Environmental Science

Module 2: ECOLOGY
The word “ecology” (“Ökologie”) was coined in obtained. Each species eats a different type of
1866 by the German scientist Ernst food and obtains the food in a different way.
Haeckel. Ecology is the study of how living things
interact with each other and with
Habitat
their environment. It is a major branch of biology
Another aspect of a specie‘s niche is its habitat.
but has areas of overlap with geography, geology,
The habitat is the physical environment in which a
climatology, and other sciences.
species lives and to which it is adapted. A habitat
‘s features are determined mainly by abiotic factors
Fundamental such as temperature and rainfall. These factors
Concepts and Principles of Ecology also influence the traits of the organisms that live
there.
There are certain basic fundamental ecological
principles which describe various aspects of living
organisms e.g. evolution and distribution of plants Competitive Exclusion Principle
and animals, extinction of species consumption A given habitat may contain many different
and transfer of energy in different components of species, but each species must have a different
biological communities, cycling, and recycling of niche. Two different species cannot occupy the
organic and inorganic substances, interactions same niche in the same place for very long. This is
and inter-relationships among the organisms and known as the competitive exclusion principle. If two
between organisms and physical environment, etc. species were to occupy the same niche, they
The Following are the fundamental concepts and would compete with one another for the same food
principles in ecology, beginning with organisms and other resources in the environment.
and the environment. Eventually, one species would be likely to
outcompete and replace the other.
Organisms and the Environment
Organisms are individual living things. Despite The Ecosystem
their tremendous diversity, all organisms have the
An ecosystem is a unit of nature and the focus of
same basic needs: energy and matter. These must
study in ecology. It consists of all the biotic and
be obtained from the environment.
abiotic factors in an area and their
Therefore, organisms are not closed
interactions. Ecosystems can vary in size. A lake
systems. They depend on and are influenced by
could be considered an ecosystem. So could a
their environment. The environment includes two
dead log on a forest floor. Both the lake and log
types of factors: abiotic and biotic.
contain a variety of species that interact with each
other and with abiotic factors.
1. Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects
of the environment. They include factors
When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not
such as sunlight, soil, temperature, and
closed. They need constant inputs of energy. Most
water.
ecosystems get energy from sunlight. A small
2. Biotic factors are the living aspects of the
minority gets energy from chemical compounds.
environment. They consist of other
Unlike energy, the matter is not constantly added
organisms, including members of the same
to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and
and different species.
elements such as carbon and nitrogen are used
over and over again.
Niche
One of the most important concepts associated The term ecosystem‘ was coined by A.G. Tansley
with the ecosystem is the niche. A niche refers to in 1935. An ecosystem is a self-sustaining unit of
the role/position of a species in its ecosystem. It nature. An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature
includes all the ways that the species interacts with encompassing complex interaction between its
the biotic and abiotic factors of the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
environment. Two important aspects of a species‘ components. For example- a pond is a good
niche are the food it eats and how the food is example of an ecosystem.
Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a 1. Physical factors: Sunlight, temperature,
global ecosystem, as a composite of all local rainfall, humidity, and pressure. They
ecosystems on Earth. sustain and limit the growth of organisms in
In nature two major categories of ecosystems an ecosystem.
exist: terrestrial and aquatic. 2. Inorganic substances: Carbon dioxide,
• Forests, deserts, and grasslands are nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, Sulphur,
examples of the terrestrial ecosystem. water, rock, soil, and other minerals.
• Ponds, lakes, wet lands, and salt water are 3. Organic compounds: Carbohydrates,
some examples of the aquatic ecosystem. proteins, lipids, and humic substances.
They are the building blocks of living
Crop lands and aquarium are examples of systems and therefore, make a link
manmade ecosystems. between the biotic and abiotic components.
The interaction between the living organisms and (b) Biotic components (Living)
their environment can be studied in a puddle of
water or a hole in a tree, which are very small 1. Producers: The green plants manufacture
ecosystems, or in large ecosystems such as a food for the entire ecosystem through the
forest, river, or ocean. Irrespective of their sizes all process of photosynthesis. Green plants
ecosystems share many common characteristics. are called autotrophs, as they absorb water
and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide
from the air, and capture solar energy for
Types of ecosystems:
this process.
Ecosystems are classified as follows:
2. Consumers: They are called heterotrophs
• (i) Natural ecosystems
and they consume food synthesized by the
• (ii) Manmade ecosystems
autotrophs. Based on food preferences
(i) Natural ecosystems
they can be grouped into three broad
categories. Herbivores (e.g. cow, deer, and
• Totally dependent on solar radiation e.g. rabbit, etc.) feed directly on plants,
forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers, carnivores are animals which eat other
and deserts. They provide food, fuel, animals (e.g. lion, cat, dog, etc.) and
fodder, and medicines. omnivore’s organisms feeding upon plants
• Ecosystems are dependent on solar and animals e.g. human, pigs, and
radiation and energy subsidies (alternative sparrow.
sources) such as wind rain and tides. e.g. 3. Decomposers: Also called saprotrophs.
tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries, and These are mostly bacteria and fungi that
coral reefs. feed on dead decomposed and the dead
(ii) Manmade ecosystems organic matter of plants and animals by
• Dependent on solar energy-e.g. secreting enzymes outside their body on
agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds. the decaying matter. They play a very
• Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and important role in recycling nutrients. They
industrial ecosystems. are also called detrivores or detritus
feeders.
Components of an Ecosystem
Ecosystem – Structure and Function
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components results
in a physical structure that is characteristic of each
type of ecosystem. Identification and enumeration
of plant and animal species of an ecosystem give
its species composition.
The important structural features are species
composition (types of plants and animals) and
stratification (vertical and horizontal distribution of
various species occupying different
They are broadly grouped into: levels). Another way of looking at the structural
(a) Abiotic and (b) Biotic components components is through the food relationships of
producers and consumers. Several trophic levels
(a) Abiotic components (Nonliving):
exist in the ecosystem. For example, trees occupy
the top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs
The abiotic component can be grouped into the the second, and herbs and grasses occupy the
following three categories: bottom layers. These structural components
function as a unit and produce certain functional
aspects of an ecosystem. Some of these aspects Food Chain:
are: Productivity, energy flow, nutrient cycle The transfer of food energy from green plants
(producers) through a series of organisms with
Species Composition: repeated eating and being eaten is called a food
A community is an assemblage of many chain. Each step in the food chain is called a
populations that are living together at the same trophic level.
place and time. For example, a tropical forest E.g. Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake →
community consists of trees, vines, herbs, and Hawk/Eagle
shrubs along with a large number of different During this process of transfer of energy some
species of animals. This is known as the species energy is lost into the system as heat energy and
composition of a tropical forest ecosystem. is not available to the next trophic level. Therefore,
Each ecosystem has its own species composition the number of steps is limited in a chain to 4 or 5.
depending upon the suitability of its habitat and Following trophic levels can be identified in a food
climate. A forest ecosystem supports a much chain.
larger number of species of plants and animals (i) Autotrophs:
than grassland. The total number and types of They are the producers of food for all other
species in a community determine its stability and organisms of the ecosystem. They are largely
ecosystem balance (ecosystem equilibrium). green plants and convert inorganic material in the
presence of solar energy by the process
of photosynthesis into chemical energy (food).
Stratification: The total rate at which the radiant energy is stored
The vertical and horizontal distribution of plants in by the process of photosynthesis in the green
the ecosystem is called ecosystem plants is called Gross Primary Production (GPP).
stratification. The tallest trees make the top This is also known as total photosynthesis or total
canopy. This is followed by short trees and shrubs assimilation. From the gross primary productivity,
and then the forest floor is covered with herbs and a part is utilized by the plants for its own
grasses. Some burrowing animals live metabolism. The remaining amount is stored by
underground in their tunnels or on the roots of the the plant as Net Primary Production (NPP) which
plants. Each layer from the treetop to the forest is available to consumers.
floor has its characteristic fauna and flora. This is (ii) Herbivores: The animals which eat the plants
termed as vertical stratification of forest directly are called primary consumers or
ecosystems. On the other hand, the desert herbivores e.g. insects, birds, rodents, and
ecosystem shows low discontinuous layers of ruminants.
scant vegetation and animals with some bare (iii) Carnivores: They are secondary consumers if
patches of soil showing a type of horizontal they feed on herbivores and tertiary consumers if
stratification. they use carnivores as their food. E.g. frog, dog,
cat, and tiger.
(iv) Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and
Functions of ecosystem animals e.g. pig, bear and man.
Ecosystems are a complex dynamic system. They
(v) Decomposers: They take care of the dead
perform certain functions. These are:-
remains of organisms at each trophic level and
help in recycling the nutrients e.g. bacteria and
• Energy flow through the food chain fungi.
• Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) There are two types of food chains:
• Ecological succession or ecosystem 1. Grazing food chains: This starts from the
development green plants that make food for herbivores and
• Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback herbivores in turn for the carnivores.
control mechanisms. 2. Detritus food chains: start from the dead
Ponds, lakes, meadows, marshlands, grasslands, organic matter to the detrivores organisms which
deserts, and forests are examples of natural in turn make food for protozoan to carnivores, etc.
ecosystems. We have seen an aquarium; a garden
or a lawn etc. in our neighborhood. These are a
manmade ecosystem. Food web:
Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear rather
they are interconnected and make a food
Energy Flow through Ecosystem: web. Thus food web is a network of interconnected
Food chains and energy flow are the functional food chains existing in an ecosystem. One animal
properties of ecosystems that make them may be a member of several different food
dynamic. The biotic and abiotic components of an chains. Food webs are more realistic models of
ecosystem are linked through them. energy flow through an ecosystem.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always Of all the biogeochemical cycles, the carbon cycle
linear or one-way. The quantity of energy flowing is the most important. All life is composed of
through the successive trophic levels carbon compounds of one form or another. That is
decreases. At every step in a food chain or web, why it is of such grave concern today that human
the energy received by the organism is used to activities since the Industrial Revolution have
sustain itself and the leftover is passed on to the modified the carbon cycle in significant ways.
next trophic level.
The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in
Ecological pyramid: which carbon flows among storage pools in the
Ecological pyramids are graphic representations of atmosphere, ocean, and on the land. Human
trophic levels in an ecosystem. They are pyramidal activity has affected the carbon cycle, causing
in shape and they are of three types: The carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmospheric
producers make the base of the pyramid and the storage pool to increase.
subsequent tiers of the pyramid represent
herbivore, carnivore, and top carnivore levels. The source of all carbon is carbon dioxide present
Pyramid of number: This represents the number of in the atmosphere. It is highly soluble in water;
organisms at each trophic level. For example in therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of
grassland, the number of grasses is more than the dissolved carbon dioxide.
number of herbivores that feed on them and the
number of herbivores is more than the number of The global carbon cycle consists of following
carnivores. In some instances the pyramid of steps-
number may be inverted, i.e. herbivores are more
than primary producers as you may observe that Photosynthesis:
many caterpillars and insects feed on a single tree. Green plants in the presence of sunlight
Pyramid of biomass: This represents the total utilize CO2 in the process of
standing crop biomass at each trophic photosynthesis and convert the inorganic
level. Standing crop biomass is the amount of carbon into organic matter (food) and
living matter at any given time. It is expressed as release oxygen. Annually 4-9 x 10 13 kg of
gm/unit area or kilo Cal/unit area. In most of the CO2 is fixed by green plants of the entire
terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass is biosphere. Forests acts as reservoirs of
upright. However, in the case of aquatic CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain
ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may be stored in them for a long due to their long
inverted. life cycles. Avery large amount of CO2 is
Pyramid of energy: This pyramid represents released through forest fires.
the total amount of energy at each trophic level.
Energy pyramids are never inverted. Respiration:
Respiration is carried out by all living
Biogeochemical Cycles organisms. It is a metabolic process where
food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2,
The movement of nutrient elements through the and water. The energy released from
various components of an ecosystem is called respiration is used for carrying out life
nutrient cycling. Another name of nutrient cycling processes by living organisms (plants,
is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, animals, decomposers, etc.). Thus CO2 is
geo: rocks, air, and water). In ecosystems flow of released into the atmosphere through this
energy is linear but that of nutrients is cyclical. The process.
entire earth or biosphere is a closed system i.e.
nutrients are neither imported nor exported from Decomposition:
the biosphere. All the food assimilated by animals or
synthesized by plants is not metabolized by
Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and them completely. A major part is retained
(b) sedimentary. by them as their own biomass which
becomes available to decomposers on
The reservoir for the gaseous type of nutrient their death. The dead organic matter is
cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the decomposed by microorganisms and CO2
atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., is released into the atmosphere by
Sulphur and phosphorus cycle); the reservoir is decomposers.
located in Earth‘s crust.
Combustion:
The Carbon Cycle The burning of biomass releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
 Impact of human activities • Free living or asymbiotic e.g. 1. Nostoc
2. Azobacter 3. Cyanobacteria can
The global carbon cycle has been
combine atmospheric or dissolved
increasingly disturbed by human activities
nitrogen with hydrogen to form
particularly since the beginning of the
ammonia.
industrial era. Large-scale deforestation
and ever-growing consumption of fossil (b) Nitrification: It is a process by
fuels by growing numbers of industries, which ammonia is converted into nitrates or
power plants, and automobiles are nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus
primarily responsible for increasing the bacteria respectively. Another soil bacterium
emission of carbon dioxide. Nitrobacter can convert nitrate into nitrite.

Carbon dioxide has been continuously (c) Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed
increasing in the atmosphere due to human by plants is converted into organic molecules
activities such as industrialization, such as proteins, DNA, RNA, etc. These
urbanization, and increasing use and molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
number of automobiles. This is leading to
an increasing concentration of CO2 in the (d) Ammonification: Living organisms produce
atmosphere, which is a major cause nitrogenous waste products such as urea and
of global warming. uric acid. These waste products as well as
dead remains of organisms are converted back
Nitrogen cycle into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria. This
process is called ammonification. Ammonifying
Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and bacteria help in this process.
required by all living organisms including human
beings. (e) Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back
into gaseous nitrogen is called
Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria live deep in
but it cannot be used directly by the majority of the soil near the water table as they like to live
living organisms. Broadly like carbon in the oxygen-free medium. Denitrification is
dioxide, nitrogen also cycles from the gaseous the reverse of nitrogen fixation.
phase to the solid phase then back to the gaseous
phase through the activity of a wide variety of
organisms. The cycling of nitrogen is vitally Water Cycle
important for all living organisms. Water is essential for life. No organism can survive
without water. Precipitation (rain, snow, slush dew
There are five main processes which essential for etc.) is the only source of water on the earth. Water
nitrogen cycle are elaborated below. received from the atmosphere on the earth returns
back to the atmosphere as water vapour resulting
(a) Nitrogen fixation: This process involves the from direct evaporation and through
conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, evapotranspiration the continuous movement of
a form in which it can be used by plants. water in the biosphere is called water cycle
Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the (hydrological cycle).
following three methods:-
Water is not evenly distributed throughout the
• Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, surface of the earth. Almost 95 % of the total water
combustion, and volcanic activity help on the earth is chemically bound to rocks and does
in the fixation of nitrogen. not cycle. Out of the remaining 5%, nearly 97.3%
is in the oceans and 2.1% exists as polar ice caps.
• Industrial fixation: At high temperature Thus only 0.6% is present as fresh water in the
(400oC) and high pressure (200 atm.), form of atmospheric water vapors, ground, and soil
molecular nitrogen is broken into water.
atomic nitrogen which then combines
with hydrogen to form ammonia.
The driving forces for water cycle are( 1) solar
• Bacterial fixation: There are two types radiation (2) gravity.
of bacteria-
Evaporation and precipitation are the two main
• Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in
processes involved in the water cycle. These two
the root nodules of leguminous plants.
processes alternate with each other Water from
oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams
evaporates by the sun‘s heat energy. Plants also Biotic communities are dynamic in nature and
transpire huge amounts of water. Water remains in change over a period of time. The process by
the vapor state in the air and forms clouds that drift which communities of plant and animal species in
with the wind. Clouds meet with the cold air in the an area are replaced or changed into another over
mountainous regions above the forests and a period of time is known as ecological succession.
condense to form rain precipitate which comes
down due to gravity. Both the biotic and abiotic components are
involved in this change. This change is brought
On average 84% of the water is lost from the about both by the activities of the communities as
surface of the oceans by evaporation. While 77% well as by the physical environment in that
is gained by it from precipitation. Water runoff from particular area. The physical environment often
lands through rivers to oceans makes up 7% which influences the nature, direction, rate, and optimal
balances the evaporation deficit of the ocean. On limit of changes.
land, evaporation is 16% and precipitation is 23%.
During succession both the plant and animal
Phosphorus Cycle communities undergo change. During succession,
some species colonize an area and their
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological populations become more numerous, whereas
membranes, nucleic acids, and cellular energy populations of other species decline and even
transfer systems. Many animals also need large disappear.
quantities of this element to make shells, bones,
and teeth. The natural reservoir of phosphorus is The entire sequence of communities that
rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of successively change in a given area is called
phosphates. sere(s). The individual transitional communities
are termed seral stages or seral communities. In
When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of the successive seral stages, there is a change in
these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are the diversity of species of organisms, an increase
absorbed by the roots of the plants. Herbivores in the number of species and organisms as well as
and other animals obtain this element from an increase in the total biomass.
plants. The waste products and the dead
organisms are decomposed by phosphate There are two types of successions (i) Primary
solubilizing bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike succession and (ii) Secondary succession.
the carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of
phosphorus into the atmosphere.
Primary succession
Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall Primary succession takes place over bare or
are much smaller than carbon inputs, and gaseous unoccupied areas such as rock outcrop, newly
exchanges of phosphorus between organism and formed deltas, and sand dunes, emerging Volcano
environment are negligible. Islands and lava flows as well as glacial moraines
(muddy area exposed by a retreating glacier)
Ecological Succession where no community has existed previously.

Hult used the term first-time “Ecological The plants that invade first bare land, where the
Succession” for the ‘Orderly changes in soil is initially absent are called pioneer
communities’. Odum called it Ecosystem species. The assemblage of pioneer plants is
development. Ragnar Hult was the first (1881) to collectively called the pioneer community. A
publish a comprehensive study of ecological pioneer species generally show a high growth rate
succession as it is taking place in a given region. but a short life span.
He was the first to recognize that a relatively large
number of pioneer plant communities give way to The community that initially inhabits a bare area is
a comparatively small number of relatively stable called the pioneer community. The pioneer
communities. community after some time gets replaced by
another community with different species
F.E. Clements (1916) defined succession as a combinations. This second community gets
natural process by which same locality becomes replaced by a third community. This process
successively colonized by different groups of continues sequence-wise in which a community
plants or communities thus communities are never replaced previously by another community.
stable.
The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the
community which is called a climax
community. A climax community is stable, mature, • (a) Migration for safety against outside
more complex, and long-lasting. The animals of aggregation.
such a community also exhibit succession which to • (b) Migration due to industrialization and
a great extent is determined by plant succession. urbanization.
A climax community as long as it is undisturbed, • (c) As a reactionary step against local
remains relatively stable in dynamic equilibrium problems.
with the prevailing climate and habitat factors. • (d) Feeling of competition
3. Stabilizing Cause:
Succession that occurs on land where moisture
Causes which bring stability to the communities.
content is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as
Such factors are:
xerarch. Succession that takes place in a water
• (a) Fertility of land
body, like ponds or lakes is called hydrarch.
• (b) Climatic condition of the area
• (c) Abundance of availability of minerals
Secondary succession etc.
Secondary succession is the development of a
community which forms after the existing natural Homeostasis of Ecosystem
vegetation that constitutes a community is
removed, disturbed, or destroyed by a natural Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state
event like a hurricane or forest fire or by human- of equilibrium. They can regulate their own species
related events like tilling or harvesting the land. structure and functional processes. This capacity
of the ecosystem of self-regulation is known as
homeostasis. In ecology, the term applies to the
Secondary succession is relatively fast as the soil
tendency for a biological system to resist changes.
has the necessary nutrients as well as a large pool
of seeds and other dormant stages of organisms.
For example, in a pond ecosystem, if the
population of zooplankton increased, they would
Causes of Ecological Succession:
consume a large number of phytoplankton and as
Following are the causes of ecological succession: a result, soon zooplankton would be a short supply
of food for them. As the number of zooplankton is
1. Initial Causes: reduced because of starvation, the phytoplankton
Causes those are responsible for the destruction population starts increasing. After some time the
existing habitat. Such occurrences happen due to population size of zooplankton also increases and
the following factors: this process continues at all the trophic levels of
• (a) Climatic Factor: Such as wind, the food chain.
deposits, erosion, fire, etc.
• (b) Biotic Factor: Such as various Note that in a homeostatic system, the negative
activities of organisms. feedback mechanism is responsible for
maintaining stability in an ecosystem. However,
2. Continuing Causes: the homeostatic capacity of ecosystems is not
Causes those are responsible for changes in unlimited as well as not everything in an
population shifting features of an area. Such ecosystem is always well regulated. Humans are
factors are: the greatest source of disturbance to ecosystems.

Reference:

Lotus Arise. (n.d.). Principles of Ecology (UPSC). Lotus Arise. https://lotusarise.com/principles-of-ecology-upsc/