd2) 8. (2x – 2z)(3a – 2b)
4. (2mx2ny + 3kahbt)(2mx2ny – 3kahbt) 9. (a – 2b – c + 3d)2
5. [(x+z) - 2y2][(x+z) + 2y2] 10. (2u – 5v – 3w + z)2

3. Division of Polynomials
Steps:
a. Arrange both the dividend and the divisor in descending (or ascending) powers of one of
the letters.
b. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. The result is the first
term of the quotient.
c. Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient and subtract the result from the
dividend; the result being the new dividend.
d. With this new dividend and the same divisor, repeat the process until the remainder is
either zero or of degree lower than that of the divisor.
e. Of there is a remainder of degree lower than that of the divisor, this placed over the divisor,
and the resulting indicated quotient, with its proper sign, is added to the quotient already
found, to form the complete quotient.
Thus,

Dividend Remainder
 Quotient 
Divisor Divisor

Examples:
Divide the first expression by the second:
1. x3 – 3x2 + 7x + 5; x – 2
2. 3x4 – 3x3y + 3x2y – xy2 – 9xy3 + 3y4; 3x - y

III. The Binomial Theorem

Binomial Expansion of (x + y)n

Properties:
1. The number of terms in each expansion is 1 more than the exponent of the corresponding
binomial.
2. Every term, except the last, has x as a factor. The exponent of x in the first term is equal to
the exponent of the binomial and decreases by 1 in each succeeding term.
3. Every term, except the first, has y as a factor. The exponent of y in the second term is 1, and
increases by 1 in each succeeding term.
4. a. The coefficient of the first term is 1.
b. The coefficient of the second term is equal to the exponent of the binomial.
c. If, in any term, the coefficient is multiplied by the exponent of x and divided by the exponent
of y increased by 1, the result is the coefficient of the tyerm immediately following.

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5. In every term, the sum of the exponent of x and y is equal to the exponent of the binomial.
6. The coefficients of the two terms equidistant from the first and the last term, respectively, of
the expansion are equal.
Examples:
Expand the following using the binomial theorem:
1. (3x – 4y)5 3. (a2b + 2c2)9
2 7
2. (5a + 3b) 4. (3x3y – 2xy2)8

The rth Term of the Expansion of (x + y)n

 It is a process of determining a particular term in the expansion of (x + y) n without writing
down all terms that come before it.

Properties:
1. The exponent of y is 1 less than the number of the term, r.
2. The exponent of x is n minus the exponent of y.
3. The denominator of the coefficient is the product of the consecutive integers 1, 2, 3,…; the
last factor being the exponent of y.
4. The numerator of the coefficient is the product of the consecutive integers n, n-1, n-2, …, the
number of factors being the same as that of the denominator. It may be noted also that the
sum of the corresponding factors in the numerator and the denominator is always n+1.

Examples:
Find the required term in the expansion:
1. (3a + 2b)12; 8th term
2. (2x2 – 3y3)24; 15th term
3. (x2 – 1/x)10; term containing b5
4. (5x3 – 2y2)9; term containing x12

IV. Factoring Polynomials

To factor a polynomial is to express it as the product of powers of its prime factors.

A. Factoring by Distributive Law (Common Factoring)

Examples:
1. 16a3b – 24a2b
2. (a + 2b)c + (a + 2b)d2
3. 81(a + b)2 – 18(a + b)c

B. Trinomial Perfect Square

Form: a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 - 2ab + b2 = (a - b)2
Facts: 1. Two terms of the trinomial is a perfect square
2. The remaining term is equal to plus or minus twice the product of the square roots of the other terms.
Examples:
1. 25a2 + 30ab + 9b2
2. x2 – (6x(y – z) + 9(y – x)2
3. 4y2 – 12y + 9

Sometimes we are given two terms of a trinomial perfect square and it is required to find the remaining
term. Noting that, in the trinomial perfect term a2 + 2ab + b2,

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2
 2ab 
b  
2
 and 2ab  2 a 2 b 2

2
2 a 

We see the following rules:

1. If the middle term and either the first or third terms are given, the remaining term is found by
dividing the middle term by twice the square root of the other term and squaring the quotient
thus obtained.
2. If the first and the third terms are given, the middle term is found by taking  twice the product
of the square roots of the given terms.

Examples:
Determine the term to be added to make it perfect square:
a. a2 + 4b2
b. 9a2 + 4a

C. Difference of Two Squares

Form: a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b)

Examples:
1. 36x4 – 49y2
2. (3a – b)2 – (a + 2)2

D. Trinomial of the form x2 + bx + c2

If b = m + n and c = mn, then x2 + (m+n)x + mn = (x + m)(x + n)

Examples:
1. x2 + 13x + 36
2. x2 - 5x – 24
3. z2 + 5z – 36

E. Trinomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, a > 1

Theorem: The trinomial ax2 + bx + c is factorable if, and only if, the value b2 – 4ac is a perfect square.

Examples:
1. 6x2 – x – 12
2. 2x2 – x –1

F. Factoring by Grouping Terms

The terms of an expression may be grouped so that the groups have a common polynomial factor.

Examples:
1. ax – by + ay – bx
2. 3x3 + 2x2 – 9x – 6
3. x2 + y2 – 2xy – 25
4. xyz + xzu + yu + x2z2

G. Sum and Difference of Two Cubes

Forms: x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2)
x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 - xy + y2)

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H. Trinomial of the form x4 + ax2y2 + y4

The trinomial of this form may sometimes be reduced to the difference of two squares.

Examples:
1. x4 + x2y2 + y4
2. 9a4 – 34a2b2 + 25b4
3. 25x4 + 6x2y2 + y4

I. Sum and Difference of Two like Powers

Form: an  bn

Properties:
1. For every value n, (an – bn) has (a – b) as a factor; in other words, an – bn is exactly divisible by
(a – b).
2. If n is even, an – bn has (a + b) as a factor.
3. If n is odd, an + bn has (a + b) as a factor.
4. If n is even, an + bn does not have either (a – b) or (a + b) as a factor.

Special cases of the general properties 1 to 3:

1. When (an + bn) or (an – bn) is divided by (a + b), the coefficients in the quotient are alternately
+1 and –1.
2. When (an – bn) is divided by (a – b), all coefficients in the quotient are +1.

Examples:
a. x4 – y4
b. x6 + y6
c. a9 – b9

Exercises 4:
Factor each of the following completely:
1. y2 – 5y – 14 2. x3 + 12x2 – 45x
3. x2 + y2 – 2xy –25 4. y2n + 10yn + 25
5. x2 + y2 – 2xy – a2 – 10a –25 6. abc – a2c – ab2 + a2b
7. 9xn+2 – 36xnz2 8. (2 + z)3 – (8 + z)3
9. x6 + x3 – 2 10. (x + y + z)3 – (x3 + y3 + z3)

Problems on Factoring
Factor the following completely.

1. (a + b)x2 + (a + b)y2 16. (a2 – y2) – 5(a + y)

2. 10x(x – b) + 5y(a – b) 17. 2(a + b)2 – 5(a + b) – 3

3. x + 1 + y + xy 18. c(a + b) + 3c + 3d + d(a + b)

4. 3(a + 1)x3 + 24(a + 1) 19. 6(u + v)2 + 11u + 4 + 11v

5. abc – a2c – ab2 + a2b 20. 2x3y2 + 16x2y3 + 32x2y2

6. 9xn+2 – 36xnz2 21. 4a2 – x2 – 2xy – y2

7. (x + y + z)3 – (x3 + y3 + z3) 22. (2x + 3a)2 – (3x – 4a)2

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8. a(a – 1)x2 + (2a2 – 1)x + a(a + 1) 23. (x3 + 1)3(2x) + (x2 – 1)(3)(x3 + 1)2(3x2)

9. (a2 – 3a + 1)x2 + (2a2 – 4a + 1)x + a(a + 1) 24. ab(x2 + 1) + (a2 + b2)x

10. (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 4) – 48 25. x6 + x 3 – 2

11. 81x2n+3 – 9x3y2n 26. 2ax + 4ay – bx – 2by

12. (2 + z)3 – (8 + z)3 27. 4(ab + cd)2 – (a2 + b2 – c2- d2)2

13. x3(y – z) + y3(z – x) + z3(x – y) 28. ab(a – b) + bc(b – c) + ca(c – a)

14. a 6 + b6 29. x2 + y2 – 2xy – a2 – 10a – 25

15. x4 – x2 - 6 30. xmz + 5z + xm+1 + 5x

V. Operations with Rational Expressions

Principle:
The value of a fraction is not changed if both the numerator and the denominator are multiplied
(or divided) by the same number (not equal to zero). That is,

a a c ac
  
b b c bc
a a  c n a an
  
b b  c n b bn

Signs of Fraction:
a a a
  
b b b
a a

b b

Examples:
Simplify the following:

x2  9 x y
1. 2.
x 3 y x

x 2  3 x 2 x 2  x  2 x 2  2x  3
3. 4. 
x 2  x 2 x2  1 x2

x 2  2 x  3 x 2  2 x  15 x 2 x 3 3
5.  2 6.  2  2
x2  4 x  3 x  10 x  1 x  3 x 2 x  x 3
2

Complex Fractions:
A fraction that contains fractions in its numerator or denominator is called a complex fraction.

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Complex fractions may be reduced to a simple fraction by combining the fractions in the numerator and
denominator into simple fractions and then following the rule for dividing one fraction by another.

Exercises 5
Simplify the following complex fractions:
1. 1 1 2. y 3. y 1 4. a 1
 1 1
x y xy x 1  y 1 a
x y 1
1 x 1
y x 1
1
xy a 1
5. 2x 1 6. x 7. 2x( x  3)1  3( x  2 )1 8. 1
 1 x 3
x3 x2 y ( x  3)1( x  2 )1 x
3 x x 2 1
 1  x 3
x3 x2 y2 x

Problems on Fractions
I. Perform the indicated operations and express all results in simplest form.
1. x  2y x x  2y
 2  2
3 x  2 xy  y
2 2
y  x 3 x  4 xy  y 2
2

2.  3 1  x 1 x 1   x2 1 
 2   2      3 
 x x   x  2 2 x  1   3 x  5 x  2 x 
2

3.  
bx ay  b   b by  ax 2  2x 2  5xy  3y 2 2x 2  xy  3y 2 
  4  
x 3  y3  y x y x
2 2 4
abx 

4.  2 x  2y x  2y   x x  2 y  15 y 2  x  y   15x 4 y x 2  y 2 x  y  
  2  
2  
   
 x  3 y x  y x  4 xy  3 y   x 2  2 xy  y 2
2 2
  4x3 y3 

5. x 1 2

x2  x 1
4  2 
 x 1 
2
1
3 x
3 2

x x 1

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6. 3 xy
 yx
x y
y
1
x y
1
x y

7. 3x  2 x x 3  5x  6
 
x  1 1  1/ x x 2 1
2  3x
2x 
3 x
x 2 1
3x  1 
x2

II. Simplify the following complex fractions.

1. 3 1 2. 2
 3
2 3 3
2 5 2
4 
5 4 3

3. 7 2 4. 2
3  x 1
x x2 x2
11 3 2
6  2 x2
x x x 1

5. 2 6. 1 1
x 
x 1 2x  y x  2 y
x 1 x  2y
x 1 1
x 1 2x  y

7. 3 8. a
x 1
x2 b
1 1 a 2
 2
x  2 x  23 b 1 b / a

9. 1 10. x
2 1
x / y 1 yx
2 3 x
 y
1 y / x x / y 1 y
1
x y

VI. Radicals and Rational Exponents

Definition of n a : The Principal nth root of a

Let a be a real number and n a positive integer, n  2.

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1. If n > 0, then n
a is the positive number such that xn = a.
2. n 0 = 0
3. If a < 0 and n is odd, then n a is the negative number x such that xn = a.
4. If a < 0 and n is even, then n a is not a real number.

Definition of b1/n:
For a real number b and a positive integer n (n2)
1
b n n b

provided that n
b exist.

Definition of bm/n:
If m/n is a rational number in lowest terms with n>0, then
m
b n
 n bm

provided n
b m exist.

Rules for Radicals:

If n
a exist, then
n
a a
1. ( n a )n = n
an = a 3.
n
n
b b

n
2. n
a b  n ab 4.
m n
a  mn a

Examples:
Simplify the following:
1. 4
7
4
  2. 3
64
3.
4
16 4. 9 25
81

Simplifying Radicals:

1. Removal of factors from the radicand

When the radicand has a factor which is a perfect nth power, where n is the index of the radical,
this factor may be removed and its nth root written outside of the radical.

Examples:
1. 32 2. 5 x2 3. 49x 4
xy
4. 3
16a 3 x 4 5. 4. x  y x2  y 2
x  3x y  3xy 2  y 3
3 2

2. Reduction of the radicand to an integral expression

If the radicand is in the form of a fraction, it may be reduced to one having an integral form by
multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by an expression that will make the
denominator a perfect nth power, where n is the index of the radical.

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Examples:
2 16 3a 2
1. 3 2. 3.
9 9a 3 5x 5

3. Reduction of the index of a radical

When the radicand is a perfect power of degree equal to a factor of the index, the index may be
m
reduced by using b n
 n bm .

Examples:
1. 6
81 2. 4
9x 2 3. 9
64x 6 4. 9
8y 3

4. Rationalization of the denominator

When a fraction involves one or more radicals in the denominator, multiply both the numerator
and the denominator by an expression that will produce a denominator free of radicals. The
following relations are often used in rationalizing the denominator:

 
a. a x  b y a x  b y  a 2 x  b 2 y 
b.  3
x 3 y 
x
x 2  3 xy  3 y 2  x  y 

c. 3 x  3 y 
3
x 2  3 xy  3 y 2  x  y
Examples:
2 1 2
1. 3 2. 3.
4 2 3 2 3  2 2 1

2 x 1  2 x 1
4. 5.
3
33 2 x 1  2 x 1

In summary, a radical is in simplest form if the following conditions are met:

1. No power in the radical exceeds the order of the radical.
2. No radical appears in the denominator.
3. No fractional or negative power appears in the radical.
4. The power of the radicand and the index of the radical have no common factors.

If any of the conditions are not met, proceed as follows:

1. Remove all perfect nth powers from the radical of order n.
2. Rationalize the denominator.
3. Reduce order of the radical if possible.

Exercises 5
Simplify the following completely:
1. 5m x 7 m y 2 m 2. 43 3 3. ab
3
33 9 3
ab

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4. 5a 1b 5. 6.
x3 xy 2 8 3
1 x y xy
4 3
8a 1b 1 6
x3 y9 y 4 x10 y 26

Operations on Radicals:
1. Addition and subtraction
To add or subtract two or more radicals, reduce the radicals to those having the same radicand
and the same indices and then collect terms having a common radical as a factor. Radicals having
different radicand or different indices cannot be combined.

Examples:
x y
1. 48  75  9 1 / 3 2. 5 x 4  20 x 2  5 3. 
y x

2. Multiplication of radicals
To multiply two radicals, make use of n a x n b  n ab . If the two radicals do not have the same
indices, they may be first reduced to radicals having the same indices.

Examples:

1. 2 10 3 6   2. 2x  3 x 2 3. 12  3 3  4 18  6 3

3. Division of radicals
n
a a
To divide a radical by another radical, make use of n
. If the two radicals do not have the
n
b b
same indices, they must be reduced to radicals having the same indices.

Examples:
3
9 6a m2 2
1. 3 2. 3. 3 4 m
3 3
2a n n3

Problems on Radicals
Simplify the following radicals.

1. 256a 3 c 2. 3
 64m 5 n 4 s 3 3. 4 x 2  8 xy 4 y 2

4. 4
16 x 5 y 7 z 6 5. x 2

 4 x  3 3x 2  2 x  1  6. 72 x 4 y 5

7. 5m
x 7 m y 2m 8. 2a 9. 2n
a 3n b 4 n
27b 3

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 Chapter 2 – Algebraic Expressions
College of Engineering and Architecture

10. 3 11. 12. 5a 1b 1

r3 3
64y 3
8a 1b 1

13. 2 6 14. 22 3 15. 3

2
3 3 1 2  3 3
2 3 4

16. ab 17. 18.

x3 xy 2 8 3
1 x y xy
3 4 3
ab 6
x3 y 4 y 4 x10 y16

Perform the indicated operations and simplify.

1. 5 x 4  20 x 2  5 2. 3
2a 2 b 4  3
ab5  3 16a 5b  3
8a 4b 2

3. a a 2 c  4a 2 b 2 c  b 4 c 4. 4ab 4 b
4  3
c2 a

5. 4
3 3 3 6. 12  3 3  4 18  6 3

7. 3  4 3  5 12  20 3 8. 4 xy 2 z 2  3 2 x 3 y 2 z

9. m2 m2 10. 4
24a 3b 2 c 2
3  4
n n3 4
8a 5b 6 c 3  4 48a 2 b 2 c 9

11. 3x 2 y  15xy 5 12. y 4 yz

80 xy 6
32 y 2 z 2

13. 1 1 14. 8
16 x 4 y 2 z 2

2 3 x3 2 y 2 z
1 1

2 3

15. xy 16. x
3
x 3 y 2y
23 x  3 y
Miscellaneous Problems
Perform the indicated operations and simplify.
2x3 18 x y 50 x 3 y 2 32 x 5
1. x  
y3 y3 5 y5 x y7

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 Chapter 2 – Algebraic Expressions
College of Engineering and Architecture

4 2
2.
2  8  4 4  6 512

3. 1 2 7 4
5  29  4 7
9
3
 x2  y2  x  2

 1    y  1
 xy   
 

4.  1
3 3 3 3
3 x y  x y  x 2
  15
1

 1  3
4 3 
5. 3 2 6

 
2 x y xy 1 4y 
4 3 
x3 x 2 y 6
x13 y 3 3 x 2 3
4 y3x2
1
a  x 2  2  2 x   a 
1
1 2  a
6. 2 2
 x
1  
a

2x x2  3 

x x 3
2

7. x2  3
x2  3
3x5 x  4 7 x  39
 5 3x 2  7 
8. 3x  7
2
3x 2  7
5 x  42
x 2 x 
a2  x2 
9. a2  x2
a2  x2
 
1

a2  b2  b2 a2  b2 2

a2  b2
10. 2
 b 
1   

 a b 
2 2

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