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Class 11 Physics most important derivations

physics sf184102 (The Indian Community School Kuwait)

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Class 11 Physics most important derivations

Note:

 Derivations written in red are most important. Don’t leave these for final exams.
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Motion in a plane

Angular projectile motion

Consider a body projected with velocity u at an angle θ with horizontal as shown.

Therefore,

ux  ucos θ, uy  u sinθ
ax  0 a y  g

Equation of path

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1 2
x  ux t  a x t  x  ucosθt
2
1 1
y  uy t  a y t 2  y  u sinθt  gt 2
2 2

x
t 
ucos θ
2
 x  1  x 
 y  u sinθ    g 
 ucosθ  2  ucosθ 
1 g  2
 y  x tanθ   2 2 x
2  u cos θ 

Time of flight

Total time for which the projectile remains in air is called time of flight.

1 2
 y  uy t  ay t
2
1 2
 0   u sinθ  T 
2
gT  y  0 when body hits the ground

2usinθ
 T
g

Maximum height attained

At maximum height v y  0

 0  uy  a y t
 0  usinθ  gt
usinθ
t
t

Putting this value in equation of y, we get

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1
y  uy t  a y t 2
2
2
 u sinθ  1  u sinθ 
 H  u sinθ    g 
 g  2  g 
u2 sin2 θ 1 u2 sin2 θ
H 
g 2 g
u2 sin2 θ
 H
2g

Horizontal range

1 2
 x  ux t  ax t
2
 2usinθ  1
  0 t
2
R  ucos θ 
 g  2
2u2 sinθ cosθ
R 
g
u2 sin 2θ
 R
g

Velocity at any instant

v x  ux  a x t  ucosθ
v y  uy  a y t  usinθ  gt

 v  v 2x  v 2y

ucosθ    u sinθ  gt 
2 2
v

 v  u2 sin2 θ  u2 cos2 θ  g2 t 2  2usinθgt

 
 v  u2 sin2 θ  cos2 θ  g2 t 2  2usinθgt

 v  u2  g2 t 2  2usinθgt

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Horizontal projection of projectile

Consider a projectile thrown with velocity u in horizontal direction from a height h as shown

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Therefore,
ux  u, uy  0
a x  0, a y  g

Equation of path

1 2
x  ux t  a x t  x  ut
2
1 1
y  uy t  a y t 2  y   gt 2
2 2

x
t 
u
2
1 x 1g 2
y   g    x
2 u 2u

Which is a quadratic equation. Thus, path of a projectile is parabolic in nature.

Time of flight

Total time for which the projectile remains in air is called time of flight.

1
 y  uy t  a y t 2
2
1
 h   0  t  gT 2
2
2h
 T
g

Horizontal range (R)

Maximum horizontal distance travelled by projectile.

1
 x  ux t  a x t 2
2
1
 R  uT   0  T 2
2
2h
 Ru
g
1
 h   0  t  gT
2

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Velocity at any instant

v x  ux  a x t
 vx  u
v y  uy  a y t
 v y  gt

As v  v 2x  v 2y

v  u2  g2 t 2

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Parallelogram law of vector addition

According to the parallelogram law of vector addition: If two vectors are considered to be the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant of the two vectors is given by the vector that is
diagonal passing through the point of contact of the two vectors.
  
Consider two vectors A and B inclined at an angle θ as shown. Let their resultant be R .

Extend PQ and draw QR such that SR  QR .

In QRS
QR
 cosθ  QR  QScosθ  B cos θ .........(i)
QS
SR
 sinθ  SR  QS sin θ  B sinθ ..........(ii)
QS

In PSR

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PS   PR    SR 
2 2 2

 R2  PQ  QR    SR 
2 2

 R2   A  Bcosθ   B sinθ 
2 2
[using (i) and (ii)]
 R2  A 2  B2 sin2 θ  2ABcosθ  B2 sin2 θ

 R2  A 2  B2 sin2 θ  cos2 θ  2ABcosθ 
 R2  A 2  B2  2ABcosθ

 R  A 2  B2  2ABcosθ
 
If R makes an angle α with A , then

SR SR
tanα  
PR PQ  QR
B sinθ
 tan α 
A  B cos θ
 B sinθ 
 α  tan1  
 A  Bcos θ 

v x  ux  a x t
 vx  u
v y  uy  a y t
 v y  gt

As v  v 2x  v 2y

v  u2  g2 t 2

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Centripetal acceleration

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
Consider a body moving in a circle of radius r with velocity v. Let the position vector of body be r1
  
when it is at P and r2 when it is Q. The velocity vector of body at P is v1 and Q it is v 2 . If angle
   
between r1 and r2 is θ then clearly angle between v1 and v 2 is also θ .

 
Clearly | r1 |  | r2 |  r

 
Since the motion is uniform so, | v1 |  | v 2 |  v

Now in

QOP and CAB

OP OQ r
 
AB AC v
and QOP  CAB
 by SAS similarity rule
QOP CAB
v v v v  r 
so,   
r r t r  t 
v2
 ac 
r

______________________________________________________________________________

LAWS OF MOTION

Discuss the banking of roads and railway tracks and derive a

formula for safe turning on a rough banked road.

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Outer edge of road and railway tracks are banked so that a component of normal reaction can help
the frictional force to provide the necessary centripetal force for the safe turning of vehicles and
trains.

Consider a car of mass m moving on a banked road of radius r. The various forces acting on the
car are:

i. Weight (mg) of the car acting in downward direction.

ii. Normal reaction (R) of the road on the car.
iii. For of friction F between the tiers and the road.

Resolve R into two components (i) Ncos  and (ii) Nsin , similarly f cos  and f sin  are the
horizontal and vertical components of the force of friction (f). For the equilibrium of the car

mg  f sin   Nsin 
 mg  Ncos   f sin 

Nsin   f cos   acts towards the centre of the circular

banked road and provides the n necessary centripetal force to the car

mv 2
Nsin   f cos  
r
2
mv Nsin   f cos 
 
rmg Ncos   f sin 

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f
sin   cos 
v2 N
 
rg cos   f sin 
N
f
Since    coefficient of friction 
N
2
v sin    cos  tan   
  
rg cos    sin  1   tan 

rg  tan    
 v
1   tan 

The optimum speed to negotiate a curve can be obtained by putting µ = 0.

v  rgtan 

______________________________________________________________________________

Why does a cyclist bend while taking a circular turn? Explain with
the help of necessary calculations.

When a cyclist negotiates a curve, he bends slightly from his vertical position towards the inner
side of the curve so that a component of normal reaction can provide the necessary centripetal
force. The various forces acting on the system (cycle and man) are:

i. Weight (mg) of the system.

ii. Normal reaction (R) offered by the road to the system and acts at an angle θ with the
vertical.

It is assumed that the force of friction between the tyres of the bicycle and the surface is negligible.
Resolve R into two components

Rcosθ which is equal and opposite to the weight (mg) of the system,

Rcosθ = mg ……. (1)

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Rsinθ which is directed towards the centre and will provide

necessary centripetal force
mv 2
i.e Rsinθ = ……(2)
r
Dividing (2) by (1) we get
Rsinθ mv 2 1
i.e = ×
Rcosθ r mg
v2
or tanθ =
rg
 v = rgtanθ

______________________________________________________________________________

What happens when a car turns on an unbanked rough road? What

is maximum velocity for same turning on such a road?

Consider a car of mass m is moving with velocity v on a flat horizontal road

of radius r. The various forces acting on the road are:
i. Weight (mg) of the car in downward direction.
ii. Normal reaction (N) in the upward direction
iii. Force of friction (f) between the tyres and the road

As vertical forces are balanced therefore, N – mg = 0 or N = mg.

Since the car is moving in a circular path, it requires a centripetal force
mv 2
F .
r
The centripetal force must be provided by the force of friction between the
tyres and the road.
As force of friction
f  N  mg

The car remains on road if F = f

If the speed of the car exceeds the speed given by above formula the car will skid and go off the
ground (as there won’t be enough centripetal force for safe turning).
Thus, for safe turning

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m v2
  mg
r
v 2  rg
 v  rg
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Discuss the concept of apparent weight of a man in an elevator.

let us consider a weighing machine lying on the surface of an elevator or a lift

1. When the lift is at ret or moving with a constant velocity

Forces acting on body are
a. Weight (mg) of the man acting in downward direction
b. Normal reaction (R) acting in upward direction

As the lift is moving with a constant velocity therefore, net force acting on the man is zero
hence R = mg, i.e. true weight = apparent weight

2. When lift is accelerating

In upward direction. If the lift is accelerating in upward direction net

force is acting in upward direction i.e. R is more than mg , the equation
can be written as
R - mg = ma
or R = mg + ma
i.e. apparent weight > true weight

In downward direction. If the lift is accelerating in downward direction

net force is acting in downward direction i.e. mg is more than R , the
equation can be written as
mg - R = ma
or R = mg - ma
i.e. apparent weight < true weight

In case of free fall, the acceleration of the lift is g therefore R becomes 0

i.e. apparent weight of the person is zero.

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When lift is moving in downward direction with acceleration more than g, then R < 0, i.e.
apparent weight of the person becomes negative.

________________________________________________________________________

 Friction related derivations

What is angle of repose? Prove that angle of repose is equal to

angle of friction.

The minimum angle made by the inclined plane with the horizontal surface such that the body lying
on the inclined plane is just at the verge of sliding down along the inclined plane is called angle of
repose.

Let α be the angle made by the inclined plane with the horizontal surface (see fig.). The body will
be just in equilibrium, if net force acting on it is zero.

This is possible if f = mgsinα and N = mgcosα

f mgsin 
   tan 
N mgcos 

f
but  tan 
N
 tan   tan 
or   

Thus, it is clear from the above discussion that angle of repose = angle of friction.

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Derive a formula for the acceleration of a body sliding down a rough

inclined plane.

Consider a body of mass m resting on an inclined plane of inclination θ which is greater than angle
of repose therefore the body is accelerating downwards. Let a be the acceleration produced in the
body. Various forces acting on the body are

i. Weight of the body mg acting vertically downwards.

ii. Normal reaction N which acts vertically upwards.
iii. Force of friction (F) which opposes the relative motion of the body

Now resolve mg into two components

a. mg cosθ which is equal and opposite to the normal reaction to the normal reaction, these
two equal and opposite cancel each other
 mgcos   N ….(i)
b. mg sinθ which acts downwards along the surface of the inclined plane. This component of
the weight acts in a direction opposite to the direction of force of friction. The body
accelerates downwards if mg sinθ > F.
therefore net force acting down the plane is given by
mgsin   f  ma
 mgsin   N  ma
 mgsin   mgcos   ma using (i) which is the acceleration of the body sliding down
 m g  sin    cos    m a
 a   sin    cos  

the rough inclined plane.

Derive a formula for work done to move a body up a rough inclined

plane.

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Consider a body of mass m placed over a rough inclined plane having inclination θ with the
horizontal. The various forces acting on the body are shown in the figure. As the body is just
sliding, therefore, the applied force
P  mgsin   force of friction
 P  mgsin   f
 f  kN or f  kmgcos  [ N  mgcos ]
 P  mg  sin   k cos  

if s is the distance which the body travelled up the plane, then

W  Ps
W  mg  sin   k cos    s

______________________________________________________________________________

State and prove the principle of conservation of linear momentum

According to this principle, if net external force acting on a system is zero then total momentum of
the system always remains conserved.

Let there are n particles in a system having masses m1,m 2 ,m3 ..........mn respectively and velocities

v 1,v 2 ,v 3 ..........v n , then total momentum of the system is P  m1v1  m 2 v 2  m3 v 3 ..........mn v n

According to Newton’s second law of motion,

change in momentum dP
Force  F
time dt

but if Force acting on the system is zero then,

d
 m1v1  m2 v 2  m3 v 3 ..........mn vn   0
dt

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or m1v 1  m2 v 2  m3 v 3 ..........mn v n  constant

Which is the principle of law of conservation of momentum.

______________________________________________________________________________

Prove that second law is the real law of motion

Second law is the real law of motion because both first and third law are contained in second law.

First law is contained in second law : According to first law, force is required to produce
 
acceleration in the body and according to second law, F  ma , so if F = 0 then a = 0, which is first
law.

Third law is contained in second law. Consider an isolated system containing two bodies P and Q,
let external force acting on the system is 0. Let body P exerts a force F1 on body Q and Q exerts a
force F2 on body P for the time t ,

As change in momentum = force  time

Therefore change in momentum of P = F2  t and therefore change in momentum of Q = F1  t

As there no external force acting on the system, therefore according to Newton’s second law

Change in momentum =

 F1  t  F2  t  0
 F1  t   F2  t
 action  reaction

This is third law.

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Prove that it is easier to pull a lawn roller than to push it.

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It is clear from the diagram that

During pushing a component of pushing force is in the direction of weight which increases the
effective weight  W  F sin   making the roller feel heavy.

During pulling a component of pulling force is opposite to the direction of weight which decreases
the effective weight  W  F sin   making the roller feel light.

______________________________________________________________________________

Discuss horse and cart problem

Consider a cart connected to a horse by a string. The horse while pulling the cart produces a
tension T in the string in the forward direction (action). The cart, in turn, pulls the horse by an
equal force T in the opposite direction.

Initially, the horse presses the ground with a force F in an inclined direction. The direction R of the
ground acts on the horse in the opposite direction. The reaction R has two rectangular
components:

1. The vertical component V which balances the weight of the horse.

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2. The horizontal component H which helps the horse to move forward.

Let f be the force of friction

The horse moves forward in case H > T. In that case net force acting on the horse = H – T

If the acceleration of the horse is a and mass is m, then

H  T  ma .....(i)

The cart moves forward if T > f. In that case,

Net force acting on the cart = T  f

The weight of the cart is balanced by the reaction of the ground acting on it.

Since the cart also has same acceleration a. If mass of the cart is M, then

T  f  Ma .......(ii)

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

H  f  M  m  a
Hf
a
Mm

Obviously, a is positive if H  f is positive or if H > f.

Thus, the system moves is H > f i.e. force applied by horse in forward direction is more than the friction
between cart and road.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

State newton’s second law of motion and derive F = ma.

It states that the rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the force acting on the
body.

Let a body of mass m is moving with a speed u and after a force F is applied let its speed changes
to v in time t, then

Initial momentum of the body, Pi = mu and final momentum of the body Pf = mv. Therefore,
change in momentum = Pi - Pf = mv – mu

According to second law

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change in momentum P  Pi
Force  F f
time t

So, according to second law:

mv  mu
F 
t
 v u
 F  m 
 t 
  v  u 
 F  ma   a
 t 

This is another mathematical statement of second law of motion.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Derive a formula for acceleration of system and tension in string

when two masses are connected on two sides of a pulley.
1. Consider two masses m and M connected to the two free ends of an inextensible string
which passes over a smooth pulley. Let T be the tension in the string. The light mass m
moves upwards with an acceleration a and the heavy mass M moves downward with an

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acceleration a.
equation of motion of mass M
Resultant downward force acting on mass M is given by
F = Mg – T ....(i)
But F = ma
therefore Ma = Mg – T
Equation of motion of mass m
Resulting upward for action on mass m is given by
ma = T – Mg ....(ii)

Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get “ a 

M  m  g ,
M  m 
2Mg
and putting this value of a in any of the equations we get T  .
Mm

_________________________________________________________________________

Work energy power

Discuss elastic collision in one dimension. Derive an expression for

velocities of two bodies after such a collision.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 moving in the same
straight line colliding with each other. Let their velocities be v1 and v2 after the collision.

Since momentum remains conserved in an elastic collision, therefore

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2

 m1u1  m1v1  m2 v 2  m2u2
 m1 u1  v1   m2  v 2  u2  .......(i)

As kinetic energy is also conserved in elastic collision therefore

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1 1 1 1
m1u21  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
 m1u12  m1v12  m2 v 22  m2u22
2 2 2 2
1 1
 
 m1 u12  v12  m2 v 22  u22
2 2
 
1 1
 m1  u1  v1 u1  v1   m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2  .......(ii)
2 2

From (i) and (ii), we get

m1  u1  v1   u1  v1  m 2  v 2  u2   v 2  u 2 

m1  u1  v1  m2  v 2  u 2 
 u1  v1  v 2  u2
 u1  u2  v 2  v1 .............(iii)

Thus, relative velocity of approach = relative velocity of separation

Since

relative velocity of seperation

e  coefficient of restitution  
relative velocity of approach
v 2  v1
e
u1  u2

Therefore, for perfectly elastic collision, e = 1

Now, from (iii), we get

v 2  u1  u2  v1 , putting this in momentum conservation equation, we get

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2  u1  u2  v1 

 m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2u1  m2u2  m2 v1
  m1  m2  u1  2m2u2   m1  m2  v1

 v1 
 m1  m2  u1  2m2u2
m1  m2   m1  m2 

Similarly, we can prove that

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v2 
 m2  m1  u2  2m1u1
m1  m2   m1  m2 
______________________________________________________________________________

Derive an expression for the elastic potential energy of a stretched

spring.

Consider a spring of spring constant k. Let one end of this spring is fixed and a force F is applied
on the other end to stretch its length by small amount dx. Then, work done is
 
dW  [Link]
 dW    kx  dx cos180o
 dW  kx  1 dx
 dW  kxdx

Total work done in stretching the spring from 0 to x o

xo
W   kxdx
0
xo
 W  k  xdx
0

xo
 x2 
 W k 
 2 0
k
 W   x o2   0  
2

2 
1
 W  kx o2
2

This work is stored in the spring in the form of elastic potential energy, so

1 2
U kxo
2

______________________________________________________________________________

State and prove the work energy theorem.

Consider a body of mass m moving with a velocity vi. Now let a force F is applied to it and its
velocity becomes vf after some time. Let the velocity change be dv for small time dt and body
travels a distance ds during this time, then work done dW is

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dW  Fds
 dW  ma  ds
dv
 dW  m ds
dt
 ds 
 dW  mdv  
 dt 
 dW  mvdv
So, total work done when velocity changes from v i to v f
vf
  dW   mvdv
vi
vf
 v2 
 W  m 
 2  vi
 v2 v2 
 W  m f  i 
2 2
1 1
 W  mv 2f  mv i2
2 2

_____________________________________________________________________________

Prove that a body falling freely the total mechanical energy always
remains conserved.

Consider a body of mass m falling form a height h. Consider three points A, B and C in its path as
shown. Now

Total energy of body at A is only potential as its velocity is zero. Therefore

[Link]  mgh

At B, body has both potential and kinetic energy. Since the body has covered a distance x, therefore its
velocity at B is

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vB2   0   2gx
2

 vB2  2gx

So total energy of body at B is

1
TEB  mg  h  x   mvB2
2
1
 TEB  mg h  x   m  2gx 
2
 TEB  mgh  mgx  mgx
 TEB  mgh

At point C, body has only kinetic energy. Velocity of body at C is

v C2   0   2gh
2

 v C2  2gh

So, total energy of body at C is

1
TEC  mv C2
2
1
 TEC  m  2gh 
2
 TEC  mgh

Clearly, TEA  TEB  TEC

Derive an expression for common velocity of two bodies after

perfectly inelastic collision.

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Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities v1 and v2 collide inelastically and
stick together with each other. Let their common velocity after collision be v. As momentum
remains conserved in inelastic collision, therefore,

m1v1  m2 v 2   m1v  m2 v 
v  m1  m2   m1v1  m2 v 2
m1v1  m2 v 2
v
m1  m2

Derive an expression for loss of energy when two bodied of masses

m1 and m2 moving with velocities v1 and v2 undergo inelastic
collision.
Total KE of the bodies before collision
1 1
KEi  m1v12  m 2 v 22
2 2
Total KE after collision:

1 1
KE f  m1v 2  m2 v 2 (as velocity becomes equal after inelastic collision)
2 2
Therefore, loss of kinetic energy is

KEi  KEf
2
1 1 1  m v  m2 v 2 
 m1v12  m2 v 22   m1  m2   1 1 
2 2 2  m1  m2 

 m v  m2 v 2 
2
1 1 1
 m1v12  m2 v 22   m1  m2  1 1
2 2 2 m1  m2  2

 
2

1  m1v1  m1  m2   m2 v 2  m1  m2   m1 v1  m2 v 2  2m1m2 v1v 2 
2 2 2 2 2



2
  m1  m2  

1  m1 v1  m1m2 v1  m1m2 v 2  m2 v 2  m1 v1  m2 v 2  2m1m2 v1v 2 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

  
2

 m1  m2  

1
 m1m2 

 v12  v 22  2v1v 2 


2  m1  m2  
 v  v2 
2
1
KE  m1m2 1
2 m1  m2 

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System of particles and rotational motion

Centre of mass of n particle system

Consider a system of two particles P1 and P2 of masses m1 and m2. Let 𝑟⃗1 and 𝑟⃗2 be their position
vectors at any instant t with respect to the origin O, as shown in Fig.

Let m1,m2 be masses of two particles

let r1,r2 be position vectors of particles
let f1,f2 be external forces on particles
Let v1,v 2 be velocities of particles
Let F12 ,F21 be internal forces on particles (due to each other)

According’s to Newton’s second law:

    d  
f1  f2  F12  F21   m1v1  m2 v 2 
dt
 
 dr1  dr 2
As v1  and v 2 
dt dt
 
    d  dr1 dr 2 
f1  f2  F12  F21   m1  m2 
dt  dt dt 
 
But F12   F21 so they will cancel out
  d2  
f1  f2  2  m1r1  m2 r2 
dt
Multiply and divide L.H.S by m1 + m2 we get
 
  d2  m1r1  m2 r2 
f1  f2   m1  m2  2
dt  m1  m2 
 
Let f  f1  f2
 
 d2  m1r1  m2 r2 
f   m1  m2  2
dt m1  m2 

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 d2 
Comparing this equation with f   m1  m2  2 Rcm , we get
dt
 

R cm 
 m1r1  m2 r2 
m1  m2 
Centre of mass of an n particle system
   

R cm 
 m1r1  m2 r2  m3 r3 .........  mn rn 
 m1  m2  m3  ..............mn 
______________________________________________________________________________

Rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia

Relation between rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia. As shown in Fig., consider a
rigid body rotating about an axis with uniform angular velocity ω. The body may be assumed to
consist of n particles of masses m1 , m2 , m3 ,..........mn ; situated at distances r1 , r2 , r3 ,..........rn
from the axis of rotation. As the angular velocity ω of all the n particles is same, so their linear
velocities are

v1 = r1 ω , v2 = r2 ω , v3 = r3 ω,.........,vn = rn ω

Hence the total kinetic energy of rotation of the body about the axis of rotation is Rotational K.E.

1 1 1
 m1v12  m2 v 22  ............  mn v n2
2 2 2
1 1 1
 m1r12ω2  m2r22ω2  ............. mnrn2ω2
2 2 2
1
 
 m1r12  m2r22  ..........mnrn2 ω2
2
1
 Iω2
2
where I  m1r12  m2r22  ..........mnrn2 (moment of inertia)
______________________________________________________________________________

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Radius of gyration
The radius of gyration of a body about it axis of rotation may be defined as the distance from the
axis of rotation at which, if the whole mass of the body were concentrated, its moment of inertia
about the given axis would be the same as with the actual distribution of mass.

Expression for k. Suppose a rigid body consists of n particles of mass m each, situated at
distances r1 , r2 , r3 ,..........rn from the axis of rotation AB.

The moment of inertia of the body about the axis AB is

I  mr12  mr22  mr32  .......mnrn2


I  m r12  r22  r33  ....... 
Multiplying and dividing RHS by n, we get

I

m  n r12  r22  r33  ....... 
n

now m × n = M, total mass of the body.

If k is the radius of gyration about the axis AB, then

I = MK2 , therefore

2
Mk 

M r12  r22  r33  ....... 
n
r12  r22  r33  .......
 k
n
______________________________________________________________________________

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Relation between angular momentum and moment of inertia

Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis with uniform angular velocity ω. The body
consists of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3, ......., mn ; situated at distance r1 , r2 , r3 ......, rn from
the axis of rotation. The angular velocity ω of all the n particles will be same but their linear
velocities will be different and are given by
v1  r1ω, v 2  r2ω, v 3  r3 ω, v n  rnω,

Linear momenta of particles,

p1  m1r1  m1r1ω
p2  m2r2  m2r2ω
p3  m3r3  m3r3ω.......and so on

Therefore, the angular momenta of particles

L1  p1r1  m1r12ω
L 2  p2r2  m2r22ω
L3  p3r3  m3r32ω.............

The angular momentum of a rigid body about an axis is the sum of moments of linear momenta of
all its particles about that axis. Thus
L = L1 + L2 + L3 + ......,+ Ln

 m1r12ω  m2r22ω  m3r32ω  ...........mnrn2ω

 
 m1r12  m2r22  m3r32  .......mnrn2 ω
Since
m1r12  m2r22  m3r32  .......mnrn2  I (moment of inertia)
 L  Iω
______________________________________________________________________________

Relation between angular momentum and torque

  
As Torque, τ  r F
  
and Angular Momentum, L  r  p

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. time t, we get

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  
dL d   dr   dp
 (r  p)  p  r 
dt dt dt dt
 
    dp  
 v p  r F  dt  F
 
    
0τ  v  p  v  mv  0

 dL
τ
dt
_____________________________________________________________________________

Relation between torque and moment of inertia

Consider a particle P of mass m1 at a distance r1 from the axis of rotation. Let its linear velocity be
v1 .
Linear acceleration of the first particle, a1 = r1 α

Moment of force F1 about the axis rotation is

1  r1f1 = m1 r12 α

Similarly, 2  r2 f2 , 3  r3 f3 , ...............n  rn fn ,

Total torque acting on the rigid body is

τ = τ1+ τ2 + τ3 +..........+ τn

τ  m1r12 α  m2r22α  m3r32 α  .......mnrn2 α


 τ  m1r12  m2r22  m3r32  ........mnrn2 α 
2 2 2 2
Since m r  m r  m r  ........m r  I (moment of inertia)
11 2 2 3 3 n n

 τ  Iα
______________________________________________________________________________

Law of conservation of angular momentum

It states that if external torque acting on a system is zero, the total angular momentum of the
system remains conserved.

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Proof:
As we know
dL
τ ext 
dt
if τ ext 0
dL
then 0
dt
or L  constant
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Acceleration of a body rolling down a rough inclined plane

Consider a body of mass M and radius R rolling down a plane inclined at an angle θ to the
horizontal.
The external forces acting on the body are
I. The weight Mg of the body acting vertically downwards through the center of mass of the
cylinder.
II. The normal reaction N of the inclined plane acting perpendicular to the plane at P.
III. The frictional force f acting upwards and parallel to the inclined plane.

The weight Mg can be resolved into two rectangular components:

I. Mg cos θ perpendicular to the inclined plane.
II. Mg sin θ acting down the inclined plane.

As there is no motion in a direction normal to the inclined plane, so

N = Mg cos θ
Applying Newton’s second law to the linear motion of the center of mass, the net force on

the body rolling down the inclined plane is

F = Ma = Mg sin θ – f

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It is only the force of friction f which exerts torque τ on the cylinder and makes it rotate with angular
acceleration α. It acts tangentially at point of contact P and has lever arm equal to R.
τ = Force x force arm = fR
Also, τ = Iα
FR = Iα
Iα
Or f
R
Putting the value of f in equation, we get
Mgsinθ  f  Ma
Iα
 Mgsinθ   Ma
R
a
As α 
R
Ia
 Mgsin θ  2  Ma
R
Ia
Mgsinθ  2  Ma
R
 I 
 a  2  M   Mgsinθ
R 
Mgsinθ
 a
 I 
 2  M
R 
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Equations of rotational motion

First equation of motion. Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis with constant angular
acceleration α. By definition,
dω
α
dt
 dω  αdt
Integrting both sides within limits
ω2 t

 dω  α dt
ω1 0
ω2
 [dω] ω1  α[t]0t
 ω2  ω1  α[t  0]
 ω2  ω1  αt

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Second equation of motion. Let ω2 be the angular velocity of a rigid body at any instant t. By
definition
dθ
ω2 
dt
dθ  ω2dt
 dθ  (ω1  αt)dt

Integrting both sides within limits

θ t t

 dθ  ω  dt  α tdt
0
1
0 0
t
θ  t2 
t
(θ)  ω1(t)  α  
0 0
 2 0
 t2 
(θ  0)  ω1(t  0)  α   0 
2 
1 2
θ  ω1t  αt
2
Third equation of motion. The angular acceleration α may be expressed as
dω
α 
dt
m u ltip ly a n d d iv id e b y d θ , w e g e t
dω dθ
α= 
dθ dt
dω
α  ω
dθ
 αdθ  ω dω
I n te g r a t in g b o t h s id e s w it h in g iv e n lim it s
θ ω2

α dθ   ω dω
0 ω1
ω2
θ  ω2 
 α(θ ) 0   
 2 ω1
 ω2 ω 12 
 α(θ  0 )   2  
 2 2 
 2 α θ  ω 22  ω 12
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Mechanical properties of fluids

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Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli’s Principle states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
per unit volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined irrotational flow remains
constant along a streamline.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as

1
P  ρv 2  ρgh  constant
2

Proof. Consider a non-viscous and incompressible fluid flowing steadily flowing through a pipe of
varying cross-section. Let a1 be the area of cross-section at MN, v1 the fluid velocity, P1 the fluid
pressure, and h1 the mean height above the ground level. Let a2, v2, P2 and h2 be the values of the
corresponding quantities at M’N’.

Let ρ be the density of the fluid. Let the part MNM’N’ of the liquid moves to PQP’Q’ in time t
As liquid is incompressible so mass of liquid in MNPQ part and M’N’P’Q’ is same which is given by
m = Volume x Density = Area of cross-section x length x density

or m  a1v1tp  a2v 2tp

K.E of the fluid = K.E at B – K.E at A

or a1v1  a2v2

 Change in K.E
1 1
=
2
  
m v 22  v12  a1v1tρ v 22  v12
2

Change in P.E of the fluid
= P.E at B – P.E at A

= mg  h2  h1   a1v1tρg  v 22  v12 

Net work done on the fluid

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= work done on the fluid A – Work done by the fluid at B

 P1a1v1t  P2a2 v 2 t
 a1v1 P1  P2 

By conservation of energy,
Net work done on the fluid
= change in K.E of the fluid + change in P.E of the fluid
1
 a1v 1t P1  P2  
2
 
a1v1tρ v 22  v 12  a1v 1tρg  h2  h1 

Dividing both sides by a1v1t , we get

1 2 1 2
P2  P1  ρv 2  ρv1  ρgh2  ρgh1
2 2
1 1
P1  ρv12  ρgh1  P2  ρv 22  ρhg2
2 2
1
or P  ρv 2  ρgh  constant
2

Terminal velocity
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling through a viscous medium is called
as Terminal Velocity.

Expression for terminal velocity. Consider a spherical body of radius r falling through a viscous
liquid of density of the body.
As the body falls, the various forces acting on the body are:

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1. Weight of the body acting vertically downwards.

4
W  mg  πr 3ρg
3
2. Upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
4
FB  πr 3 σg
3
3. Force of viscosity acting in the upward direction. According to Stoke’s Law,
Fv  6πηrv

When the body attains terminal velocity v ,

FV  FB  W
4 3 4
 πr σg  6πηrv t  πr 3ρg
3 3
4
 6πηrv t  πr 3  ρ  σ  g
3

2r 2  ρ  σ 
Or vt  g
9η

This is the expression for terminal velocity.

Ascent formula

Consider a capillary tube of radius r dipped in a liquid of surface tension S and density ρ. Suppose
the liquid wets the sides of the tube. Then its meniscus will be concave. The shape of the
meniscus of water will be nearly spherical if the capillary tube is of sufficiently narrow bore.

As the pressure is greater on the concave side

of a liquid surface, so excess of pressure at a
point A just above the meniscus compared to
point B just below the meniscus

2S
p
R

Where R is the radius of curvature of

meniscus. If θ is the angle of contact then from
right angled triangle shown in figure, we have

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r
 cosθ
R
r
or R 
cos θ
2S cosθ
 p
r

Due this excess pressure p, the liquid rises in the capillary tube t height h when the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the liquid column becomes equal to the excess pressure p. Therefore, at
equilibrium, we have

p  hρg
2Scosθ
or  hρg
r
2Scosθ
or p
rρg

__________________________________________________________
Equation of continuity
Consider a non-viscous and incompressible liquid flowing steadily between the sections A and B of
a pipe of varying cross section, Let a1 be the area of cross section, v1 fluid velocity, 1 fluid density
at section A; and the values of corresponding quantities at section B be a2,v 2 and 2 .

As m = volume x density
= area of cross section x length x density
Therefore, mass of fluid that flows through section A in time t ,

m1  a1v1t1

Mass of fluid that flows through section B in time t ,

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m2  a2v2t2

By conservation of mass

m1  m2

a1v1t1  a2v2t2

As fluid is incompressible, 1  2 and hence

a1v1  a2 v 2

Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

Consider a spherical liquid drop of radius R. Let  be the surface tension of the liquid. Due to its
spherical shape, there is an excess pressure p inside the drop over that on outside. This excess
pressure acts normally outwards. Let the radius of the drop increase from R to R + dR under the
excess pressure p.

Initial surface area = 4πR 2

Final surface area =

4π(R+dR) 2 = 4π(R 2 +2RdR + dR 2 )

= 4πR 2 + 8πR dR
dR 2 is neglected as it is small.

Increase in surface area

= 4πR 2 +8πR dR - 4πR 2 = 8πR dR

Work done in enlarging the drop
= Increase in surface energy
= Increase in surface area  Surface tension
= 8πR dRσ
But work done = Force  Distance
= Pressure  Area  Distance

= p  4 R 2  dR

Hence, p  4πR 2  dR = 8πR dRσ

Excess Pressure,

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2σ
p=
R
______________________________________________________________________________

Excess pressure inside a soap bubble

Proceeding as in the case of a liquid drop in the above derivation, we obtain
Increase in surface area = 8πR dR
But a soap bubble has air both inside and outside, so it has two free surfaces
 Effective increase in surface area
= 2  8πR dR = 16 πR dR
Work done in enlarging the soap bubble
= Increase in surface energy
= Increase in surface area x Surface tension
= 16 πR dR 
But, Work done = Force x Distance

= p  4πR 2  dR
Hence

p  4πR 2  dR = 16 πR dR 

4
or p
R

Variation of pressure with depth

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Imagine a cylindrical element of the liquid of cross-sectional area A and height h. Let P1 and P2 be
the liquid pressures at its top point 1 and bottom point 2 respectively.

Various force acting on it in the vertical direction are:

1. Force due to the liquid pressure at the top,
F1 = P1 A, acting downwards
2. Force due to the liquid pressure at the bottom,
F2 = P2 A, acting upwards
3. Weight of the liquid cylinder acting downwards,
W = Mass  g = Volume  density  g

=Ahpg
where p is the density of the liquid.
As the liquid cylinder is in equilibrium,
Net downward force = Net upward force
or F1 + W = F2
or F2 – F1 = W
or P2 A - P1 A = Ahρg
or P2 - P1 = hρg
If we shift the point 1 to the liquid surface, which is open to the atmosphere, then we can replace P1
by atmospheric pressure Pa and P2 by P in the above equation and we get
P – Pa = hρg
P = Pa + hρg
The excess pressure P – Pa at depth h is called a gauge pressure at that point.

Surface energy

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Work done to increase the area of a liquid surface against the force of surface tension gets stored
in the surface in the form of surface energy.
Consider a metallic frame with a movable arm of length  . Now, this frame is dipped in a liquid
solution so a soap film is formed on it as shown. Now, we are applying a force F against the force
of surface tension and moving the arm through a distance x, so work done is
W  F x
F
Since S   F  S  2
2
Therefore
W  S  2  x
 W  S  ΔA
This work is stored in the liquid surface in the form of surface energy.
Hence Surface energy  Surface tension  increase in area

Pascal’s law
According to Pascal’s law a change in
pressure applied to an enclosed
incompressible fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and
the walls of the containing vessel.

As shown in figure, consider a small

element ABC-DEF in the form of a right angled prism in the interior of a
fluid at rest. The element is so small that all its parts can be assumed to be
at same depth from the liquid surface and, therefore, the effect of gravity is
same for all of its points.
Suppose the fluid exerts pressures Pa, Pb and Pc on the faces BEFC,
ADFC and ADEB respectively of this element and corresponding normal
forces on these faces are Fa, Fb and Fc. Let Aa, Ab and Ac be the areas
of the three faces. In right ABC, let ACB  θ .

As this element is in equilibrium with remaining fluid, the forces should balance in all directions.
Along horizontal direction
Fb sinθ  Fc
Fb cosθ  Fa

From the geometry of the figure, we get

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A b sinθ  A c
A b cosθ  A a

From above equations, we get

Fb sinθ Fc

A b sinθ A c
and
Fb cosθ Fa

A b cosθ A a
Fa F F
  b  c
Aa Ac Ac
or Pa  Pb  Pc
______________________________________________________________________________

Stoke’s law
According to Stoke’s law, the backward viscous force acting on a small spherical body of radius r
moving with uniform velocity v through fluid of viscosity η is given by

F  6πηrv

Derivation of Stoke’s law

The viscous force F acting on a sphere moving through a fluid may depend on
i. Coefficient of viscosity η of the fluid
ii. Radius r of the spherical body
iii. Velocity v of the body
Let

F  kηar b v c ........(i)
where k is a dimensionless constant

[F]  [MLT 2 ], η  [ML1T 1 ]

[r]  [L], v  [LT 1 ]

Substituting these dimensions in eq. (i), we get

[MLT 2 ]  [ML1T 1 ]a [L]b [LT 1 ]c

Equating the powers M, L and T on both sides, we get

a 1
a  b  c  1
 a  c  2

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On solving we get a = b = c = 1
For a small sphere k is found to be 6π
Hence F  6πηrv
______________________________________________________________________________

Critical velocity
“The critical velocity of a liquid is that limiting value of its velocity of flow up-to which the flow is
streamlined and above which the flow becomes turbulent.”
The critical velocity vc of a liquid flowing through a tube depends upon
i. Coefficient of viscosity of liquid (η)
ii. Density of liquid (ρ)
iii. Diameter of the tube (D)

Let v c  kηaρbDc

Where k is a dimensionless constant. Writing the above equation in dimension form, we get

[MoLT 1 ]  [ML1T 1 ]a [ML3 ]b [L]c

[MoLT 1 ]  [MabL a 3b c T  a ]

Equating powers of M, L and T we get

ab  0
a  3b  c  1
a  1
 a  1,b  1,c  1
 v c  kηρ1D1
kη
 vc 
ρD
______________________________________________________________________________

Thermal properties of matter

Relation between alpha and beta

Consider a metallic square plate of length  . So, area of the plate is A   2 . If this plate is now heated
and temperature is raised by T due to which the area is increased by A and side length is increased by
 . Then,

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As  new    
A new         2      2
2 2

A  A   2  2
 A  βAT  2  2αT
 βA T  2α T
 β A  2α  2
 β  2α
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Relation between alpha and gamma

Consider a metallic cube of edge length  . So, volume of the cube is A  3 . If this cube is now heated
and temperature is raised by T due to which the volume is increased by V and side length is increased
by  . Then,

As  new    
Vnew        3      3 2   3   
3 3 2

neglecting higher powers of , we get

V  V  3  3 2 
 V  γVT  3  3 2  αT 
 γ V T  3 3 α T
 γ  3α
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Thermodynamics

Derive a relation between two principles specific heats of a gas

Or derive a relation between CP and CV
Or derive Mayer’s formula.
Consider n moles of an ideal gas. Heat the gas to raise their temperature by dT. According to the
first law of thermodynamics, the heat supplied dQ is used to partly to increase the internal energy
and partly in doing the work of expansion. That is,

dQ = dU + PdV

If the heat dQ is absorbed at constant volume, then dV = 0 and we have

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dQ  nC V dt and dQ  dU
 dU  nCV dt .................(i)

If now the heat dQ is absorbed at constant pressure, then

dQ  dU  PdV
 nCP dt  dU  PdV

Change in internal energy is same in both case because temperature change is same.

Using (i) we get

nCP dt  nCV dt  PV

 n  CP  Cv  dt  PdV

 PV  nRT
 PdV  nRdT

Putting this in above relation, we get

n  CP  Cv  dt  nRdt
or CP  C V  R

This is the required relation between CP and CV . It is also known as Mayer’s Formula.
______________________________________________________________________________

Derive an expression for work done by a gas in adiabatic expansion

from volume V1 to V2.

Work done in an adiabatic expansion. Consider n moles of an ideal gas contained in a cylinder
having insulating walls and provided with frictionless and insulating piston. Let P be the pressure
of the gas. When the piston moves up through a small distance dx, the work done by the gas will
be

dW = PAdx = p dV

where A is the cross-sectional area of the piston and dV = Adx is the increase in the volume of the
gas.

Suppose the gas expands adiabatically and changes from the initial state (P1,V1,T1 ) to the final

state (P2 ,V2 ,T2 ) . The total work done by the gas will be

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V2
Wadia   PdV
V1

For an adiabatic change PV γ = K or P = KV γ , 

V2
Wadia = 
V1
KV -γ dV
V2
V2  V1-γ 
= K -γ
V dV = K  
V1
 1- γ  V1
K 1
= [V21-γ - V11-γ ] = [KV11-γ -KV21-γ ]
1-γ γ-1

But K = P1V1γ = P2 V2γ

1
[P1V1γ V11-γ - P2 V2γ V21-γ ]
Wadia =
γ-1
1
Wadia = [P1V1 - P2 V2 ]
γ-1
Also, P1V1= nRT1 and P2 V2 = nRT2
nR
Wadia = [T1 -T2 ]
γ-1

_________________________________________________________

Derive an expression for work done by a gas in an isothermal

reversible expansion from volume V1 to V2 at constant temperature
T.

Work done in an isothermal expansion. Consider n moles of an ideal

gas contained in a cylinder having conducting walls and provided with
frictionless and movable piston, as shown in the figure below. Let P be
the pressure of the gas.

Work done by the gas when the piston moves up through a small
distance dx is given by

dW = P A dx = PdV

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where A is the cross-sectional area of the piston and dV = Adx, is the small increase in the volume
of the gas. Suppose the gas expands isothermally from initial state ( P1 ,V1 ) to the final state ( P2 ,V2 ) .

The total amount of work done will be

V2

Wiso =  PdV
V1

nRT
For n moles of a gas, PV = nRT or P =
V

V2 V
nRT 2
1
V V V V dV  nRT [ln V]V12
V
 Wiso  dV  nRT
1 1

V2
= nRT [ln V2  ln V1]  nRT ln
V1

V2 P
or Wiso  2.303 nRT log = 2.303 nRT log 1
V1 P2

__________________________________________________________

Q2
Show that efficiency of a heat engine is 1  , where Q1 is heat
Q1
supplied by source and Q2 is heat given out into the sink.

Let a working substance in a heat engine absorbs heat Q1 from a source and rejects heat Q2 into
the sink. So, heat used for performing work is Q1  Q2 . This must be equal to net work done by the

working substance. Hence Wnet  Q1  Q2 .

Output work
η 
Energy absorbed
Wnet Q1  Q2 Q
η    η  1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1

______________________________________________________________________________

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T2
Show that efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by η  1  , where
T1
T2 and T1 are temperatures of sink and source respectively.

In a Carnot engine, first step in isothermal expansion. Let the volume of n moles of gas increases
from V1 to V2 at temperature T1, then work done by the gas is
V2
Q1  W1  2.303nRT1 log , where Q1 is the heat gained by system
V1

Second step is adiabatic expansion, now let the volume of gas increases from V2 to V3 and
temperature changes from T1 to T2, then work done is
1
W2   T2  T1 
1 γ

Third step is isothermal compression, let the volume of gas changes from V3 to V4, then work done
is
V4
Q2  W3  2.303nRT2 log , where Q2 is the heat loss by the system.
V3

Step 4 is adiabatic compression in which the volume V4 changes back to intial volume V1, then
work done is
1
W4    T1  T2 
1 γ

Net work done is

Wnet  Wexp  Wcom  W1  W2   W3  W4 

since W2  W4

Wnet  W1  W3  Q1  Q2

Note: You can directly start this derivation from above step also, you can consult your school
teacher
Also
For step 1, we can write
P1V1  P2 V2 ..........(i)

For step 2

P2 V2γ  P3 V3γ ......(ii)

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For step 3
P3 V3  P4 V4 ...........(iii)

For step 4

P4 V4γ  P1V1γ .......(iv)

Therefore, we have
γ γ γ γ
1 2P3P4 V1V2 V3 V4  PP
PP 1 2P3P4 V1 V2 V3 V4

 V1V3    V2 V4 
1 γ 1 γ

V1 V4
  .......(v)
V2 V3

Now,

V 
 2.303nR T2 log  4 
Q2
  V3 
Q1 V 
2.303nR T1 log  2 
 V1 
1
V  V 
log  4  log  4 
Q2 T
 2  V3   T2  V3  [ alogb  logba ]
Q1 T1  V  T1 V 
log  2  log  2 
 V1   V1 

V 
log  3 
Q T
 2  2  V4 
Q1 T1 V 
log  2 
 V1 
V3 V1
Since  [using  v ]
V4 V2
Q2 T2
 
Q1 T1

Since
Wnet Q1  Q2 Q
η   1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1
T2
 η  1
T1

Show that adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal curve.

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dP
As we know, slope is
dV
For isothermal process\
PV  k
differentiating both sides, we get
PdV  VdP  0
dP P
 
dV V
For adiabatic process, we have

PV γ  k
differentiating both sides, we get
PγV γ 1dV  V γ dP  0
dP P
  γ
dV V
Clearly slope of adiabatic curve is gamma times more that slope of isothermal curve and since
gamma is always greater than 1, so slope of adiabatic curve is more than that of isothermal curve.
Hence an adiabatic curve is always steeper than an isothermal curve.

Thermal properties of matter

Pressure due to an ideal gas

Consider a cubical chamber of edge length  containing an ideal gas as shown. Let number of molecules
per unit volume be n. Consider a molecule with velocity v with velocity components vx, vy and vz.
Momentum of this molecule before hitting wall ABCD = mvx
Since the collisions of an idea gas (according to KTG) are perfectly elastic so the momentum of the
molecule after hitting the wall is mv x (negative sign because direction is
opposite now)

Therefore, change in momentum = mv x  mv x = 2mv x

So, momentum imparted to the wall = 2mv x .

Therefore, average momentum of that each molecule imparts to the wall is

2mv x

where v x is the average of velocity components of molecules in x direction

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No of molecules that can hit the wall in time t is nv x t 2 , but since half of these molecules are moving
1
away from the wall. Therefore, number of molecules that will actually hit the wall in time t is nv x t 2 .
2

1
So, total momentum imparted to wall in time t is nv x t 2  2mv x  mnv 2x t 2
2

mnv 2x t 2
Therefore, force exerted on the wall =  mnv 2x  2
t

Force mnv 2x  2
Therefore, pressure exerted by x component, Px =  mnv 2x  2  2
 mnv 2x . Since the velocity of
Area 
gas in all directions should be same due to its random motion, therefore, v 2x  v 2y  v z2

1 2
Since v 2  v 2x  v 2y  v z2 so we get v 2  3v 2x  v 2x  v
3

1
Therefore, we get P = mnv 2 . Since mn = ρ (density of gas), therefore
3

1 2
P v
3

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Law of equipartition of energy

For a system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed in all possible energy
1
modes, with each mode having an average energy equal to k B T , where k B is Boltzman’s
2
constant and T is the absolute temperature of the system.

Derivation of Cp, Cv and gamma

1
Thus, average energy available per molecule per degree of freedom = kB T
2
n
If gas has n degrees of freedom, then average energy available per molecule, u  kBT
2
R n R
 kB  where R is universal gas constant, therefore u  T
NA 2 NA

n R n
So, average energy per mole U  T  NA  RT
2 NA 2

Since
dQ = dU + PdV
At constant volume, dV = 0 and dQ  Cv dT

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 dU  Cv dT
dU n dT
 Cv   R
dT 2 dT
nR
 Cv 
2
 Cp  Cv  R
nR n 
 Cp   R  R   1
2 2 

n 
R   1
Cp 2 
So, γ   
Cv nR
2
2
 γ  1
n

2 5
If the gas is monoatomic, then, n = 3, then γ  1  
3 3

2 7
If the gas is diatomic, n = 5, then γ  1  
5 5

2 9
For triatomic gas linear molecule, n = 7 γ  1  
7 7

2 4
For triatomic non-linear molecule n = 6, γ  1  
6 3

Mean free path

It is the average distance travelled by a gas molecule between two successive collisions.

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Consider a gas having n molecules per unit volume. Let the diameter of each molecule be d and it
is moving with velocity v. Now, it will hit only those molecules in time t whose centres are within a
distance d from the centre of this molecule.

So, number of molecules that this molecule will hit in time t = nπd2 vt

nπd2 vt
Therefore, number of collisions per unit time =  nπd2 v
t
1
So, average time between two collisions =
nπd2 v
Therefore, average distance between two collisions,

1
λ v
nπd2 v
1
 λ
nπd2

In this derivation we have assumed that other molecules are rest, which is not possible in reality.
The actual result is

1
λ
2nπd2

Oscillations all derivations

Various parameters in SHM

Displacement
A body executing SHM can be compared with a body doing circular motion having radius A as shown. Let
this body covers an angle θ in time after starting from X (A,0) at t = 0.

In OBP
y
 sinθ
A

 y  A sinωt

This is the displacement equation of a body amplitude of whose motion is A and

angular frequency is ω

Velocity in SHM

dy
v  Aωcosωt
dt

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 v  Aω 1  sin2 ωt
y2
 v  Aω 1 
A2
A 2  y2
 v  Aω
A
 v  ω A2  y2

v max  Aω

Acceleration in SHM

dv d
a   Aωcos ωt 
dt dt
 a   Aω2 sinωt
 a  ω 2 y ....... i 

Restoring force

F  ma
 F  mω2 y

Time period in SHM

 F  ky and also F  mω2 y

 k  mω2

k
So, ω 
m
2π k
or 
T m
m
 T  2π
k

Also, from i

a
ω
y
2π a
 
T y
y acceleration
 T  2π  2π
a displacement

Kinetic energy in SHM

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1
KE  mv 2
2
1
 
2
 KE  m ω A 2  y 2
2
1 1
 KE  mω2 A 2  mω2 y 2
2 2
Potential energy in SHM

1 2
PE  ky
2
1
 PE  mω2 y 2
2
Total energy in SHM

TE  PE  KE
1 1 1
 TE  mω2 y 2  mω2 A 2  mω2 y 2
2 2 2
1
 TE  mω2 A 2
2
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Time period of simple pendulum

Consider a pendulum of length L connected to a bob of mass m as shown. Now from figure it is clear that
mgsinθ provides the necessary restoring force. Therefore

F  mgsinθ
for small angles sinθ  θ
 F  mgθ
x
θ

x
 F  mg

 mg 
or F    x
  

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mg
k 

m
As T  2π
k
m
 T  2π
mg


or T  2π
g

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Time period of spring

Horizontal spring

In this spring mass system shown in figure above, time period of oscillation is given by

m
T  2π
k

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Vertical spring
When a block is connected to a vertical spring, it extends by an amount
 so that the restoring force balances the weight of the block. Therefore,
mg  k
mg
So, k 

mg  k
mg
So, k 

Now, when this spring is pulled by a distance y, it starts doing SHM with time period T which is given by

m
 T  2π
mg


T  2π
g

____________________________________________________________________________________

Combination of springs
Series combination

Consider two springs of spring constants k1 and k 2 connected in series as shown. Now, when this system
oscillates, extensions in springs be y1 and y 2 , then

F  k1y1  k 2 y 2

Total extension is
y  y1  y 2
F F
y 
k1 k1
1 1
 y  F   
 k1 k 2 
 kk 
 F   1 2  y
 k1  k 2 

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Comparing it with F  kx, we get

kk
k 1 2
k1  k 2
which gives
1 1 1
 
k k1 k 2

m  k1  k 2 
 T  2π
k1k 2

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Parallel combination
Consider two springs of spring constants k1 and k 2 connected in series as
shown. Now, when this system oscillates, extensions in springs be y and
restoring forces be F1 and F2, then

F1  k1y, F2  k 2 y
F  F1  F2  k1y  k1y
 F    k1  k 2  y

 k  k1  k 2

m
 T  2π
k1  k 2

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Waves – all derivations

Equation of plane progressive wave

Suppose a simple harmonic wave starts from the origin O and travels along the positive direction of X-axis
with speed v. Let the time be measured from the instant when the particle at the origin O is passing through
the mean position. Taking the initial phase of the particle to be zero, the displacement of the particle at the
origin O (x = 0) at any instant t is given by

y(0,t)  A sin t …. (i)

Where T is the periodic time and A is the amplitude of the wave.

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Consider a particle P on x axis at a distance x from O.

x
The disturbance starting from the origin O will reach P in seconds later than the particle at O. Therefore
v

x
Displacement of the particle at P at any instant t = Displacement of the particle at O at a seconds earlier
v

 x
= Displacement of the particle at O at time  t  
 v

 x
Thus the displacement of the particle at P at any time t can be obtained by replacing t by  t   in
 v
equation (i)

 x   
y  x,t   A sin   t    A sin  t  x 
 v  v 
 2 2
But   k
v v 

2
The quantity k  is called angular wave number. Hence,


y  x,t   A sin  t  kx 

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Relation between particle velocity and wave velocity

dy dx
particle velocity v p  ; wave veocity v w 
dt dt

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v p  Aωcos  ωt  kx 
dy
  A cos  ωt  kx  k
dx
v Aωcos  ωt  kx  ω
 p  
 dy  A cos  ωt  kx  k k
 dx 
 
2π
dy λ dy
vp   T   
2π dx T dx
λ
dy
 vp  v w 
dx

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in gases and Laplace’s

correction
Newton assumed that the sound waves travel through air under isothermal conditions. He argued that the
small amount of heat produced in a compression is rapidly conducted to the surrounding rarefaction where
slight cooling is produced. Thus the temperature of the gas remains constant.
For isothermal change
PV = constant
Differentiating both side, we get

PdV  VdP  0
 PdV   VdP
dPV
P B
dV
Where B is the bulk modulus of the gas.

B
Now, since velocity v of a longitudinal wave in medium is given by v  , where  is the density of the

medium, therefore

P 101325
v = v  280 ms1
 1.293

Which is incorrect having an error of 16%

Laplace pointed out that the sound travels through a gas under adiabatic conditions not under isothermal
conditions because

 Compression and rarefactions are so rapid that there is no time for exchange of heat.
 Air is an insulator so free exchange of heat is not possible.

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So, applying the equation of state for an adiabatic process, we get

PV   K
 PV 1dV  V  dP  0
V
 P dV  V  dP  0
V
 P 
 V   dV  dP   0
V 
dPV
 P   B
dV

P
v   1.4  280 ms1  331.3ms1 , which the correct value of velocity of sound in air.


_____________________________________________________________________________________

Standing waves on stretched strings

Q: Discuss the formation of standing waves in a string fixed at both
ends and the different modes of vibrations
Or
Discuss the formation of harmonics
in a stretched string. Show that in
case of a stretched string in the four
harmonics are in the ratio 1 : 2: 3 : 4.
Standing waves on stretched strings
Consider a wave travelling along the string given by

y1  A sin(t  kx)

After reflection from the rigid end the equation of the

reflected wave is given by

y 2  A sin( t  kx  )
or
y 2   A sin  t  kx 

When these two waves superimpose, then the resultant wave is given by

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y1  y 2  A sin  t  kx   A sin  t  kx 
  t  kx  t  kx   t  kx  t  kx  
y  A 2 sin   cos  
  2   2 
 kx   2 t 
y  2A sin   cos  
 2   2 
y  2A sinkx cos t

As there is always a node at the end, so if length of the rope is L then we can say when x = L, y = 0

0  2A sinkL sin t
sinkL  sinn
kL  n
2
L  n

n
L
2
2L 2L
For each value of n, there is a corresponding value of  , so we can write  n or  
n n

T
The speed of transverse wave on a string of linear mass density m is given by v 
m
So the frequency of vibration of the strings is

v n T
n  
n 2L m

1 T
For n = 1, v1    (say)
2L m
This is the lowest frequency with which the string can vibrate and is called fundamental frequency or first
harmonic.

2 T
For n  2,  2   2 (first ovetone or second harmonic)
2L m
3 T
For n  3, 3   3 (second ovetone or third harmonic)
2L m
4 T
For n  2,  4   4 (third ovetone or fourth harmonic)
2L m
Position of nodes

L 2L
x  0, , ,...........,L
n n

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Position of antinodes

L 3L 5L (2n  1)L
x , , ,.......,
2n 2n 2n 2n
____________________________________________________________________________________

Standing waves in organ pipes

First mode of vibration
In the simplest mode of vibration, there is one node
in the middle and to antinodes at the ends of the
pipe.
Here length of the pipe,

1 1
L  2. 
4 2
1  2L
Frequency of vibration,
v 1 P
1   
1 2L 

This is called fundamental frequency or first

harmonic.
Second mode of vibration
Here antinodes at the open ends are separated by two nodes and one antinode.

2
4  2
4
v 1 P
Frequency,  2    2
2 L 

This frequency is called first overtone or second harmonic.

Third mode of vibration
Here the antinodes at the open ends are separated by three nodes and two antinodes.

3 2L
L6 or  3 
4 3
v 3 P
 Frequency,  3    3
 3 2L 

This frequency is called the second harmonic or third harmonic

v n P
Similarly n    n
 3n 2L 

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Hence the various frequencies of an open organ pipe are in the ratio [Link]….these are called harmonics.

Closed organ pipes

First mode of vibration
In the simplest mode of vibration, there is
only one node at the closed end and one
antinode at the open end. If L is the
length of the organ pipe, then

1
L or 1  4L
4
Frequency,
v 1 P
1   
1 4L 

This is called first harmonic or

fundamental frequency.
Second mode of vibration
In this mode of vibration, there is one
node and one antinode between a node
at the closed end and an antinode at the
open end

3 2 4L
L or  2 
4 3
Frequency,
v 3 P
2    3
 2 4L 

This frequency is called first overtone or third harmonic.

Third mode of vibration
In this mode of vibration, there are two nodes and two antinodes between a node at the closed end and an
antinode at the open end.

5 3 4L
L or  3 
4 5
Frequency,
v 5 P
3    5
 3 4L 

Hence different frequencies produced in a closed organ pipe are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 …..i.e. only odd
harmonics are present in a closed organ pipe.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Beats: expression for beat interval and beat frequency

The periodic variations in the intensity of sound caused by superposition of two sound waves of slightly
different frequencies are called beats.

Consider two harmonic waves of frequencies 1 and  2 (let 1   2 ) and each of amplitude A travelling in
a medium in the same direction. The displacements of due to two waves are given as

y1  A sin 1t  A sin 21t and

y 2  A sin 2 t  A sin2 2 t

By the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement at a given point will be

y  y1  y 2  A sin21t  A sin2 2 t
      2 
 2A cos 2  1 2  t sin2  1 t
 2   2 
If we write

1   2   2
a  and b  1 , then
2 2
y  2A cos 2a t sin2b t

Amplitude of this wave is 2A cos 2 a t , this amplitude is maximum when

cos 2a t  1
cos 2a t  cosn
 2a t  n
n
t
1   2

1 2
This is maximum for t1  , t2  .....
1   2 1   2

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1
Therefore time interval between two maximum t 2  t1 
1   2

And 2A cos 2 a t is minimum when

cos 2a t  0

 cos 2a t  cos(2n  1)
2

 2a t   2n  1
2

t
 2n  1
2(1   2 )

1 3
This is minimum for t1  , t2  ......
2  1   2  2  1   2 

3 1 1
Therefore time interval between successive minima is t 2  t1   
2  1   2  2  1   2   1   2 

Since one maxima and one minima make one beat, therefore

1
Beat interval is
 1  2 
Beat frequency =  1   2 

Speed of transverse wave on stretched string

Speed v of a transverse wave depends upon tension in the string and linear mass density (mass/length)

v  T a λb
 v  kTa λb
 [LT 1 ]  k[MLT 2 ]a [ML1 ]b
 [LT 1 ]  k[MabLa b T 2a ]
a  b  0, a  b  1,
1 1
 a  ,b  
2 2

T
v  k
λ

____________________________________________________________________________________

Speed of longitudinal wave in a gas

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Speed v of a transverse wave depends upon bulk modulus B of the gas and density of the gas ρ

v  Baρb
 v  kBaρb
 [LT 1]  k[ML1T 2 ]a [ML3 ]b
 [LT 1]  k[MabL a3b T 2a ]
a  b  0,  a  3b  1,
1 1
 a  ,b  
2 2

B
v  k
ρ

_____________________________________________________________________________________

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