DISEASES & IMMUNITY

(REVISION NOTES)
 SPREAD OF DISEASE
Pathogens

A pathogen is a disease-causing organism

Pathogens are passed on from one host to another and therefore the
diseases they cause are known as transmissible diseases
Pathogens can be passed on from host to host in different ways,
including:
Direct contact – the pathogen is passed directly from one host to
another by transfer of body fluids such as blood or semen (eg HIV,
gonorrhoea, hepatitis B & C)
Indirect contact – the pathogen leaves the host and is carried in
some way to another, uninfected individual
 Defences against Pathogens
1. Mechanical barriers

Structures that make it difficult for pathogens to get past them and into the
body
Covers almost all parts of your body
Skin to prevent infection from pathogens.
If it is cut or grazed, it immediately
begins to heal itself, often by
forming a scab.

These make it difficult for pathogens

Hair in the to get past them further up the nose
nose so they are not inhaled into the lungs

M
 2. Chemical
barriers
Substances produced by the body cells that trap / kill pathogens before
they can get further into the body and cause disease
Made in various places in the body,
pathogens get trapped in the mucus
Mucus and can then be removed from the body
(by coughing, blowing the nose,
swallowing etc.

Contains hydrochloric acid which is

Stomach strong enough to kill any pathogens
acid that have been caught in mucus in the
airways and then swallowed or have
been consumed in food or water.

Lysozyme
An Enzyme that destroy bacterial
cell walls in tears

Bactericid The ears are protected by

al bactericidal wax.
 3.
Cells
Different types of white blood cell work to prevent pathogens reaching areas of the
body they can replicate in

Phagocyt Engulfing and digesting pathogenic

cells
osis

Clump pathogenic cells together so

they can’t move as easily (known as
Antibodi agglutination) and releasing
es chemicals that signal to other cells
that they must be destroyed

C
PHAGOCYTOSIS
 ANTIBODIES & THE IMMUNE
RESPONSE
All cells have proteins and other
substances projecting from their cell
membrane
These are known as antigens and
are specific to that type of cell
Lymphocytes have the ability to
‘read’ the antigens on the surfaces
of cells and recognise any that are
foreign
They then make antibodies which
are a complementary shape
to the antigens on the surface
of the pathogenic cell
 IMMUNITY
The initial response of a lymphocyte encountering a pathogen for the first
time and making specific antibodies for its antigens can take a few days,
during which time an individual may get sick
Lymphocytes that have made antibodies for a specific pathogen for the first
time will then make ‘memory cells’ that retain the instructions for making
those specific antibodies for that type of pathogen
This means that, in the case of reinfection by the same type of pathogen,
antibodies can very quickly be made in greater quantities and the
pathogens destroyed before they are able to multiply and cause illness
This is how people can become immune to certain diseases after only having
them once
It does not work with all disease-causing microorganisms as some of them
mutate fairly quickly and change the antigens on their cell surfaces
Therefore, if they invade the body for a second time, the memory cells made in
the first infection will not recall them as they now have slightly different
antigens on their surfaces (e.g. the cold virus)
 Active & Passive Immunity
Active immunity:
Making antibodies and developing memory cells for future response to infection is
known as active immunity
There are two ways in which this active immune response happens:
The body has become infected with a pathogen and so the lymphocytes go
through the process of making antibodies specific to that pathogen
Vaccination
Active immunity is slow acting and provides long-lasting immunity

Passive immunity:
This is when ready-made antibodies, from another source, are introduced to the
body
Passive immunity is a fast-acting, short-term defence against a pathogen by
antibodies acquired from another individual, eg:
From mother to infant via breast milk – this is important as it helps the very young
to fight off infections until they are older and stronger and their immune system is
more responsive
Injected antibodies for certain diseases where the individual is already infected and a
fast response is required, like rabies or tetanus
The body does not make its own antibodies or memory cells in passive
PROBLEMS WITH IMMUNE
RESPONSE
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES:
The cells of the immune system start to attack the body’s own cells
This is rare as lymphocytes usually recognise their own body cells by the
antigens on the cell surfaces and do not respond to them
In this situation, specific body cells are targeted by lymphocytes and
antibodies are made against them, destroying them
One example of this type of disease is Type 1 diabetes
People who suffer from this disease no longer make their own insulin and
so are unable to regulate their blood glucose levels
This is because their immune system is targeting and destroying the
pancreatic cells which are responsible for making the insulin, eventually
leading to dangerously high glucose levels in the blood
TRANSPLANT REJECTION:

The recipient’s lymphocytes may recognize antigens on the

surface of the donor organ as foreign and slowly destroy it.
This rejection can be overcome by:
Drugs to suppress the immune system of recipient long
enough to allow the transplanted organ to become
established.
Matching tissues, relatives are more likely to have similar
antigens to the recipient.
 MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
Made by combining the properties of two types of cell
1. Lymphocyte- very efficient in producing antibodies but
cant be grown in large numbers outside the human body.
2. Tumor cells- cannot produce antibodies but divide very
well in artificial culture.
Called Hybridomas- can produce enormous quantities of
one desirable antibody and survive for long periods in
artificial culture.

(Mono- One type, Clonal- group of identical dividing cells)